Tobi Promise OjoPSYA 3 - GENDERDISCUSS THE ROLE OF GENES AND HORMONES IN GENDER DEVELOPEMENT (8+16 marks)One explanation into gender development is the role of genes. In the first few weeks after conception there are no structural differences between male and female embryos. Each person has 23 pairs of chromosomes and one pair of the chromosomes are the sex chromosome. These chromosomes carry genes which contain instructions on physical and behavioural characteristics. Males have XY chromosomes whereas females have XX chromosomes. Theres usually a direct link between chromosomal sex and internal (ovaries or testes) & external genitalia (vagina or penis). At about 6 weeks the SRY gene which is found on the Y chromosome causes the gonads of the embryo to develop as testes. As females do not have the Y chromosome they will not have the SRY gene leading gonads will develop as ovaries. The internal genitalia will begin to produce sex hormones further affecting gender development. However male babies can be born and extra X chromosome (XXY).The second explanation is the role of hormones. Hormones are produced prenatally and in adolescence. They influence the development of genetalia and affect the development of the brain, both of which influence gender behaviour. Testosterone (male sex hormone) contributes to the development of the male reproductive system and initiates puberty which leads to the growth of facial hair, deepening of voice and muscle growth. Similarly females produce estrogen which stimulates the onset of menstruation and the widening of hips, breast and pubic hair. Male brains are exposed prenatally to more testosterone than female brains leading to a masculinised brain. For example females generally appear to have better at socialising and empathising, whereas males have better spatial navigation (Hoag 2008). However in some cases when individuals are exposed prenatally to abnormal levels of hormones AIS (androgen insensitivity syndrome) can occur.P: One strength of the hormones explanation into gender is that theres supporting research. E: For example Young (1966) gave male hormones to female mice and female hormones to male mice. The effect was a reversal of usual gender-related behaviours. E: This suggests that hormones play an important role in gender as the mices gendered behaviour was linked to the hormones they received, L: thus strengthening the explanation into the link between hormones and gender.P: Additionally the genes explanation into gender is supported by research E: such as Koopman et al (1991) in this study researchers found that genetically female mice who previously didnt possess the SRY gene developed into male mice if the gene was implanted into them. E: This therefore demonstrates the importance of the SRY gene in gender development as possession of the SRY gene led to the development of male gender, L: thus strengthening the explanation into genes and gender.P: However a criticism of the biologically explanation into gender is that some studies have used animals instead of humans meaning they may not be applicable to humans. E: For example the Young (1996) and Koopman (1991) studies used mice to test the explanation. But there are many differences between animals and humans which makes it difficult to compare findings collected from animal studies to humans. E: This suggests that the results from these studies may lack generalisability, L: thus weakening the explanation.P: A further criticism of the biological explanation of hormones into gender is that there is research evidence which goes against the explanation. E: Hines (1994) study looked at a sample of girls and boys aged 3-8 years old who had congenital arenal hypoplasia (CAH), caused by overexposure to male hormones. They found only minor differences between the girls with CAH and the girls in the control group but no real difference between the amount of rough and tumble play the children engaged in. E: This suggests that hormones do not have much of an impact on gender as girls in the control compared to girls with CAH didnt so much differ. L: Therefore weakening the explanation into the link between hormones and gender.P: However a criticism of the biologically explanation into gender is that some studies have used animals instead of humans meaning they may not be applicable to humans. E: For example the Young (1996) and Koopman (1991) studies used mice to test the explanation. But there are many differences between animals and humans which makes it difficult to compare findings collected from animal studies to humans. E: This suggests that the results from these studies may lack generalisability, L: thus weakening the explanation.P: Another weakness of the biological explanation into gender development is that it can be considered deterministic. E: The assumption assumes that genes determine sex and therefore results in a masculine or feminine gender identity. This means the theory does not take into consideration the role of free will in our choices of our behaviours and our own perception of gender identity for each sex. E: As the explanation fails to look at other explanations that arent gene related it cannot fully explain gender development L: this therefore decreases the theorys external reliability.P: Nevertheless there isempirical evidence supporting the biological explanation and the role of the external genitalia into gender development. E: Imperato- McGinley et al (1979)looked at individuals from the Batista family with AIS (a syndrome which prevents thedevelopment of male genitaliadue to brain cells being unresponsive to testosterone hormones when in the womb). Researchers found that the individuals could develop male gender identities once external male genitalia appeared at puberty, despite being raised as females. E: This suggests that the explanation is correct in assuming genes lead to sex specific genitalia and this in turn leads to masculine or feminine gender identities. L: This study therefore strengthens the validity of the explanation.

