Public Transportation Policy Thesis

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Public Transportation: To Start Improving Our Future Now

Abstract

This paper addresses the current issues that make public

transportation improvements vital to American society. Several suggestions

are made as to correcting these problems and build upon them so as to better

the American public. It suggests implementation of high-‐speed mass transit,

creating bicycle related infrastructure, increasing gas taxation, expanding

mass transit systems, broadening access to public transportation, and

promoting hybrid cars. The paper outlines the suggested policies, providing

evidence of the numerous advantages of improvements in public

transportation through their demonstrated success in many countries. The

implementation of these policies will increase physical activity, reduce car

emissions, and increase elderly mobility.

The public transit system of a country illustrates not only its attention to its

citizens needs, but also plays an integral role in the nation’s economy, environment,

and pubic health. Unfortunately, the United States lags behind many other countries

in the area of public transportation. Robert Cervero assesses American public

transportation: “public infrastructure has been a necessary, though not sufficient,

catalyst of economic growth and expansion.” The U.S. is not utilizing public transit

for economic expansion, allowing cars to gradually take over as the primary mode of

transportation. Reliance upon cars has led to the neglect of public transportation,

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causing economic, social, and environmental deterioration (Judge). This is merely

one example of one of the many flaws within the American public transportation

system. Public transportation should implement policies of reform in order to

decrease the carbon footprint, revitalize the economy, and decrease economic

segregation in America.

However, some argue that steps are already being taken to improve public

transportation. The government has allotted money to the implementation of

various public transportation and infrastructure development. The National Tax

Journal describes the U.S. stimulus package, where “nearly one-‐quarter of the $787

billion in the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009” has been “devoted

to spending and tax credits for infrastructure investments,”(Hanak). This money

funds further transportation infrastructure such as the construction of more

highway lanes and bridges to “increase highway capacity,”(Brown). Some would

argue that American public transportation is given enough money and does not

require more initiatives to be taken.

Needs

Cars continue to be responsible for numerous fatalities and injuries. Car

collisions and pedestrian accidents have become a common cause of death and

injury. The Journal of Transportation Law, Logistics, and Policy exposes that

60,000,000 crashes are reported in the U.S. each year, out of which “more than

“40,000 people die and 2.5 others are injured,” (McDonald). Traffic fatalities have

been attributed the “number-‐one killer of people ages two to 34,” (Kissinger).

Pediatric published a study that found teenagers twice as likely than other drivers to

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be in a car crash due to high rates of risky behavior. Furthermore, the study

concluded that teen accident rates, and accident rates in general, are high because

“the United States has extensive rural and suburban areas with few transportation

alternatives to private vehicles (Garcia-‐Espana et al.). The lack of reliable and

accessible public transportation forces people to drive, increasing the probability of

car accident related injuries and fatalities. People must be given an alternative

transportation option to decrease car related fatalities.

High amounts of dangerous car emissions contribute to global warming.

Global warming, climate change caused by increased concentration of greenhouse-‐

gasses, is hazardous to the environment and society. Cars emit greenhouse-‐gasses

such as carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrogen oxide (Cools et al.). This is significant,

given the prominence of cars in today’s society. The high rate of modern car

consumption is exemplified by the 123% increase of privately owned cars in Ireland

from 1990-‐2006 (Gallachoir et al.). Car emissions are detrimental, as “this sector

[transportation] accounts for 23% of world energy-‐related C02 emissions, with 74%

coming from road vehicles,”(Machado-‐Filho). These emissions cause environmental

and cultural harm. The predicted reduction in water availability by 21% in the West

Bank illustrates the potential agricultural and societal damage global warming can

cause (Mizyed). The high usage of cars deteriorates the environment and

contributes to harmful greenhouse-‐gases.

