Rapid weight loss followed by recovery time does not...

Rapid weight loss followed by recovery time does not affect judo-relatedperformance

GUILHERME G. ARTIOLI1, RODRIGO T. IGLESIAS1, EMERSON FRANCHINI2,

BRUNO GUALANO1, DANIEL B. KASHIWAGURA2, MARINA Y. SOLIS1,

FABIANA B. BENATTI1, MARINA FUCHS1, & ANTONIO H. LANCHA JUNIOR1

1Laboratory of Applied Nutrition and 2Combat Sports and Martial Arts Research Group, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo,

Brazil

(Accepted 20 October 2009)

AbstractIn this study, we investigated the effects of rapid weight loss followed by a 4-h recovery on judo-related performance. Sevenweight-cycler athletes were assigned to a weight loss group (5% body weight reduction by self-selected regime) and sevennon-weight-cyclers to a control group (no weight reduction). Body composition, performance, glucose, and lactate wereassessed before and after weight reduction (5–7 days apart; control group kept weight stable). The weight loss group had 4 hto re-feed and rehydrate after the weigh-in. Food intake was recorded during the weight loss period and recovery after theweigh-in. Performance was evaluated through a specific judo exercise, followed by a 5-min judo combat and by three boutsof the Wingate test. Both groups significantly improved performance after the weight loss period. No interaction effects wereobserved. The energy and macronutrient intake of the weight loss group were significantly lower than for the control group.The weight loss group consumed large amounts of food and carbohydrate during the 4-h recovery period. No changes wereobserved in lactate concentration, but a significant decrease in glucose during rest was observed in the weight loss group. Inconclusion, rapid weight loss did not affect judo-related performance in experienced weight-cyclers when the athletes had4 h to recover. These results should not be extrapolated to inexperienced weight-cyclers.

Keywords: Martial arts, performance, energy restriction, weight-cyclers

Introduction

Judo is an Olympic sport that is practised worldwide.

Judo competitions are organized according to weight

class, which is also the case for wrestling and other

combat sports. The purpose of weight class divisions

is to create equitable matches among competitors in

terms of strength, agility, and leverage. Several

studies on wrestling have determined that most

athletes markedly reduce their body weight a few

days before competitions (Oppliger, Steen, & Scott,

2003; Steen & Brownell, 1990). They do so to try to

qualify in a lighter weight class to gain an advantage

over smaller and weaker opponents. Although there

is only limited data about rapid weight loss among

judo players, the magnitude and methods of weight

reduction among this population appear to be very

similar to the patterns reported in wrestlers (Artioli,

Scagliusi, Polacow, Gualano, & Lancha Junior,

2007b).

Although the negative impact of rapid weight

loss on health status and on several physiological

processes is well established (Choma, Sforzo, &

Keller, 1998; Degoutte et al., 2006; Oppliger, Case,

Horswill, Landry, & Shelter, 1996), the effects of

rapid weight loss on competitive performance remain

unclear. The major reason for this controversy is the

lack of similarity between study protocols and the

competitive environment. For instance, most studies

have shown that a significant decrease in high-

intensity anaerobic performance occurs after weight

reduction (Filaire, Maso, Degoutte, Jouanel, & Lac,

2001; Hickner et al., 1991; McMurray, Proctor, &

Wilson, 1991; Webster, Rutt, & Weltman, 1990),

but these studies did not allow athletes to re-feed and

rehydrate after weighing in. During both wrestling

and judo competitions, there is a period of 3–24 h

between weigh-in and the beginning of combat

during which athletes can recover from rapid weight

loss. Studies that allowed athletes 5 h of recovery

Correspondence: G. G. Artioli, Laboratory of Applied Nutrition, School of Physical Education and Sport, University of Sao Paulo, Av. Professor Mello Moraes

65, Butanta, Cidade Universitaria, Sao Paulo – SP 05508-900, Brazil. E-mail: [email protected]

Journal of Sports Sciences, January 1st 2010; 28(1): 21–32

ISSN 0264-0414 print/ISSN 1466-447X online � 2010 Taylor & Francis

DOI: 10.1080/02640410903428574

time after weigh-in found that rapid weight loss

did not affect anaerobic performance (Fogelholm,

Koskinen, Laakso, Rankinen, & Ruokonen, 1993;

Klinzing & Karpowicz, 1986; Rankin, Ocel, & Craft,

1996; Serfass, Stull, Alexander, & Ewing, 1984).

