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Public Transportation: To Start Improving Our Future Now
Abstract
This paper addresses the current issues that make public
transportation improvements vital to American society. Several suggestions
are made as to correcting these problems and build upon them so as to better
the American public. It suggests implementation of high-‐speed mass transit,
creating bicycle related infrastructure, increasing gas taxation, expanding
mass transit systems, broadening access to public transportation, and
promoting hybrid cars. The paper outlines the suggested policies, providing
evidence of the numerous advantages of improvements in public
transportation through their demonstrated success in many countries. The
implementation of these policies will increase physical activity, reduce car
emissions, and increase elderly mobility.
The public transit system of a country illustrates not only its attention to its
citizens needs, but also plays an integral role in the nation’s economy, environment,
and pubic health. Unfortunately, the United States lags behind many other countries
in the area of public transportation. Robert Cervero assesses American public
transportation: “public infrastructure has been a necessary, though not sufficient,
catalyst of economic growth and expansion.” The U.S. is not utilizing public transit
for economic expansion, allowing cars to gradually take over as the primary mode of
transportation. Reliance upon cars has led to the neglect of public transportation,
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causing economic, social, and environmental deterioration (Judge). This is merely
one example of one of the many flaws within the American public transportation
system. Public transportation should implement policies of reform in order to
decrease the carbon footprint, revitalize the economy, and decrease economic
segregation in America.
However, some argue that steps are already being taken to improve public
transportation. The government has allotted money to the implementation of
various public transportation and infrastructure development. The National Tax
Journal describes the U.S. stimulus package, where “nearly one-‐quarter of the $787
billion in the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009” has been “devoted
to spending and tax credits for infrastructure investments,”(Hanak). This money
funds further transportation infrastructure such as the construction of more
highway lanes and bridges to “increase highway capacity,”(Brown). Some would
argue that American public transportation is given enough money and does not
require more initiatives to be taken.
Needs
Cars continue to be responsible for numerous fatalities and injuries. Car
collisions and pedestrian accidents have become a common cause of death and
injury. The Journal of Transportation Law, Logistics, and Policy exposes that
60,000,000 crashes are reported in the U.S. each year, out of which “more than
“40,000 people die and 2.5 others are injured,” (McDonald). Traffic fatalities have
been attributed the “number-‐one killer of people ages two to 34,” (Kissinger).
Pediatric published a study that found teenagers twice as likely than other drivers to
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be in a car crash due to high rates of risky behavior. Furthermore, the study
concluded that teen accident rates, and accident rates in general, are high because
“the United States has extensive rural and suburban areas with few transportation
alternatives to private vehicles (Garcia-‐Espana et al.). The lack of reliable and
accessible public transportation forces people to drive, increasing the probability of
car accident related injuries and fatalities. People must be given an alternative
transportation option to decrease car related fatalities.
High amounts of dangerous car emissions contribute to global warming.
Global warming, climate change caused by increased concentration of greenhouse-‐
gasses, is hazardous to the environment and society. Cars emit greenhouse-‐gasses
such as carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrogen oxide (Cools et al.). This is significant,
given the prominence of cars in today’s society. The high rate of modern car
consumption is exemplified by the 123% increase of privately owned cars in Ireland
from 1990-‐2006 (Gallachoir et al.). Car emissions are detrimental, as “this sector
[transportation] accounts for 23% of world energy-‐related C02 emissions, with 74%
coming from road vehicles,”(Machado-‐Filho). These emissions cause environmental
and cultural harm. The predicted reduction in water availability by 21% in the West
Bank illustrates the potential agricultural and societal damage global warming can
cause (Mizyed). The high usage of cars deteriorates the environment and
contributes to harmful greenhouse-‐gases.
A lack of mobility and unequal access to public transportation causes socio-‐
economic segregation. Access to public transit differs between different socio-‐
economic groups, widening the cultural and social divide. A study found that low-‐
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income minority neighborhoods are more likely to walk, use public transit or bike,
than rural Caucasian neighborhoods. Furthermore, the study found that residence of
these neighborhoods “traveled roughly one-‐third the distance to work than the
suburban wealthy did, but for 30% longer time” which “points to poor mobility and
accessibility for the low-‐income minorities,”(Lin and Long). A study examining
immigrant segregation attributes racial and economic isolation to unequal access of
public transportation. It explains that immigrants tend to depend upon public
transportation and “as the nation has gravitated towards suburban developments
and largely abandoned public transit, immigrants have been left behind,” (Cutler,
Glaeser and Vigdor “Is the Melting Pot”). The Journal of Urban Economics explains
that high levels of public transit in low-‐income neighborhoods “may assist
immigrants in the short run”, but “the difficulty of expanding beyond the networks
could cause harm in the long run,”(Cutler, Glaeser and Vigdor “When are the
Ghettos”). Unequal access to public transportation in different neighborhoods
contributes to segregation.