A lack of mobility and unequal access to public transportation causes socio-‐

economic segregation. Access to public transit differs between different socio-‐

economic groups, widening the cultural and social divide. A study found that low-‐

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income minority neighborhoods are more likely to walk, use public transit or bike,

than rural Caucasian neighborhoods. Furthermore, the study found that residence of

these neighborhoods “traveled roughly one-‐third the distance to work than the

suburban wealthy did, but for 30% longer time” which “points to poor mobility and

accessibility for the low-‐income minorities,”(Lin and Long). A study examining

immigrant segregation attributes racial and economic isolation to unequal access of

public transportation. It explains that immigrants tend to depend upon public

transportation and “as the nation has gravitated towards suburban developments

and largely abandoned public transit, immigrants have been left behind,” (Cutler,

Glaeser and Vigdor “Is the Melting Pot”). The Journal of Urban Economics explains

that high levels of public transit in low-‐income neighborhoods “may assist

immigrants in the short run”, but “the difficulty of expanding beyond the networks

could cause harm in the long run,”(Cutler, Glaeser and Vigdor “When are the

Ghettos”). Unequal access to public transportation in different neighborhoods

contributes to segregation.

Limited transportation decreases elderly mobility. Older people lose their

basic senses as they age, and are unable to drive, leaving them stranded in a car

reliant society. A study found that “quality of life is typically diminished among older

adults who experience restrictions in independence”, where independence refers to

limited mobility. The study found further evidence that the age group consisting of

people ages 75 and older to have a “predicted probability of experiencing mobility

disability”, or inability to drive, that “increases by 47% each year,”(Clarke, Ailshire

and Lantz). This forces older generations to drive unsafely, rely upon others or seek

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public transportation. The Journal of American Public Health estimates that “40% of

older adults in rural areas have no access to public transportation services and

another 25% have negligible access” (Freeman et al.). Older adults are unsafe to

drive and require a dependable and accessible alternative to driving.

High car reliance causes obesity. Cars decrease physical activity and promote

sedentary lifestyle, causing weight gain. Peter Freund and George Martin explain

that: “the rise of auto-‐mobility fostered the development of fast food”, decreasing

physical activity while providing calorically dense food. They link this emergence of

cars and fast food to obesity, explaining that: “the socio-‐spatial link between lack of

walking (and cycling) and obesity is motorized urban sprawl” in which automobiles

are “the only viable means of daily transportation.” The European Journal of Public

Health found that increased rates of obesity are due to social trends such as

“spending more time in a car”, “walking less” and “not having access to a car all the

time,”(Rabin, Boehmer and Brown). Weight gain and decreased physical activity

pose a serious issue, given the numerous health risks linked to obesity such as:

“diabetes, hypertension, fatty liver, sleep apnea, arthritis, and depression,”(Kuo et

al.). The emergence of cars as a primary mode of transportation has caused and

contributed to American obesity.

Dependence on foreign oil makes the U.S. economy unstable and vulnerable.

Most modern transportation, notably cars, is fueled through oil, much of which is

imported from foreign countries. These risky behaviors make the American

economy susceptible to foreign economic decisions. According to the Air Force

Journal of Logistics: “America imports nearly 66 percent of its petroleum needs

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every day.” Furthermore, it explains that: “energy prices have a direct impact on the

consumer price index”, making the U.S. economy vulnerable because “the trade

imbalance provides oil supplying countries potential leverage over U.S. capital

markets,”(Puckett). This leverage puts the American public in danger. The journal

Foreign Policy suggests that instability and terrorism in the Middle East endanger

oil-‐dependant nations largely reliant upon fuel-‐consuming cars such as the United

States and France (El-‐Gamal et al.). Patrick M. Morgan explains that beyond

economic danger, reliance upon foreign oil tends to have political implications that

cause havok domestically and militarily as well. This is because foreign economic

control and leverage aggrivate conflict, therefore having political consequences.

Transportation in America is largely dependant upon foreign oil, endangering the

economy and society.