However, these studies do have their limitations,

including: (1) exercise protocols were excessively

short to simulate the physiological demand of

competition (Klinzing & Karpowicz, 1986); (2)

exercise protocols did not use muscle groups or

motor gestures specific to those used in competition

(Fogelholm et al., 1993; Rankin et al., 1996; Serfass

et al., 1984); and (3) the standardized diets used did

not mimic those used in the competitive environ-

ment (Horswill, Hickner, Scott, Costill, & Gould,

1990; McMurray et al., 1991; Viitasalo, Kyrolainen,

Bosco, & Alen, 1987).

In all international male judo competitions, the

finalists perform five or more combats on the same

day, with the recovery time between bouts varying

from a few minutes to a few hours. Additionally, in

high-level judo, in which the technical and tactical

standard of the athletes is very similar, most matches

last about 4–5 min (Castarlenas & Planas, 1997).

Consequently, the metabolic demand of a judo

competition is high and cannot be simulated with

short exercise protocols lasting only 3 min or less. In

addition to a lack of recovery time after weigh-in

(Filaire et al., 2001; Hickner et al., 1991; Horswill

et al., 1990; McMurray et al., 1991; Umeda et al.,

2004; Webster et al., 1990) and the dissimilarity with

the competitive environment (Filaire et al., 2001;

Ribisl & Herbert, 1970; Serfass et al., 1984), the

absence of a control group (Burge, Carey, & Payne,

1993; Filaire et al., 2001; Finn, Dolgener, &

Williams, 2004; Fogelholm et al., 1993; Hickner

et al., 1991; Horswill et al., 1990; Klinzing &

Karpowicz, 1986; McMurray et al., 1991; Rankin

et al., 1996; Ribisl & Herbert, 1970; Serfass et al.,

1984; Timpmann, Oopik, Paasuke, & Ereline, 2008;

Umeda et al., 2004; Webster et al., 1990) is another

important methodological limitation that might also

lead to misinterpretation of weight loss effects on

competitive performance.

In view of the above, the aim of the present study

was to determine whether rapid weight loss achieved

by typical diets and followed by a 4-h recovery period

would affect the high-intensity, judo-related anaero-

bic performance of weight-cyclers.

Methods and materials

Participants

Fourteen experienced male judo competitors took

part in this study, all of whom were actively compet-

ing at regional level or above. They were divided into

two groups of seven athletes according to the

following criteria: athletes who were familiar with

rapid weight loss procedures (weight-cyclers) were

assigned to the weight loss group, whereas the

athletes who were not familiar with such procedures

(non-weight-cyclers) were assigned to the control

group. The athletes in the weight loss group had

reduced weight before competitions at least six times

a year over the previous 3 years, while the controls

had not regularly engaged in rapid weight loss

in the 2 years preceding the study. Table I shows

the main characteristics of the participants. All of

the procedures were approved by the Institutional

Ethics Committee. We provided the athletes with

a complete explanation of the study’s objectives

and procedures, after which they gave their signed

informed consent before participating in the study.

Experimental design

The athletes from both the weight loss group and

control group attended the laboratory on two

different occasions (pre- and post-intervention) 5–7

days apart. Both evaluations were made at the

same time of the day for each athlete and, on both

occasions, they underwent anthropometric, perfor-

mance, and metabolic evaluation. All athletes were

instructed to abstain from alcohol, caffeine, and

intense exercise in the 24 h preceding their assess-

ments. They were also instructed to come to the

laboratory at baseline in a well hydrated and fed

state. Control athletes were asked to maintain the

same pattern of fluid and food ingestion in the 24 h

preceding both test days. The athletes from the

weight loss group were asked to lose 5% of their body

weight using their usual methods. However, for

ethical reasons, an exclusion criterion for participa-

tion was the regular use of laxatives, diuretics or

diet pills. Thus, these methods were not allowed to

be used. Athletes were allowed 5 days to reach

the designated weight. During the last 3 days of the

weight reduction period, they were required to

complete food records. Although the control group

did not reduce their body weight, they were also

required to complete the food records. We instructed

athletes to record food intake only during the final

Table I. Participants’ characteristics (mean+ s).