DESCRIBE AND EVALUATE EVOLUTIONAY EXPLANATIONS OF GENDER ROLES (8+16 marks)The evolutionary theory suggests that the most successful groups in the EEA wee those who carried out division of labour roles. Traditionally men were hunter gatherers and the women were domestic goddesses. Kuhn suggests this division of labour allowed reproductive success as a woman being a housewife allows her to look after children and get pregnant (which she wouldnt be able to do if she was a hunter) Kuhn & Stiner (2006) suggests that humans survived over Neanderthals because within Neanderthals both men and women hunted and consequently when hunting was unsuccessful the group starved. This division of labour is important as it helps avoid starvation (this is an adaptive advantage). For example today women are more likely to cook and care whereas men adapt the role of breadwinner. Additionally there is mate choice which is a key adaptive behaviour in reproductive success explaining why many gender roles are related to reproductive strategies. Men look for partners who are physically attractive as this is an indicator of health and fertility e.g. thin waist. Therefore women will seek to enhance their physical attractiveness. Females look for partners with resources who are wealthy and powerful. Therefore men advertise their status for example by driving flashy cars.Furthermore the cognitive style within the evolutionary theory is split into the E-S theory and tend and befriend. Baron-Cohen (2002) research has shown that women are better at empathising whereas men are better at systematising. The difference may be due to selection pressure for males who develop better hunting strategies and females who are focused on rearing children. Taylor et al (2000) tend and befriend proposed that females in the EEA experienced more stress than men and so grouped together with other family units leading to their tendency to tend and befriend. P: One criticism of the evolutionary theory of gender roles is that they are speculative. E: for example Kuhn & Stiner (2006) suggests that gender-related division of labour may explain the disappearance of Neanderthals but theres no direct evidence. Additionally other theories have been suggested such as climate change. E: this suggests that the evolutionary explanations arent very reliable as they lack evidence L: This therefore weakens the explanation as its based on speculation.P: There is research support for the mate choice within the evolutionary explanation of gender roles. E: Evidence for this comes from Waynforth & Dunbar (1995) who assessed what men and women were looking for and what they were advertising. They found 44% of males sought a physically attractive partner compared 22% of women. 50% of women offered attractiveness whereas only 34% males did. E: this suggests that gender roles and the way people advertise themselves are linked to what a mate may find attractive as this adaptive behaviour is key for reproductive success. L: Thus strengthening the explanation into gender roles into gender role presented by the evolutionary theory.P: Furthermore there is supporting research for tend and befriend within the evolutionary theory. E: Ennis et al (2001) conducted a natural experiment to test male-female differences in stress response by getting a cortisol sample 4 weeks before and exam (low) and right before the exam (high). They found that in women there was a decrease in cortisol levels compared to men whod increased. E: This suggests that men and women differ in cognitive style. L: This strengthens the explanation as it supports the idea of different gender roles as a result of evolution.P: Another strength of mate choice is that there is further research evidence from Singh (1993) to support mate choice within the evolutionary explanation. E: Singh (19930 used questionnaires and found that men are attracted to women with a low waist to hip ration. E: this suggests that men are more attracted to women who appear healthy (hour glass figure) as this is a sign of fertility. L: This therefore supports the mate choice explanation assumption that men select a mate based on reproductive success.P: However a weakness of the Singh research is that it has methodological problems. E: This is beacuase Singh used a self-report questionnaire method in order to collect data. E: this suggests that the results may show a social desirability bias as participants may not answer truthfully in order to be seen in the best light. L: This therefore weakens the support research as result may be inaccurate, meaning the study lacks internal validity as a result weakening the theory itself.P: Lastly the evolutionary theory can be considered reductionist. E: This is because the theory only takes into consideration biological factors and ignores situational factors such as the influence of parents. The theory therefore cannot provide a full account of gender development as the theory over simplifies the explanation which is most likely a result of numerous factors. E: As a result the internal validity is lowered. L: This therefore weakens the explanation into gender roles devlopement.

