Name: _______________________________________

Practice Exercises 1 Handout

Practice Exercises

DISCUSSION TOPICS

What is Propaganda?

1. What are some potential sources of propaganda in the modern world? _____________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. In order to qualify as propaganda, a message must meet the following criteria:

•persuasivefunction •sizeabletargetaudience •representationofaspecificgroup’sagenda •useoffaultyreasoningand/oremotionalappeals

Describeanexampleofamessagethatwouldmeetallbutoneoftheabovecriteria.Explainyouranswer. _____________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. Identifyanexampleofpropagandayouhaverecentlybeenexposedto,andexplaintotheclasswhythismessage constitutes propaganda.

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Name: _______________________________________

Practice Exercises 2 Handout

Part 1: Assertion

1. Whatmakesastatementanexampleof“assertion”propaganda? _____________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. Describeanexampleofanassertionyouhaveseeninpoliticsoradvertising.Doyouthinkthatthisclaimhasaffectedyourpointofview?Explainyourreaction.

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. Identifywhichofthefollowingassertionsqualifyaspropaganda,andexplainyouranswer.Modifythosethatarenotpropagandatomakethemfitthefourcriteria.

3A. Parenttochild:“Ifyoueatyourvegetables,you’llgrowuptobebigandstrong.” _____________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3B. Billboard:“Mario’sPizza,NextExit.” _____________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3C. Magazineadfor“age-defying”makeup:“TrueBeautyisAgeless.” _____________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Practice Exercises 3 Handout

3D. Commercial:“AccordingtoastudybytheNationalHeartAssociation,eatingthiscereal,aspartofabal-ancedbreakfast,mayreducetheriskofheartdisease.”

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3E. Politicalcommentator:“RichardWilliamsobviouslydoesn’thavetheexperienceittakestobePresidentoftheUnitedStates.”

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

4. Identifytheaudienceandpurposeforthisposter,anddiscusswhetherthisisanexampleofassertionpropaganda.

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Name: _______________________________________

Practice Exercises 4 Handout

Part 2: Bandwagon

1. Whatmakesthebandwagontechniqueappealingtomostpeople? _____________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. Identifyadecisionyouhavemadebasedprimarilyonpopularopinion.Describethesituation,andex-plainwhetherfollowingthemajoritymadesenseinthatcontext.

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. Doesthefactthatnumerousexpertsagreeaboutatheoryconstitutelogicalgroundsforacceptingit?Why, or why not?

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

4. Identifytheaudienceandpurposeforthisposter,anddiscusswhetherthisisanexampleofbandwagonpropaganda.

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Name: _______________________________________

Practice Exercises 5 Handout

Part 3: Card Stacking

1. Whyisitoftendifficulttodistinguishcardstackingpropagandafromlegitimatearguments? _____________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. Whatcluescanhelpyoumakethedistinctionbetweencardstackingpropagandaandlegitimatearguments? _____________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. Describe thedifferent formscard stacking takes inprint advertisements and televisioncommercials.Whatkindsofproductsareoftenadvertisedwithcardstackingpropaganda?

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

4. Identifytheaudienceandpurposeforthisadvertisement,anddiscusswhetherthisisanexampleofcardstacking propaganda.

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Name: _______________________________________

Practice Exercises 6 Handout

Part 4: Glittering Generalities

1. Glittering generalities are a common part of political campaigns. Compose a list of glittering generalities youhaveheardincampaignslogans,indebates,orinthenewsmedia.

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. Likepoliticiansandjournalists,advertisersoftenuseglitteringgeneralitiestopromotetheirproducts.Createalistofglitteringgeneralitiesthatarecommonlyusedinadvertising.

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. Underwhatconditionsarewordslike“freedom”and“choice”notglitteringgeneralities?Useeachwordin a sentence that does not qualify as a glittering generality.

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

4. Identifytheaudienceandpurposeforthisposter,anddiscusswhether,inthecontextofthisposter,Lin-coln’swordsarebeingusedasglitteringgeneralities.Ifso,whichwordsstandoutasglitteringgenerali-ties? If not, why not?

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________

Name: _______________________________________

Practice Exercises 7 Handout

Part 5: False Dilemma

1. Listsomeexamplesoffalse-dilemmaargumentsyouhaveheardinreallife. _____________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. What are some of the clues that can help you distinguish a false dilemma from a legitimate presentation of facts?

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. Followingtheexamplesprovidedinthissection,createafalse-dilemmaargumenttofiteachofthefol-lowingscenarios.(Hint:Falsedilemmasoftentaketheformof“either/or”assertions.)