Limited transportation decreases elderly mobility. Older people lose their
basic senses as they age, and are unable to drive, leaving them stranded in a car
reliant society. A study found that “quality of life is typically diminished among older
adults who experience restrictions in independence”, where independence refers to
limited mobility. The study found further evidence that the age group consisting of
people ages 75 and older to have a “predicted probability of experiencing mobility
disability”, or inability to drive, that “increases by 47% each year,”(Clarke, Ailshire
and Lantz). This forces older generations to drive unsafely, rely upon others or seek
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public transportation. The Journal of American Public Health estimates that “40% of
older adults in rural areas have no access to public transportation services and
another 25% have negligible access” (Freeman et al.). Older adults are unsafe to
drive and require a dependable and accessible alternative to driving.
High car reliance causes obesity. Cars decrease physical activity and promote
sedentary lifestyle, causing weight gain. Peter Freund and George Martin explain
that: “the rise of auto-‐mobility fostered the development of fast food”, decreasing
physical activity while providing calorically dense food. They link this emergence of
cars and fast food to obesity, explaining that: “the socio-‐spatial link between lack of
walking (and cycling) and obesity is motorized urban sprawl” in which automobiles
are “the only viable means of daily transportation.” The European Journal of Public
Health found that increased rates of obesity are due to social trends such as
“spending more time in a car”, “walking less” and “not having access to a car all the
time,”(Rabin, Boehmer and Brown). Weight gain and decreased physical activity
pose a serious issue, given the numerous health risks linked to obesity such as:
“diabetes, hypertension, fatty liver, sleep apnea, arthritis, and depression,”(Kuo et
al.). The emergence of cars as a primary mode of transportation has caused and
contributed to American obesity.
Dependence on foreign oil makes the U.S. economy unstable and vulnerable.
Most modern transportation, notably cars, is fueled through oil, much of which is
imported from foreign countries. These risky behaviors make the American
economy susceptible to foreign economic decisions. According to the Air Force
Journal of Logistics: “America imports nearly 66 percent of its petroleum needs
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every day.” Furthermore, it explains that: “energy prices have a direct impact on the
consumer price index”, making the U.S. economy vulnerable because “the trade
imbalance provides oil supplying countries potential leverage over U.S. capital
markets,”(Puckett). This leverage puts the American public in danger. The journal
Foreign Policy suggests that instability and terrorism in the Middle East endanger
oil-‐dependant nations largely reliant upon fuel-‐consuming cars such as the United
States and France (El-‐Gamal et al.). Patrick M. Morgan explains that beyond
economic danger, reliance upon foreign oil tends to have political implications that
cause havok domestically and militarily as well. This is because foreign economic
control and leverage aggrivate conflict, therefore having political consequences.
Transportation in America is largely dependant upon foreign oil, endangering the
economy and society.
Policy
• High-‐speed trains provide an efficient mode of transportation that will
advance America technologically. High-‐speed rails will decrease the carbon
footprint and allow for America remain industrially competitive with other
countries. Jeremy F. Plant illustrates the advantages of high-‐speed trains, explaining
that they relieve air pollution, “reinvigorate deteriorating urban centers”, and will
advance the United States technologically. He goes on to explain that “many of the
developed nations and a number of rapidly developing countries”, including the
United Kingdom, South Korea, and many others, “have made or are planning major
investments in high-‐speed rail systems.” Japan exhibits the successful
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implementation of the high-‐speed rail. The Japanese created the Shinkansen, the
first high-‐speed rail, which travels 130 miles per hour and defines the “high speed
world standard,”(Reuffer). High-‐speed rails symbolize the technological
advancement and innovation that America should strive to achieve. High-‐speed rails
would advance America technologically so as to keep the U.S. up to date globally.
• Implementing a higher gas tax will reduce harmful greenhouse-‐gas emissions
and slow down global warming. Raising taxes on gas will give the public incentive to
use public transportation and other modes of transit and decrease car usage. The
Alternatives Journal explains that increasing gas taxes combined with improvements
in public transportation, such as implemented by Boulder Colorado, would
“eliminate the opportunity to choose harmful behavior”, referring to excessive car
use (Bird). The article went on to explain how Colorado now has a “community-‐
based transit system consisting of small buses with more frequent service,
comfortable seating and large windows”, increasing incentive to utilize public
transportation because of the comparative comfort and affordability to cars.
Similarly, a study aimed at decreasing car use found the implementation of fuel
taxes to be extremely effective when combined with “a subsidy for mass
transit,”(Tanishita, Kashima and Hayes). By decreasing car usage and increasing
public transportation use, emissions from cars will pose less of a threat to the
environment and decrease the imminence of global warming.
• Introducing more bike infrastructure will decrease sedentary lifestyle and
car use. The implementation of bike lanes would encourage a more physical means
of transportation and reduce car traffic. The Journal of Public Health Policy calls for
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“a network of bicycle-‐specific infrastructure” to promote physical activity among
adults (Dill). This conclusion was based upon a study of biking activity in Portland,
one of the most bicycle friendly cities in America, which found Portland’s bike lanes
and built-‐environment to increase biking-‐levels substantially. Decreasing car usage
will increase levels of physical activity. An article in the Journal of Nutrition
Education and Behavior demands creation of “environments in which physical
activity becomes a routine part of the day,”(Fenton). In order to do this, the article
went on to suggest “a comprehensive network of pathways, trails, bike lanes, and
mass transit.” Promotion of a more active form of public transportation such as
biking will increase physical activity levels.