Weight loss (n¼7) Control (n¼7)

Age (years) 20+ 4 22+4

Weight (kg) 77.9+ 12.2 67.3+5.8

Height (m) 1.75+ 0.06 1.70+0.06

Judo experience (years) 12+ 4 13+3

Note: No significant differences were observed between groups at

baseline.

22 G. G. Artioli et al.

3 days because there is substantial evidence that

rapid weight loss in wrestlers (Oppliger et al., 2003;

Steen & Brownell, 1990) and judo players (Artioli

et al., 2007b) occurs mainly in the 48 h before the

weigh-in. Athletes were instructed by a dietitian

about the procedures for properly recording a

food diary. Energy and macronutrient intakes were

examined using software based on a national table of

food composition.

After the weight loss period, athletes were weighed

and appraised for anthropometry. Subsequently,

they were allowed to re-feed and rehydrate for 4 h.

This period was chosen based on previous unpub-

lished observations of our group during regional and

state championships (average recovery time after

weight-in was 230+58 min) as well as the schedule

of the 2007 World Judo Championship and 2008

Olympic Games (in which first combats occurred

3–5 h after weigh-in). The athletes were instructed

to maintain the same pattern of food and fluid

ingestion that they adopted in competition. After

the 4-h recovery period, they were submitted to a

performance evaluation protocol. Members of the

control group were submitted to the same proce-

dures as for the weight loss group, except for the

weight reduction and, consequently, for the 4-h

recovery period. Figure 1 illustrates the experimental

design as well as the protocol for performance

evaluation.

Judo-related performance evaluation

To evaluate the performance of judo athletes as

accurately and specifically as possible, and to

ensure external validity and control of the internal

variables, we designed a multi-task protocol that

combined: (1) situations highly specific to those

observed in an actual judo environment, (2) effort

and recovery patterns similar to those seen in

judo combats (Franchini, Takito, Nakamura,

Matsushigue & Kiss, 2003), and (3) ergometric

testing that has been successfully used previously

for assessing judo athletes (Artioli et al., 2007;

Franchini et al., 2003).

Figure 1. Experimental design of the study (A) and the protocol for judo-related performance evaluation (B). Of note, uchi-komi is a specific

judo exercise in which athletes perform a judo technique repeatedly without throwing their partner (for a complete explanation, see text).

WL¼weight loss group; CON¼ control group; PRE¼pre-intervention; POST¼post-intervention; recov.¼ recovery.

Rapid weight loss and judo performance 23

The athletes warmed up freely for 5 min before

the beginning of the performance evaluation pro-

tocol. They were required to perform three bouts

of maximal-intensity uchi-komi exercise, which

consisted in repeatedly applying a judo technique

(Tsuri-Komi-Goshi) on a partner as fast as possible

without throwing him. The bouts lasted 10 s,

20 s, and 30 s respectively, with a 10-s recovery

between bouts. Subsequently, the athletes rested

for 5 min before performing a 5-min judo combat.

The participants’ opponents were chosen based

on similarities in body weight and technical ability

to ensure even-handed contests. The participants

were paired with the same opponent both pre- and

post-intervention. The opponents were not evalu-

ated when they arrived at the laboratory to spar

with the athletes evaluated. After their combat, the

participants recovered for 15 min before under-

going three bouts of a 30-s Wingate test for the

upper limbs. Each bout lasted 30 s and the bouts

were interspersed by 3 min of recovery.

All combats were recorded for further analysis.

The time structure (i.e. total effort time, total

recovery time, total standing combat time, total

ground work) and the number of attacks performed

(i.e. number of throws attempted in stand fighting

plus number of immobilizations and chokes at-

tempted in ground fighting) were recorded. During

the uchi-komi exercise and the Wingate bouts, the

athletes were provided with strong verbal encourage-

ment. The upper-body Wingate tests were con-

ducted in a device specifically designed for this

purpose. The participants remained seated and

the shoulders, abdomen, and legs were securely

fastened with belts throughout the Wingate bouts.