•encouragerecycling •endorseapoliticalcandidate •supportataxincrease _____________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

4. Identifytheaudienceandpurposeforthisposter,anddiscusswhetherthisisanexampleoffalse-dilemmapropaganda.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Name: _______________________________________

Practice Exercises 8 Handout

Part 6: The Lesser of Two Evils

1. Howisthelesser-of-two-evilstechniquesimilartothefalse-dilemmaapproach?Whatsetsthesetech-niques apart from one another?

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. Whatarethekeystoidentifyingthelesser-of-two-evilsfallacy? _____________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. The lesser-of-two-evils fallacy is often used to defend the status quo, as exemplified in the familiaridiom,“betterthedevilyouknowthanthedevilyoudon’tknow.”Generatealistofreal-lifescenariosinwhichthistechniqueofpropagandaisusedtopreservethestatusquo.

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

4. Createacaptiontogowiththis imagethatwouldmaketheposteranexampleof lesser-of-two-evilspropaganda.

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Name: _______________________________________

Practice Exercises 9 Handout

Part 7: Name-Calling

1. Whataresomeexamplesofname-callingyouhaveseeninadvertising,politics,orpopularculture? _____________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. Inindirectname-calling,wordsthatarenotnecessarilynegative,inandofthemselves,areusedtosubtlydisparageanopponent.Listsomeexamplesofwordsthatcanbeusedinthisway,anddescribeapossiblecontextinwhichtheywouldbeconsideredname-calling.

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. Whatmakesname-callingalogicalfallacy? _____________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

4. Identifytheaudienceandpurposeforthisposter,anddiscusswhetherthisisanexampleofname-callingpropaganda.Note:PresidentTheodoreRooseveltcoinedtheterm“muckrakers”todescribejournalistsandpoliticianswhowereknownforexposingsocialinjustices.

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Name: _______________________________________

Practice Exercises 10 Handout

Part 8: Pinponting the Enemy

1. Howispinpointingtheenemysimilartoname-calling?Howarethetwotechniquesdifferent? _____________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. Identifyaninstanceofpinpointingtheenemythatyouhavewitnessedinthemedia.Whatcompanies,groups,orindividualshavebeenblamedformanyoftheworld’sproblems?

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. Howispinpointingtheenemyrelatedto“scapegoating,”andtheancientHebrewpracticeofdrivingagoatintothewildernesstotakeawaythepeople’ssins?

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

4. Identifytheaudienceandpurposeforthisposter,anddiscusswhetherthisisanexampleofpinpointingtheenemy.Note:Theterm“Hun”wasusedtorefertotheGermansduringWorldWarI.

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Name: _______________________________________

Practice Exercises 11 Handout

Part 9: Plain Folk

1. Whataresomeexamplesofplain-folkpropagandathatyouhaveseeninadvertising?Whatproductlineshaveusedthistechnique,andhow?

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. Whatkindsofadvertisementsand/orpoliticalcampaignswouldnotbenefitfromusingtheplain-folkapproach?Underwhatcircumstanceswouldthistechniquebecounterproductive?

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. Readthefollowingquote.Then,describeonesituationinwhichthisquotewouldconstituteplain-folkpropaganda and another scenario in which it would not.

IgrewuponafarminruralMississippi,soIknowthemeaningofstruggle.Ilearnedthevalueofhardworkanddeterminationatanearlyage,andit’salessonIwon’tsoonforget.

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

4. Imaginethatyouarerunningforoffice,andcreateaspeechinwhichyoupromoteyourselfusingplain-folk propaganda.

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Name: _______________________________________

Practice Exercises 12 Handout

Part 10: Testimonials

1. Whatqualifiesapersontogiveatrustworthy,legitimatetestimonial? _____________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. What are some of the warning signs that cast suspicion on a testimonial? _____________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. Imaginethatyouareanadvertiser,attemptingtomarketaproduct.Howwouldyougoaboutusingthetestimonial technique in a way that appears trustworthy?

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

4. Identifytheaudienceandpurposeforthisposter,anddiscusswhetherthisisanexampleoftestimonial-basedpropaganda.

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Name: _______________________________________

Practice Exercises 13 Handout

Part 11: Transfer

1. Whatisasymbolthatmostpeopleinyourcommunitywouldviewaspositive,andwhatspecificassocia-tionswouldthissymboltransfer?

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. Whatisasymbolthatwouldevokeanegativeresponsefromyourcommunity?Whatnegativeassocia-tionsareattachedtothissymbol?