• Expansion of mass-‐transit systems will encourage economic growth. The
deteriorated economy needs revitalizing, and widening the range of public
transportation will stimulate economic progress. According to a journal article
published in the Montana Business Quarterly: “a healthy economy demands a strong
transportation infrastructure” because “prosperity is derived from trade which
requires access to markets, workers and suppliers,”(Albert and Chaudhari). The
article suggests that economic progress can made through implementation of
“advanced technologies” such as mass public-‐transit systems. Such systems have
successfully encouraged economic growth in many major cities such as Boston, New
York and London. Boston, one of the most vibrant cities in America, has
economically advanced over time due to its subway system that has “set the
standard for other large cities in the country,”(Hansen). Mass transit should be
implemented in order to revitalize the currently struggling economy.
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• Broadening rural access to public transportation will increase elderly
mobility. Public transit systems such as trains and busses should be expanded into
more rural communities so as to provide elderly generations who are unable to
drive a convenient and safe means of transportation. Elizabeth Aleciandre and
Susan T. Chrysler suggest “implementing appropriate policies and programs to
improve the safety and mobility of an aging population” based upon successful
implementation in Australia and Japan. They explain further that both countries
experienced a “remarkable reduction in traffic fatalities” as a result of their
innovative techniques such as using church and school busses as transportation for
the elderly as well as expanding their train systems. The University of Michigan
Transport Institute Research Review also encourages “developing programs to
enhance elderly mobility,”(“Elders on the Move”). This assessment was based upon
extensive research done upon successful implementation of “advanced technology,
roadway design, and alternative transportation” in numerous cities around the
globe. Expanding train and bus access to more rural communities will provide the
elderly with a safe and convenient means of transportation.
• Incentives to promote hybrid-‐vehicles should be implemented in order to
decrease foreign-‐oil dependence. Initiating policy such as a carbon-‐tax and tax-‐relief
for investment in renewable energy will push people to invest in hybrid cars,
allowing America to gradually become less reliant on foreign oil. Timothy M.
Beardsley states that a carbon-‐tax will pressure people to seek energy alternatives
and other means of transportation that will “reduce U.S. dependence on foreign oil.”
Ireland’s budget for 2010 illustrates global interest in lessening oil dependency,
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including a plan to implement a carbon tax combined with a tax relief for those who
investment in renewable energy (Verde and Tol). An article in the journal Energy
Policy explains that economic plans such as this have been initiated to address
“increasing concerns regarding high oil prices, oil dependency, and climate
changes,”(Shiau et al.). The article continues to explain that widespread promotion
of hybrid cars combined with these tax initiatives will stabilize the economy. The
U.S. must push the public towards hybrid-‐vehicles and transportation that does not
rely so heavily upon oil so as to decrease foreign oil dependency.
Benefits
Physical activity will increase. People will use cars less, increasing physical
activity while decreasing the prevalence of obesity and improving overall quality of
life within the community. The Journal of Public Health explains that increases in
physical activity have been linked to improvements in mental and physical health,
which decrease susceptibility to disease (Blank et al.). Steven K. Galson assesses that
increasing physical activity gives people self-‐confidence they did not have before, as
many Americans “underestimate their personal ability to incorporate physical
activity into their daily lives.” Peoples’ mental and physical health benefits from
physical activity.
Car emissions will decrease. A decrease in greenhouse-‐gas emissions will
improve public health and decrease the imminence of global warming. The Journal
of Environmental Health explains that decreasing emissions will prevent climate
related diseases that are considered by a majority of health directors to pose a
serious threat (“First Nationwide Climate Change Survey of Public Health
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Departments”). Decreasing greenhouse-‐gasses and will reduce the danger of global
warming. Reduction of gas-‐emissions will result in the decrease of rising sea levels,
lessen the extremity of weather conditions, and the prevent risks to marine
ecosystems (Fussel). The lessening of global warming will decrease immediate risk
to public health and the environment.
Older people will have increased mobility. By improving their mobility, the
elderly will extend their lifespan as well as their quality of life. The Journal of Applied
Gerontology states that: “for the elderly, mobility is constitutive and essential
element of their quality of life,”(Kaiser). Not only will the quality of life improve, but
mobility has also been known to lengthen their lives. The Journal of Gerontology
published another article, explaining that the physical and emotional quality of life
of older people is increased and prolonged by more transportation and mobility
(Dodge et al.). Elderly people will no longer have to depend upon others and have
the freedom of being mobile. This will make them less reliant upon others while
improving their quality and longevity of life.
The neglect of American public transportation has caused deterioration of
the economy, public health and the environment. To fix this, America must
discourage car use, encourage public transportation, and establish a more equal and
far-‐reaching network of public transit. Implementation of these methods has
already been proven successful by many different nations around the globe. Many
vibrant cities such as London, Singapore, Stockholm, Begin and Edinburgh have
been successful in implemented innovative systems of transportation (Albalate and
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Bel). Improving public transit will have a far-‐reaching positive impact upon
American society.
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