Velocity sensors on the ergometer wheels were

connected to computer software, which recorded

revolutions per minute and calculated the power

output second-by-second. The load was set at

0.5 kp � kg71 of total body weight. The absolute

load was the same on both test days. For the weight

loss group onn the post-intervention occasion, the

relative power was calculated according to body

weight after recovery from weight reduction. In

addition to relative power, absolute power was also

reported, as the fluctuation in body weight can be a

confounding variable.

Test–retest studies from our group (unpublished

observations) have indicated that uchi-komi exercise

is repeatable (ratio limits of agreement: 0.95 to

1.1) and free of systematic errors (test 1: 76+ 9;

test 2: 76+ 8; t¼ 0.87; P¼ 0.4; n¼ 16). Similarly,

combat simulations have shown similar trends

for technical patterns (test 1: 36+ 7; test 2:

35+ 8; t¼ 0.69; P¼ 0.51; 95% limits of agree-

ment: 75 to 6 attacks) and the lactate response

(test 1: 11.1+ 2.3; test 2: 11.2+ 2.5; t¼70.21;

P¼ 0.84; 95% limits of agreement: 72.5 to 2.3

mmol � l71).

Anthropometric measurements

Body composition was determined by underwater

weighing. Each athlete was weighed at least eight

times after maximum expiration; the mean of the

three highest values was considered to be the

underwater weight. Body density was determined

according to Wilmore and Behnke (1969), body

fat according to Siri (1961), and residual volume

according to Goldman and Becklake (1959). Body

mass was measured on two occasions for the

control group (i.e. pre- and post-intervention) and

three times for the weight loss group (i.e. once

pre-intervention and twice post-intervention – dur-

ing the weigh-in and after recovery from weight loss).

Blood sampling and biochemical analysis

Blood samples (50 ml) were taken from the earlobe

during a resting period, 3 min after uchi-komi

exercise, 3 min after the combat, and 3 min after

the final Wingate bout. For the weight loss group at

the post-intervention assessment, resting blood

samples were taken before the simulated weigh-in.

The samples were immediately stored in NaF 2%

solution and, on the same day, were centrifuged and

the plasma submitted to analysis for glucose and

lactate concentration.

Plasma glucose was determined by an enzymatic-

colorimetric assay using commercial kits. Plasma

lactate was determined electrochemically using an

automated device (YSI 1500 - Yellow Springs, OH).

At the time of each sample collection for bio-

chemical analysis, an additional 50 ml of blood were

collected from the earlobe into capillary tubes for

haematocrit determination. The ends of the tubes

were sealed and then placed in a capillary tube

centrifuge. The proportion of red blood cells was

determined using a haematocrit reader.

Statistical analyses

For all variables, with the exception of food

intake data, we performed a mixed-model, two-way

(time6 group) analysis of variance (ANOVA).

Four different covariance structure matrices were

tested (i.e. auto-regressive, unstructured, toeplitz,

and compound symmetric), and Schwarz’s Bayesian

criterion was used to choose the best model for

each data set. This procedure permits parsimonious

modelling of the covariance structure, therefore

minimizing the Type I error (Littell, Pendergast, &

Natarajan, 2000; Ugrinowitsch, Fellingham, &

Ricard, 2004). When significant main effects were


observed, we conducted a Tukey post-hoc test. We

performed a non-paired Student’s t-test for food

intake data. Furthermore, SAS1 proc IML was

used to perform a simulation to determine the

power of the statistical tests, as suggested by Littell

and colleagues (Littell, Milliken, Stroup, Wolfinger,

& Schabenberger, 2006). Expected means and

variance (Hickner et al., 1991) were used as input

to simulate mean power data using an autoregres-

sive correlation structure within the participants’

measurements. Seven participants produced a

power of 0.8 in the comparison between groups

for mean power, the most important dependent

variable. All analyses were performed using the

statistical software SAS v.9.1. The data are pre-

sented as means+ standard deviations (s). The

alpha value was set previously at 5%.