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. Describeaninstanceoftransferthatyouhavewitnessedinadvertising,politics,orsomeotherpublicarena,andexplaintotheclasswhythisqualifiesastransfer.

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

4. Identifytheaudienceandpurposeforthisposter,anddiscusswhetherthisisanexampleoftransferpropaganda.

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Name: _______________________________________

Practice Exercises 14 Handout

Conclusion: Identifying Propaganda

Identifywhichpropagandatechniqueisrepresentedbytheimageanddescription.

_________________________ _________________________ __________________________

_________________________ _________________________ __________________________

Practice Exercises 15 Handout

_________________________ _________________________ __________________________

_________________________ _________________________

Practice Exercises 16 Answers

Practice Exercises

DISCUSSION TOPICS

What is Propaganda?

1. What are some potential sources of propaganda in the modern world?

Sources include commercials, billboards, print ads (catalogues, magazines, direct mail, etc.), and political campaigns, among many others.

2. In order to qualify as propaganda, a message must meet the following criteria:

•persuasivefunction •sizeabletargetaudience •representationofaspecificgroup’sagenda •useoffaultyreasoningand/oremotionalappeals

Describeanexampleofamessagethatwouldmeetallbutoneoftheabovecriteria.Explainyouranswer.

Example: A high school assembly called to discuss the dangers of drunk driving may meet the following criteria:

•persuasivefunction(persuadingstudentsnottodrivedrunk) •sizeabletargetaudience(theentirehighschool) •representationofaspecificgroup’sagenda(theschoolboard’sdesiretoprotecttheschool’simage).

Nevertheless, the argument against drunk driving may be based on sound reasoning and facts, rather than emotional appeals and logical fallacies.

3. Identifyanexampleofpropagandayouhaverecentlybeenexposedto,andexplaintotheclasswhythismessage constitutes propaganda.

Answer will vary.

Practice Exercises 17 Answers

Part 1: Assertion

1. Whatmakesastatementanexampleof“assertion”propaganda?

In addition to meeting all the criteria of propaganda, a statement must present a debatable idea as a fact with-out explaining or justifying this claim in order to constitute assertion propaganda.

2. Describeanexampleofanassertionyouhaveseeninpoliticsoradvertising.Doyouthinkthatthisclaimhasaffectedyourpointofview?Explainyourreaction.

Answer will vary.

3. Identifywhichofthefollowingassertionsqualifyaspropaganda,andexplainyouranswer.Modifythosethatarenotpropagandatomakethemfitthefourcriteria.

3A. Parenttochild:“Ifyoueatyourvegetables,you’llgrowuptobebigandstrong.”

Mustbemodifiedtotargetalargeraudience.

3B. Billboard:“Mario’sPizza,NextExit.”

Thisismerelyastatementoffact.Mustbemodifiedtomakeanunjustifiedclaimabouttherestaurant(e.g.,“Mario’sPizza:TheBestPizzaintheWorld”).

3C. Magazineadfor“age-defying”makeup:“TrueBeautyisAgeless.”

Propaganda.Thisisanunjustifiedassertion,madetoalargeaudience,thatappealstotheviewers’feelingsinordertoadvancetheadvertiser’sagenda.

3D. Commercial:“AccordingtoastudybytheNationalHeartAssociation,eatingthiscereal,aspartofabal-ancedbreakfast,mayreducetheriskofheartdisease.”

Thisismerelyastatementoffacts.Mustbemodifiedtomakeanunjustifiedclaimaboutthecereal(e.g.,“eat-ingthiscerealwillreduceyourriskofheartdisease”).

3E. Politicalcommentator:“RichardWilliamsobviouslydoesn’thavetheexperienceittakestobePresidentoftheUnitedStates.”

Propaganda—assuming this statement is not explained with a logical argument.

Practice Exercises 18 Answers

4. Identifytheaudienceandpurposeforthisposter,anddiscusswhetherthisisanexampleofassertionpropaganda.

AimedatanAmericanaudience(duringWorldWarII),thisposterwasintendedto dissuade citizens from discussing military affairs. This slogan can be consid-eredanexampleofassertionpropaganda;however,thequalifier“might”opensthisquestiontodebate.Ifstudentsemphasizetheuseof“might”intheposter,they can argue that this is a reasonable claim.

Practice Exercises 19 Answers

Part 2: Bandwagon

1. Whatmakesthebandwagontechniqueappealingtomostpeople?

Answers will vary.

2. Identifyadecisionyouhavemadebasedprimarilyonpopularopinion.Describethesituation,andex-plainwhetherfollowingthemajoritymadesenseinthatcontext.

Answers will vary.