Policy

• High-‐speed trains provide an efficient mode of transportation that will

advance America technologically. High-‐speed rails will decrease the carbon

footprint and allow for America remain industrially competitive with other

countries. Jeremy F. Plant illustrates the advantages of high-‐speed trains, explaining

that they relieve air pollution, “reinvigorate deteriorating urban centers”, and will

advance the United States technologically. He goes on to explain that “many of the

developed nations and a number of rapidly developing countries”, including the

United Kingdom, South Korea, and many others, “have made or are planning major

investments in high-‐speed rail systems.” Japan exhibits the successful

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implementation of the high-‐speed rail. The Japanese created the Shinkansen, the

first high-‐speed rail, which travels 130 miles per hour and defines the “high speed

world standard,”(Reuffer). High-‐speed rails symbolize the technological

advancement and innovation that America should strive to achieve. High-‐speed rails

would advance America technologically so as to keep the U.S. up to date globally.

• Implementing a higher gas tax will reduce harmful greenhouse-‐gas emissions

and slow down global warming. Raising taxes on gas will give the public incentive to

use public transportation and other modes of transit and decrease car usage. The

Alternatives Journal explains that increasing gas taxes combined with improvements

in public transportation, such as implemented by Boulder Colorado, would

“eliminate the opportunity to choose harmful behavior”, referring to excessive car

use (Bird). The article went on to explain how Colorado now has a “community-‐

based transit system consisting of small buses with more frequent service,

comfortable seating and large windows”, increasing incentive to utilize public

transportation because of the comparative comfort and affordability to cars.

Similarly, a study aimed at decreasing car use found the implementation of fuel

taxes to be extremely effective when combined with “a subsidy for mass

transit,”(Tanishita, Kashima and Hayes). By decreasing car usage and increasing

public transportation use, emissions from cars will pose less of a threat to the

environment and decrease the imminence of global warming.

• Introducing more bike infrastructure will decrease sedentary lifestyle and

car use. The implementation of bike lanes would encourage a more physical means

of transportation and reduce car traffic. The Journal of Public Health Policy calls for

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“a network of bicycle-‐specific infrastructure” to promote physical activity among

adults (Dill). This conclusion was based upon a study of biking activity in Portland,

one of the most bicycle friendly cities in America, which found Portland’s bike lanes

and built-‐environment to increase biking-‐levels substantially. Decreasing car usage

will increase levels of physical activity. An article in the Journal of Nutrition

Education and Behavior demands creation of “environments in which physical

activity becomes a routine part of the day,”(Fenton). In order to do this, the article

went on to suggest “a comprehensive network of pathways, trails, bike lanes, and

mass transit.” Promotion of a more active form of public transportation such as

biking will increase physical activity levels.

• Expansion of mass-‐transit systems will encourage economic growth. The

deteriorated economy needs revitalizing, and widening the range of public

transportation will stimulate economic progress. According to a journal article

published in the Montana Business Quarterly: “a healthy economy demands a strong

transportation infrastructure” because “prosperity is derived from trade which

requires access to markets, workers and suppliers,”(Albert and Chaudhari). The

article suggests that economic progress can made through implementation of

“advanced technologies” such as mass public-‐transit systems. Such systems have

successfully encouraged economic growth in many major cities such as Boston, New

York and London. Boston, one of the most vibrant cities in America, has

economically advanced over time due to its subway system that has “set the

standard for other large cities in the country,”(Hansen). Mass transit should be

implemented in order to revitalize the currently struggling economy.