DESCRIBE AND EVALUATE THE BIOSOCAIL APPROACH TO GENDER DEVELOPEMENT (8+16 marks)There are two theories within this approach. Firstly the biosocial theory proposed by Money & Ehrhardt (1972) which was based on their book Man and woman, boy and girl. The suggests that development is stored when a baby is born (biologically male or female) and given a social label this leads to differential treatment of sexes, with biological factors such as prenatal exposure to testosterone playing a role. However individuals which are mislabelled as male or female would acquire the gender identity of the opposite sex.The second theory is the social role by Eagly & Wood (1999). They proposed that selective pressures cause only physical differences and these lead to sex role allocations which create psychological sex differences. This psychological sex differences are the consequences of assigned roles. For example psychological differences such as aggressiveness or the tendency to be empathetic is thought to have emerged from social roles ( hunter gatherer, homemaker) division of labour is a product of biologically based differences which allow men and women to perform to perform tasks more efficiently. Mate choice preferences are determined by social roles performed by males and females. Furthermore Eagly & Wood 2002 suggest that hormonal differences may be the outcome of social role and psychological differences between roles.P: There is evidence by Condry & Condry (1975) supporting the theory that gender devlopement can be explained by the biosocial theory. E: Condry & Condry showed 200 college students a video tape of a baby reacting to a jack in the box toy. The students were then assigned to independent measures in one condition they were introduced to the child as David a boy and the other Dana a girl. It was found that those who perceived the baby as a boy were more likely to label the emotion as anger, whilst those who perceived the baby as a girl labelled it as fear. E: This shows that labelling the gender resulted in different emotional labels L: thus supporting the theory which suggests a child will be treated differently in correspondence to their label.P: There is further evidence by Smith & Lloyd (1978) supporting the biosocial theory E: Smith & Lloyd dressed babies in non-specific gender clothes, and then labelled them with a boy or girls name. They found that people would play with them in different ways according to their gender label. Boys were treated more physical and girls more gentle. E: The biosocial theory suggests that labelling a new born will direct how a childs treated. L: the findings support the suggestion thus increasing the theorys internal validity.P: The empirical evidence by Smith & Lloyd has been criticised for containing methodological flaw. E: Smith & Lloyd conducted a lab experiment and therefore the study was conducted within an artificial environment. With extraneous variables being controlled the findings of the study cannot be generalised to real life environments. L: This reduces the ecological validity of the study which therefore weakens the theory. P: One strength is that there is supporting evidence for the biosocial theory. E: This is by Bradley et al (1998) who reported on a case of a biological male who, after accidental damage to his penis had a reassignment surgery and raised as female. The child exhibited some male behaviour but preferred female company and as a adult perceived himself as female and was happy. E: This case study suggests that biological sex doesnt determine gender identity. L: Supporting the theory put forward by Money and Ehrhardt.P: The theory has been criticised for being deterministic. E: The theory fails to consider the role of individual differences and the role of free will by suggesting that we ourselves do not influence the way in which we are treated and thus cannot explain GD. E: As the theory fails to explain the gender development of all individuals the theory cannot be provided as a good explanation to the whole population and thus lacks external reliability. P: commentary on the approach by Eagly & Wood is that it is a social constructionist one. E: This is because it suggests the much of human behaviour is an invention or outcome of a particular society or culture and that theres no real difference between men and women or if there is its not really relevant. E: This suggest that differences in gender roles are not inevitable.