Results

The athletes in the weight loss group used a

combination of severe energy restriction and hypo-

hydration-inducing methods (i.e. reducing fluid

intake, exercising with plastic suits, and/or exercis-

ing in heated environments) to achieve their

weight loss goals. All of them maintained the same

training schedule throughout the experimental

period. As expected, the athletes from the weight

loss group successfully reduced their body weight

by 4.8+ 1.1% from pre- to post-intervention

(P5 0.001), whereas the controls maintained a

stable body weight (Table II). After the recovery

period, weight loss athletes regained 51+ 13% of

their lost body weight, so they were slightly lighter

in comparison with baseline. Weight reduction

resulted in a discrete but significant decrease in

body fat and in a marked decrease in lean body

mass in the weight loss group, but no differences

were observed in the control group (Table II). The

weight loss group ingested significantly less carbo-

hydrates, fat, and protein than the control group

(P5 0.001) (Table III). During the 4-h recovery

period, the weight loss group ingested 1391+ 375

kcal (201+ 62 g of carbohydrates; 50+ 16 g of fat;

34+ 23 g of protein).

There were no group or time main effects or

interaction effect for time structure patterns in

the combats (Table IV). Furthermore, we did not

observe any significant differences between groups

in the number of attacks during judo combats

(Figure 2).

For all of the Wingate performance variables, we

observed a discrete improvement in performance

after intervention compared with baseline in both

groups. As shown in Figures 3 and 4, there was a

significant main effect of time for relative and

absolute mean power, peak power, and total work.

However, no main group or interaction effects were

observed, suggesting that rapid weight loss did not

affect performance. Figures 5 and 6 depict second-

by-second relative and absolute power output,

respectively, obtained in the three Wingate bouts

and illustrate that performance was better after than

before the intervention in both groups. No main or

interaction effects were observed for haematocrit

values by group or test occasion. Resting plasma

glucose concentration was significantly lower in the

weight loss group after the intervention compared

with baseline, but no other differences were observed

between groups or conditions (Figure 7). Plasma

lactate did not differ between groups or conditions

(Figure 7).

Discussion

The main finding of the present study was that the

rapid reduction of roughly 5% of body mass achieved

by typical judo athletes’ procedures, when followed

by a 4-h recovery period, did not impair simulated

judo performance or arm power.

The present study design ensured strong external

validity because we allowed the athletes to use their

own methods for reducing and recovering weight. In

addition, the performance evaluation protocol had

great specificity for real judo demands in terms of

metabolic and muscle group activities as well as in

terms of motor gestures and effort/recovery time

patterns.

The athletes from the weight loss group success-

fully reached their objective of a 5% weight

Table II. Body weight and body composition of the weight loss and control groups before (PRE) and after (POST) the intervention

(mean+ s).

Weight loss Control

PRE POST PRE POST

Body weight (kg) 77.9+12.2* 74.1+11.4 67.3+ 5.8 67.4+ 5.8

Body fat (kg) 8.8+2.6*# 8.0+2.3** 4.0+ 1.6 4.2+ 1.7

Lean body mass (kg) 66.2+4.6* 63.5+4.9 63.3+ 5.1 63.2+ 5.1

*Significantly different from POST (P50.01). #Significantly different from control before the intervention (P5 0.01). **Significantly

different from control after the intervention (P5 0.01).


reduction. Similar to other studies (Filaire et al.,

2001; McCargar & Crawford, 1992), the most

weight lost was as fat-free mass, although a slight

decrease in body fat was also observed. The judo

combat analysis showed no significant differences

between groups or time for any variable. This is

important to the internal validity of the study, as it

ensured that athletes were submitted to similar effort

patterns regardless of group or time. Finn et al.

(2004) and Buford and colleagues (Buford, Rossi,

Smith, O’Brien, & Pickering, 2006) suggested that

chronic weight-cyclers can adapt to weight loss

procedures and become less affected by negative

effects on performance. In view of this theory, we

intentionally assigned the athletes to the weight loss

or the control group, not randomly but according to

a specific criterion: a weight-cycler or not. Despite

some decrease in the internal validity, this approach

allows a better application of the results to the judo

competitors’ population. Although the groups dif-

fered in total body fat at baseline, which might

suggest unbalanced groups, no significant differences

were observed at baseline for any performance

variables, therefore minimizing the weight of this

argument.