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• Broadening rural access to public transportation will increase elderly

mobility. Public transit systems such as trains and busses should be expanded into

more rural communities so as to provide elderly generations who are unable to

drive a convenient and safe means of transportation. Elizabeth Aleciandre and

Susan T. Chrysler suggest “implementing appropriate policies and programs to

improve the safety and mobility of an aging population” based upon successful

implementation in Australia and Japan. They explain further that both countries

experienced a “remarkable reduction in traffic fatalities” as a result of their

innovative techniques such as using church and school busses as transportation for

the elderly as well as expanding their train systems. The University of Michigan

Transport Institute Research Review also encourages “developing programs to

enhance elderly mobility,”(“Elders on the Move”). This assessment was based upon

extensive research done upon successful implementation of “advanced technology,

roadway design, and alternative transportation” in numerous cities around the

globe. Expanding train and bus access to more rural communities will provide the

elderly with a safe and convenient means of transportation.

• Incentives to promote hybrid-‐vehicles should be implemented in order to

decrease foreign-‐oil dependence. Initiating policy such as a carbon-‐tax and tax-‐relief

for investment in renewable energy will push people to invest in hybrid cars,

allowing America to gradually become less reliant on foreign oil. Timothy M.

Beardsley states that a carbon-‐tax will pressure people to seek energy alternatives

and other means of transportation that will “reduce U.S. dependence on foreign oil.”

Ireland’s budget for 2010 illustrates global interest in lessening oil dependency,

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including a plan to implement a carbon tax combined with a tax relief for those who

investment in renewable energy (Verde and Tol). An article in the journal Energy

Policy explains that economic plans such as this have been initiated to address

“increasing concerns regarding high oil prices, oil dependency, and climate

changes,”(Shiau et al.). The article continues to explain that widespread promotion

of hybrid cars combined with these tax initiatives will stabilize the economy. The

U.S. must push the public towards hybrid-‐vehicles and transportation that does not

rely so heavily upon oil so as to decrease foreign oil dependency.

Benefits

Physical activity will increase. People will use cars less, increasing physical

activity while decreasing the prevalence of obesity and improving overall quality of

life within the community. The Journal of Public Health explains that increases in

physical activity have been linked to improvements in mental and physical health,

which decrease susceptibility to disease (Blank et al.). Steven K. Galson assesses that

increasing physical activity gives people self-‐confidence they did not have before, as

many Americans “underestimate their personal ability to incorporate physical

activity into their daily lives.” Peoples’ mental and physical health benefits from

physical activity.

Car emissions will decrease. A decrease in greenhouse-‐gas emissions will

improve public health and decrease the imminence of global warming. The Journal

of Environmental Health explains that decreasing emissions will prevent climate

related diseases that are considered by a majority of health directors to pose a

serious threat (“First Nationwide Climate Change Survey of Public Health

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Departments”). Decreasing greenhouse-‐gasses and will reduce the danger of global

warming. Reduction of gas-‐emissions will result in the decrease of rising sea levels,

lessen the extremity of weather conditions, and the prevent risks to marine

ecosystems (Fussel). The lessening of global warming will decrease immediate risk

to public health and the environment.

Older people will have increased mobility. By improving their mobility, the

elderly will extend their lifespan as well as their quality of life. The Journal of Applied

Gerontology states that: “for the elderly, mobility is constitutive and essential

element of their quality of life,”(Kaiser). Not only will the quality of life improve, but

mobility has also been known to lengthen their lives. The Journal of Gerontology

published another article, explaining that the physical and emotional quality of life

of older people is increased and prolonged by more transportation and mobility

(Dodge et al.). Elderly people will no longer have to depend upon others and have

the freedom of being mobile. This will make them less reliant upon others while

improving their quality and longevity of life.

The neglect of American public transportation has caused deterioration of

the economy, public health and the environment. To fix this, America must

discourage car use, encourage public transportation, and establish a more equal and

far-‐reaching network of public transit. Implementation of these methods has

already been proven successful by many different nations around the globe. Many

vibrant cities such as London, Singapore, Stockholm, Begin and Edinburgh have

been successful in implemented innovative systems of transportation (Albalate and

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Bel). Improving public transit will have a far-‐reaching positive impact upon

American society.

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Public Transportation Policy Thesis

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