DISCUSS EXPLANATIONS OF GENDER DSYPHORIA (8+16 marks)Gender dysphoria is a condition in which people are uncomfortable with the gender assigned to them at birth. Its believed that more males than females experience this. Gender dysphoria can be explained by both the biological and psycho-social assumption. One assumption within the psycho-social explanation is that gender dysphoria is related to mental illness, which is linked to childhood trauma or maladaptive upbringing. For example Coretes et al (1991) who looked at the history of a boy with GID. He then proposed this was a defence reaction to his mother depression when he was 3, a time when he was particularly sensitive to gender issues. Cortes suggests this cross-gendered fantasy was a way of resolving anxiety. The second assumption focuses on the mother-son relationship. Stroller (1975) conducted clinical interviews with individuals with GID and he observed they displayed overly close mother-son relationships likely leading to greater female identification and confused gender identity.Within the biological explanation is mismatch between hormones and genetic sex. This explanation assumes that genetic conditions may affect prenatal hormone levels leading to this mismatch. For example intersex conditions (AIS & AH) where external genitalia doesnt match genetic sex meaning an individual may have been assigned the wrong sex. Secondly there is the idea that a transsexual gene exists a longer version of the androgen receptor gene. This abnormality caused reduces action of testosterone this may affect gender development in the womb (under-masculining of the brain). Thirdly the brain theory of transexualism assumes that a transsexuals brain does not match their genetic sex. BTSc has been correlated with preffered sex as in hetero men the BTSc is 2x larger than that of hetro women. They found that BTSc levels of transsexuals were similar to that of normal women explaining gender dysphoria. Lastly there are environmental effects such as pollution. For example the insecticide DDT contains oestrogen which may mean males are prenatally exposed to unusually levels of female hormones causing a mismatch between genetic sex and hormone influence.P: One weakness of the psychosocial explanation into GD is that childhood trauma as suggested may be a predictor of GID E: Cole et al (1997) studied 435 individuals experiencing GD and reported that the range of psychiatric condition displayed was no greater than that found in a normal population. E: This suggests that childhood trauma is unrelated to GD and so GD must be related to prenatal experiences. L: therefore weakening the psychosocial explanation into GD as the research goes against the assumption.P: there is evidence for the transsexual gene into GD by Hare et al supporting the bio explanation E: Hare looked at the DNA of 112 MtF transsexuals and found a significant correlation between GD and variants of the gene which triggers the release of testosterone, when examining gene samples from male GDs and non disphorics. E: This suggests that GD is biologically related as gene variants can lead to differing levels of testorterone and potentially GD. L: thus supporting the bio explanation into GD.P: Consideration into the socially sensitive nature of GD may be good for transsexuals. E: this is because the identification of a biological cause may help people to be more accepting of transsexuals as theyll be more able to understand that its not their fault, its simply in their biology. E: This evidence supports that research will have an impact on society and its views, allowing people to accept them. L: therefore suggesting it may not be their fault and down to nature.P: One weakness of the bio explanation into GD is that there is evidence which dismisses the link between prenatal hormonal abnormalities and GD. E: Dessens et al (2005) studied 250 genetic females with CAH who were raised female. Despite being exposed to male hormones 95% were content with their female gender role. E: This suggests that the over exposure to the male hormones did not necessarily influence the participants gender identity. L: therefore weakening the explanation into the bio explanation as research shows no clear relationship between prenatal hormonal abnormalities and GD.P: A further weakness into the bio explanation of GD is that research challenges BSTc volumes in relation with GD E: Chung et al (2002) stated that differences in BSTc volumes between men and women does not develop until adulthood. However most transsexuals report that their feelings of GD began in early childhood. E: This suggests that the difference found in the BSTc could not be the cause of transsexualism. L: thus weakening the explanation as the evidence goes against what it assumes.P: Another weakness of the explanation of GD as a whole is that it can be considered deterministic. E: This is because the psychosocial explanation suggests GD is developed by childhood trauma and overly close mother-son relationships, whilst the biological explanation suggests that GD is developed through biological factors only. E: Both do not consider the role free will as they fail to take into account our individual differences and our ability to make our own choices for our gender. L: this means that the theories lack external reliability therefore weakening the explanation.