It has been well demonstrated that, unless a high-

carbohydrate diet is adopted during the weight

reduction period, rapid weight loss decreases perfor-

mance if there is no recovery time after simulated

weigh-in (Filaire et al., 2001; Hickner et al., 1991;

Horswill et al., 1990; McMurray et al., 1991; Umeda

et al., 2004; Webster et al., 1990). This suggests that

the possible metabolic adaptations caused by chroni-

cally weight cycling are not associated with the

period of weight reduction but, rather, with the

recovery after weigh-in. Previous studies have re-

ported that an approximate 5% body weight loss

followed by a recovery period of about 3–5 h did not

affect anaerobic performance (Finn et al., 2004;

Figure 2. Individual (A) and mean+ standard deviation (B) number of attacks in the judo combats. No significant differences were

observed. WL¼weight loss group; CON¼ control group; PRE¼pre-intervention; POST¼ post-intervention.

Table IV. Temporal patterns of the judo combats (mean+s).

Total effort time Total recovery time Total standing combat Total ground work

PRE POST PRE POST PRE POST PRE POST

Weight loss 229+ 17 228+ 24 71+17 72+24 199+9 191+ 18 30+ 14 38+ 19

Control 237+ 11 239+ 8 63+11 61+8 191+19 204+ 22 47+ 17 35+ 19

Note: No significant differences were observed.

Table III. Average energy and macronutrients intake reported by

the participants in 3-day food records (mean+ s, with range in

parentheses).

Weight loss Control

Energy (kcal � kg71 � day71)* 19.6+4.4

(14.4–25.8)

38.7+5.5

(32.6–45.3)

Carbohydrate (g � kg71 � day71)* 2.7+0.8

(2.1–4.1)

5.6+0.9

(4.8–7.1)

Fat (g � kg71 � day71)* 0.5+0.1

(0.3–0.7)

1.2+0.4

(0.6–1.6)

Protein (g � kg71 � day71)* 1.0+0.3

(0.7–1.5)

1.7+0.4

(1.2–2.3)

*Significant differences between groups (P50.001).


Fogelholm et al., 1993; Klinzing & Karpowicz, 1986;

Rankin et al., 1996; Ribisl & Herbert, 1970; Serfass

et al., 1984). These studies, however, did not use

performance evaluation protocols with a high simi-

larity to real competition demands. In addition, there

is some evidence that rapid weight loss can affect

performance even with long recovery periods of

approximately 17 h (Oopik et al., 1996). Therefore,

we hypothesized that with a more intense and

specific exercise protocol, we would observe adverse

Figure 3. Absolute (A) and relative (B) mean power, and absolute (C) and relative (D) peak power, attained in the three upper-body Wingate

tests pre- and post-intervention. *Time main effect (P50.01) for pre- vs. post. WL¼weight loss group; CON¼ control group; PRE¼ pre-

intervention; POST¼post-intervention.

Figure 4. Relative (A) and absolute (B) total work obtained in the three upper-body Wingate tests. *Time main effect (P5 0.01) for pre- vs.

post. WL¼weight loss group; CON¼ control group; PRE¼ pre-intervention; POST¼post-intervention.


effects of rapid weight loss on performance. How-

ever, we did not observe main group or interaction

effects for any performance variables, only main

effects of time. These results suggest that athletes

were able to perform the evaluation protocol some-

what better after than before the intervention, which

was not influenced by weight loss procedures. This

was probably the result of some learning effect of the

protocol. Despite the fact that all the tests used have

a high individual reliability, their combination in the

same protocol may have resulted in a systematic

error. Although this was a limitation of the present

study, the inclusion of the control group allowed us

to distinguish the learning effects from the weight

loss effects. Therefore, even with the learning effect

we were able to make a correct interpretation of our

data.