DESCRIBE AND EVALUATE KOHLBERGS GENDER CONSTANCY DEVELOPEMENTAL THEORY OF GENDER DEVELOPMENT (8+16 marks)Kohlberg (1966) puts forward a stage theory of gender development. The first stage is gender labelling, which is usually reached by the age of 2 years. At this stage the child is able to correctly label its own sex but this is based only on outward appearance. The second stage is gender stability, which is usually reached by the age of 4 years. At this stage the child realizes that gender remains the same across time but not over situations. A boy at this stage might say that if he put a dress on he would be a girl. It is not until the third stage, gender constancy, that the child starts to understand that gender is independent of time and situation they also start to learn gender-appropriate behaviour. This stage is usually reached by the age of 7 years.P: One strength of the theory is that there is supporting research for gender labelling. E: This support is provided by Weinraub 1984 who observed 2-3 year olds. Children who mastered gender identity played more with sex stereotyped toys than those who hadnt acquired gender identity. E: This suggests that being able to identify ones gender leads to the beginning of gendered behaviour L: therefore supporting gender labelling within Kohlbergs theory in relation to gender development.P: One strength of the Weinraub 1984 study is that it has high ecological validity. E: As there is no intervention and if the observer remains undetected the method avoids problems with demand characteristics. E: This suggests that the study is valid in its findings. L: thus strengthening Kohlbergs theory as the support study is reliable.P: A strength of gender stability within Kohlbergs theory is that theres supporting evidence. E: this support comes from Slaby & frey 1975 who interviewed young children and asked them sex trait questions e.g. Were you a little boy or girl when you were baby? & Will you grow up will you be a mummy or a daddy? answers showed that children didnt recognise gender was stable over time until about age 3 or 4. E: This suggests that the theory is correct in assuming that gender stability occurs age 3/4 as those younger showed lack of understanding. L: thus supporting gender stability and its claims concerning gender development.P: One strength of the Slaby & Frey 1975 study which is used to support the theory is that its easy to replicate. E: This is because it is a fixed set of closed questions. This makes it easy to quantify and allows them to interview many children. E: This suggests that the study is reliable and they could collect a lot of data. L: thus strengthening Kohlbergs theory as the support study is reliable.P: There is research support for gender consistency. E: for example Damon 1977. In this study children were read a story about a boy who likes to play dolls and asked their opinion on this. Young children thought it was okay whereas older children thought it was wrong or unusual. He concluded that younger children had no concept of gender appropriate behaviour but this changed with age. E: This suggests that as children get older they develop their sense of gender L: thus strengthening gender constancy of Kohlbergs theory in explaining gender development.P: Gender schema theory could be a better explanation of gender development than Kohlbergs, E: as it suggests that children begin to take on gender appropriate behaviours as soon as they are aware of their own gender (gender labelling). These finding may also be able to be explained biologically, as the boys' hormones may lead them to be more interested in masculine activities than in feminine activities. E: This suggests that GST is better than Kohlbergs theory.