Although it is well recognized that the availability

of carbohydrates as a substrate for muscle and

the central nervous system is a critical factor

for the performance of prolonged exercise sessions

(i.e.490 min), the availability of carbohydrates is

also important for the performance of short-term,

high-intensity exercise (for a review, see Hawley &

Hopkins, 1995). Accordingly, it has been shown

that when rapid weight loss is achieved by a high-

carbohydrate diet, performance does not appear

to be affected (Horswill et al., 1990; McMurray

et al., 1991). However, this cannot explain our

results, since the energy and especially the carbohy-

drate intake in the weight loss group (*2.7 g �kg71 � day71) was some way below the minimum

recommendations for athletes (45 g � kg71 �day71). Nevertheless, the literature also suggests that

a high-carbohydrate diet is more effective than a low-

carbohydrate diet during the recovery period in

regaining performance (Finn et al., 2004; Rankin

et al., 1996). In the study conducted by Rankin and

colleagues, a recovery diet of *275 g of carbohydrate

was provided to athletes during a 5-h recovery period

after weight loss. The authors found that athletes who

received this high amount of carbohydrates recovered

performance better than those who received *170 g

of carbohydrates. In comparison, athletes of the

present study consumed a large amount of food

during the recovery period ensuring a high intake of

carbohydrates (*201 g within 4 h), which was not as

high as that of the high-carbohydrate group of Rankin

and colleagues, but still exceeded the recommended

requirements for rapid post-exercise recovery of

Figure 5. Relative power output during each second of the upper-body Wingate tests. WL¼weight loss group; CON¼ control group;

PRE¼pre-intervention; POST¼post-intervention.


muscle glycogen (Blom, Costill, & Vollestad, 1987).

Thus, it is likely that weight loss followed by

nutritional recovery did not affect competitive per-

formance, even in a truly demanding protocol,

because the weight-cycler athletes, who seem to be

less subject to the negative effects of weight loss, had

enough time to consume large amounts of carbohy-

drates in the recovery period. However, as we

assessed only experienced weight-cyclers, caution

should be exercised when extrapolating the present

findings to other judo populations, especially in-

experienced weight-cyclers, as they could be more

prone to the negative effects of rapid weight loss.

Some authors (Oppliger et al., 1996) have

reported that glycogen restoration after a severe

depletion can take up to 24 h or longer. Horswill

et al. (1990), using a low-carbohydrate weight loss

protocol, which knowingly depletes muscle glycogen,

observed a significant decrease in anaerobic perfor-

mance as well as in blood lactate. According to these

authors, the best possible explanation for these

results is glycogen depletion, which would decrease

substrate availability for glycolysis. Therefore, energy

transfer and performance would be negatively

affected and, as a consequence, lactate production

would also be diminished. In the present study,

neither performance nor lactate was affected by

weight loss after the 4 h of recovery. This would

suggest that muscular glycogen content after recov-

ery was unlikely to have been depleted. As it is likely

that the severe food restriction caused glycogen

depletion in the weight loss group, our findings

suggest that the chronic weight-cyclers were able to

recover glycogen in a much shorter period than 24 h.

Although there is no explanation for how weight-

cyclers are able to maintain performance despite the

weight loss, our data support the hypothesis that

weight-cyclers can be metabolically adapted as a

consequence of chronic weight-cycling. These adap-

tations might include in particular a faster muscle

glycogen restoration, which would allow athletes

a rapid recovery after weight loss. Further studies

Figure 6. Absolute power output during each second of the upper-body Wingate tests.


should confirm this hypothesis, since we were unable

to perform muscle biopsies to assess muscle glycogen

content and enzyme activities.

No differences were observed in plasma lactate

concentration, indicating that the energy transfer

via glycolysis was not affected by weight reduction.

This reinforces the hypothesis that the recovery diet

was able to restore muscle glycogen, which certainly

contributed to the maintenance of baseline perfor-

mance after weight loss. Some studies have reported

that low-carbohydrate weight loss diets, which result

in severe glycogen depletion, elicit a lower lactate

response to exercise and impairment of anaerobic

performance (Finn et al., 2004; Horswill et al.,

1990). Our results also indicate that within 4 h

athletes can bring performance to baseline values,

even recovering as little as 50% of the lost weight.

This probably occurred because restoration of

performance after weight loss is not related to the

regaining of body weight but to the energy and

glycogen restoration.