DISCUSS THE GENDER SCHEMA THEORY OF GENDER DEVELOPMENT (8+16 marks)An alternative view, gender schema theory (Martin and Halverson 1981), suggests that children start learning about gender-appropriate behaviour before gender constancy is achieved, claiming that basic gender identity (gender labelling) is sufficient unlike Kohlberg. A schema organised clusters of information about gender-appropriate behaviour and a child learns these from interactions with other children and adults. When learning schemas children are focused on their ingroup which is who they identify with. They tend to not be interested with the outgroup and avoid them. This theory can explain why children hold very fixed gender attitudes this is called resilience of gender beliefs so when a child encounters information thats not consistent with their ingroup they ignore it. For example, if a boy sees a film with a male nurse this information wont be stored and hell not alter his existing gender schemas.P: There is research which supports the gender schema theory ingroups and outgroups. E: For example Fagot 1985 found 2 year olds could correctly label their gender spent 80% of their time in the same-gender group, whereas those who could spent 50% time in the same-gender group. E: This suggests that the study is reliable and they could collect a lot of data. L: thus strengthening Kohlbergs theory as the support study is reliable.P: Furthermore there is more research which supports ingroups and outgroups and their influence on gender. E: Bradbard et al 1986 study saw that when 4-9 year olds were told neutral items were girl or boy items they took a greater interest in the ingroup labelled toys. A week later they recalled more details on the ingroup toys than the outgroup. E: This suggests that ingroups lead to people to actively seek information and show more interest as thats who they identify with. L: thus strengthening the gender schema theory as this is what ingroups and outgroups assume.P: Despite the evidence supporting gender schema theory, some studies appear to show that children act in a gender-typical way before they have developed gender schemas. E: Eisenberg et al. found that 3 to 4 year olds justified their gender-specific choice of toys without reference to gender stereotypes. L: thus weakening the gender schema theory.P: One criticism of GST is how far can it be applied? E: gender schemas and stereotypes arent necessarily applicable today with the changing role of men and women. For ex. More women are working than conforming to the traditional house wife role. L: thus weakening the gender schema theory.P: A strength of the gender schema theory is that there is research for resilience of gender beliefs with gender schemas. E: Martin & Halverton (1983) found when children viewed pictures or watched films of individuals in cross-gender activities, such as a male acting as a nurse or a female as a doctor, they distort the information (insisting that the man was a doctor and the woman a nurse)or forget it. E: This demonstrates the resilience of childrens gender-role beliefs as when they processed gender-related information they only admitted data consistent with their schemas. L: thus supporting the gender schema theory particularly resilience of gender beliefs.P: A limitation of the GST is that it fails to consider individual differences. E: This is because all children behave differently despite similar environmental influences. Also children sometimes respond differently to gender-appropriate behaviour for ex. Girls my prefer action figures. L: This may be due to biological differences such as genes and hormones, which gender schema theory largely ignores thus weakening GST theory.

DESCRIBE AND EVALUATE SOCIAL INFLUENCES ON GENDER ROLE (8+16 marks)Parents reinforce behaviour that they deem gender-appropriate and not those they deem gender-inappropriate. This is done through differential reinforcement which involves rewards. This could be in the form of giving attention or positive feedback etc. this will make them more likely to display gender-appropriate behaviour. Peers are another source of gender development; this is because they act as models for gender-appropriate which a person can learn from. Also they reinforce only gender appropriate behaviour as when they step out or stay in line with their gender role theyll give either positive or negative feedback. The media is another source of social influence as it portrays gender roles in a certain way for example men are usually portrayed as independent whilst females are portrayed as dependent and unambitious. Constant exposure to these models can shape a childs behaviour.P: There is research evidence which challenges the source of parents on gender roles. E: As Smith & Daglish (1977) found that children were more likely to imitate the parent they have most contact with, usually the mother. E: This suggests that the social influences on gender roles may be wrong as children may learn from models that they see regularly rather than gender-appropriate behaviours being reinforced. L: thus weakening the social influences explanation into gender development.P: One weakness is that there is research which goes against the influences of the media on gender. E: This is because Durkin (1995) found that heavy viewers actually scored lower on a test of gender stereotype acceptance. E: This suggests that exposure to the gender stereotypes by the media as the theory suggest does not necessarily lead to gender behaviour in children. L: thus weakening the social influences as theres research which disproves the influence of media.P: One methodological weakness of the Durkin 1995 study is that they used a correlational study. E: In finding a link between tv viewers and gender stereotypes acceptance they used a correlation method which is weak. E: This is because with a correlational study you cannot identify a cause and effect also you cant look beyond the data given. L: thus weakening the Durkin study which goes against the theory which may mean the theory could be correct.P: One strength of the social influences into gender is that theres support research. E: For example Smith & Lloyd (1978) saw mothers playing with an infant. Depending on the gender the infants were presented they selected gender appropriate toys. E: This suggests that parents do indeed reinforced gender appropriate behaviour as the mothers only gave the infants gender appropriate toys. L: thus weakening the social influences explanation into gender development.P: A criticism of these social models is that they are adevelopmental: E: they suggest that the processes of learning gender-appropriate behaviours are the same at all ages. However, research shows that the processes by which individuals learn change with age, something which cognitive developmental theories provide a better explanation for. Cognitive developmental theories also better explain why children adhere to only same-sex stereotypes and ignore opposite-sex schemas. L: Therefore weakening the social influences explanation concerning gender roles.P: One weakness of research into media influences into gender is that its hard to demonstrate this influence. E: Its difficult to demonstrate the effects of media stereotypes because almost all children watch television and therefore there are no control groups for comparison with the exception of the Williams (1985) study which is not enough to deduce the findings to a whole population. E: This suggests that research into media influences is difficult to collect as theres not way to make comparisons. L: thus weakening the explanation into media influences.

DESCRIBE AND EVALUATE CULTURAL INFLUENCES ON GENDER ROLE (8+16 marks)There are various studies which look into cultural similarities and cultural variations. One study into cultural similarities is Munroe & Munroe (1975) who found that food preparation and childcare was a responsibility of females of all societies. Even in cases where it was shared major responsibility never fell on men. From this you can conclude every society has some division of labour. A second study highlights similarities and has shown that girls were more socialised towards compliance (nurturance, obedience) whilst boys were raised more for assertiveness (independence, achievement).

Studies into cultural variation includes Berry et al (2002) who found that males had superior spatial skills but this was only supported in tight knit societies. Furthermore Berry et al found that women were more conformist than men again especially in tight knit societies. These gender behaviours were maintained in tight knit societies but not in looser societies.

P: There is research support for cultural similarities. E: This comes from Buss et al (1990) who conducted a study of the features which men/ women looked for in relationship partners. This was carried out over 37 cultures. Womens concerns for a mate were dominated by the need for protection and financial security whilst mens concerns were dominated by physical attractiveness and age. When they were asked to rank the qualities there was a high level of agreement between member of different cultures. E: This suggests that there are similarities over cultures in term of gender. P: There is empirical evidence by Williams and Best (1990) supporting the theory that gender is culturally universal. E: Williams and Best found when looking at attitudes to gender roles in 30 different nations, observing different cultures in 2800 university students, that there was a high universal agreement across cultures, about which are characteristic are masculine and which are feminine. They found that men are perceived as masculine and women as caring. E: The theory suggests that gender is culturally universal. L: Williams and Best findings supporting the theoryssuggestion increasing its internal validity. P: One weakness of the William & Best study is methodological issues. E: This is because the sample used was 2800 university students which means that the study can be criticised for being sample bias. With only researching into university students the study's findings can only be applied to similar age groups and life styles of university students. E: As findings cannot be generalised to the wider population, other than university students the study lacks population validity. L: Furthermore weakened evidence for the theory that gender is culturally universal, has weakened the theory.P: There is research support for cultural relativism as Mead conducted a study and later changed her view. E: Mead found that in all three cultures she studies in Papua New Guinea, men were more aggressive than women. However, women were still more aggressive in some cultures than in others. E: This suggests that there is a degree of cultural relativism in gender roles: aggression in men is innate and universal but the degree to which aggression is expressed is relative to each culture. P: Some of the research into gender role is also questionable. E: For example, the study by Mead mentioned earlier has been criticised by Freeman, who himself worked with people in the same cultures who claimed to have simply given Mead the information she wanted to hear. E: This suggests that her conclusions are not made on valid data.P: Psychologists have criticised the theory for being reductionist. E: The theory ignores the role of nurture as it suggests that gender behaviours are innate and developed from nature. The theory does not take into account any social influences in the development of gender identity. E:With the theory only considering the role of nature, the theory fails to be provided as an holistic account and thus lacks internal validity.