Rapid weight loss induces several acute changes in

hormonal status. Previous studies have shown a

decrease in insulin concentration (Degoutte et al.,

2006), which can lead to an increase in growth

hormone (McMurray et al., 1991) and cortisol

concentration (Degoutte et al., 2006). The increase

in growth hormone is related to a greater lipolytic

activity, which can be seen as a bodily response to

the energy restriction required to mobilize fat stores

to obtain energy. Although hypoglycaemia is believed

to be the trigger for hypoinsulinaemia and for

elevated growth hormone and cortisol concentra-

tions, to the best of our knowledge no studies have

demonstrated a decrease in glucose concentration

after acute weight loss. Our results clearly show a

marked decrease in plasma glucose concentrations in

the weight loss group after weight reduction, which

might partially explain the acute hormonal imbalance

reported in previous studies.

The present study has some limitations. Although

we assumed that weight loss impairs high-intensity

performance, we cannot state with certainty that

our athletes experienced performance decrements

after weight reduction as we did not test them

immediately after weigh-in. However, some litera-

ture states that rapid weight loss is detrimental

to performance when athletes are not allowed to

recovery from weight reduction (Filaire et al.,

2001; Hickner et al., 1991; Horswill et al., 1990;

Klinzing & Karpowicz, 1986; McMurray et al., 1991;

Umeda et al., 2004; Webster et al., 1990), thus

Figure 7. Plasma glucose and lactate at rest and after exercise. *Significantly different from post-intervention. WL¼weight loss group;

CON¼ control group; PRE¼ pre-intervention; POST¼ post-intervention; UK¼uchi-komi; JC¼ judo combat; WT¼Wingate test.


supporting our assumption. Another limitation is the

non-randomized allocation of athletes to experimen-

tal groups. Although such a procedure decreased

internal validity, it allowed a more realistic approach

to the problem. Furthermore, no differences were

found at baseline for any performance variables,

suggesting that no important imbalances between

groups were present. Finally, the lack of a familiar-

ization trial is a limitation in our experimental

design, as it could have reduced the learning effects

observed between trials. However, because the

athletes were in the middle of a competitive season

when the study was conducted, access to the athletes

was limited and the number of trials had to be

reduced to ensure adherence. Nonetheless, the

inclusion of a control group permitted us to control

the variation between trials. Finally, the current

results are not applicable to other judo populations

because we tested only experienced weight-cyclers.

Therefore, athletes not familiar with rapid weight

loss procedures may be negatively affected by rapid

weight loss followed by a short recovery time. Future

studies should investigate whether previous experi-

ence of weight loss might be a factor in weight

cycling-mediated performance changes.

It is important to highlight that rapid weight

loss is related to risk of poor health. In 1997,

three young athletes died due to hyperthermia and

dehydration in the USA. This tragic event was

related to intentional acute weight loss, since the

three athletes were wrestlers preparing for competi-

tion. It is well known that the prevalence of rapid

weight loss among combat sports athletes is quite

high (Artioli et al., 2007; Steen & Brownell, 1990).

Athletes’ adherence to these procedures is probably

high because they feel that the competitive benefits

outweight the apparent risks. Importantly, we de-

monstrated in the present study that athletes can

obtain a competitive advantage using rapid weight

loss, since they are able to compete against smaller

and theoretically weaker opponents without any

impairment in physical performance. Thus, we can

affirm that the present rules and scheduling

for competitions encourage athletes to reduce

weight. In view of this, we believe that rule changes

should immediately be considered by the Interna-

tional Judo Federation as a way of lowering the

risk to health of judo athletes. The US National

College Athletic Association (NCAA) was successful

in its weight certification programme, and after

some rules modifications, ‘‘the weight cutting

problem’’ became less harmful and aggressive

(Davis et al., 2002). Some similar rule changes

adopted by the NCAA, such as a reduction in the

recovery time after weigh-in, should also be adopted

in judo and other combat sports where weight loss

is prevalent.

In conclusion, the present study has shown

that judo-related performance is not affected by an

average 5% body weight loss in experienced weight-

cyclers if they are able to recover for 4 h. As rapid

weight loss is not free of risk to health, rule changes

should be implemented by the International Judo

Federation, as has been done by the NCAA, to

prevent serious adverse occurrences.

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