3. Doesthefactthatnumerousexpertsagreeaboutatheoryconstitutelogicalgroundsforacceptingit?Why, or why not?

Answers will vary.

4. Identifytheaudienceandpurposeforthisposter,anddiscusswhetherthisisanexampleofbandwagonpropaganda.

AimedattheBritishpublic(duringWorldWarI),thisposterwasmeanttoencourage citizens to enlist in the armed services. The phrase “all answer the call”qualifiestheposterasanexampleofbandwagonpropaganda.

Practice Exercises 20 Answers

Part 3: Card Stacking

1. Whyisitoftendifficulttodistinguishcardstackingpropagandafromlegitimatearguments?

Card stacking is not always easy to recognize as propaganda because it often relies on facts and logic and makes mention of opposing viewpoints.

2. Whatcluescanhelpyoumakethedistinctionbetweencardstackingpropagandaandlegitimatearguments?

If opposing viewpoints are either omitted altogether or unfairly represented, you are probably looking at an example of card stacking.

3. Describe thedifferent formscard stacking takes inprint advertisements and televisioncommercials.Whatkindsofproductsareoftenadvertisedwithcardstackingpropaganda?

In print advertisements, details are often obscured in small print or in inconspicuous colors or fonts. In audio-visual media such as television commercials, these visual techniques of obscuring information are often pres-ent, sometimes accompanied by speedy voice overs detailing drawbacks or disclaimers. Card stacking is often used in advertisements for vehicles, cigarettes, medications, and many other products.

4. Identifytheaudienceandpurposeforthisadvertisement,anddiscusswhetherthisisanexampleofcardstacking propaganda.

Aimed at the readers of a magazine or comic book, this ad-vertisement is intended to promote a book and a portraiture course. This is not an example of card-stacking propaganda becausethewordsinfineprintarenotmeanttobeobscured—they simply describe the less vital information.

Practice Exercises 21 Answers

Part 4: Glittering Generalities

1. Glittering generalities are a common part of political campaigns. Compose a list of glittering generalities youhaveheardincampaignslogans,indebates,orinthenewsmedia.

Answers will vary.

2. Likepoliticiansandjournalists,advertisersoftenuseglitteringgeneralitiestopromotetheirproducts.Createalistofglitteringgeneralitiesthatarecommonlyusedinadvertising.

Answers will vary.

3. Underwhatconditionsarewordslike“freedom”and“choice”notglitteringgeneralities?Useeachwordin a sentence that does not qualify as a glittering generality.

Wordslike“freedom”and“choice”oftenqualifyasglitteringgeneralitieswhentheyarelefttostandalone,withnoexplanation.However,theyarenotglitteringgeneralitieswhentheyareassignedspecificmeanings.Forexample,“freedom”isnotaglitteringgeneralitywhenusedtodescribeemancipationfromslavery.(E.g.,“Theformerslavehadearnedhisfreedomthroughyearsofhardlabor.”)Likewise,“choice”isnotaglitteringgeneralitywhenitisusedtorefertoaspecifickindofchoice.(E.g.,“Shewasgiventhechoicetorewritethepaper,butshechose,instead,toacceptafailinggrade.”)

4. Identifytheaudienceandpurposeforthisposter,anddiscusswhether,inthecontextofthisposter,Lin-coln’swordsarebeingusedasglitteringgeneralities.Ifso,whichwordsstandoutasglitteringgenerali-ties? If not, why not?

AimedattheAmericanpublic(duringWorldWarI),thisposterwasmeanttoinspireitsaudiencetosavefood.Lincoln’swordsareusedasglitteringgenerali-tiesinthecontextofthisposter.Wordslike“charity,”“just,”and“peace”maysoundadmirable,buttheyaregivennospecificdefinitionwithinthispassage.

Practice Exercises 22 Answers

Part 5: False Dilemma

1. Listsomeexamplesoffalse-dilemmaargumentsyouhaveheardinreallife.

Answers will vary.

2. What are some of the clues that can help you distinguish a false dilemma from a legitimate presentation of facts?

In a false-dilemma argument, a limited number of possibilities are presented, one of which is depicted in a far more favorable light than the others. In a legitimate presentation of facts, by contrast, a wider variety of op-tions will be introduced, and each will be evaluated in an unbiased manner.

3. Followingtheexamplesprovidedinthissection,createafalse-dilemmaargumenttofiteachofthefol-lowingscenarios.(Hint:Falsedilemmasoftentaketheformof“either/or”assertions.)

•encouragerecycling •endorseapoliticalcandidate •supportataxincrease

Answers will vary.

4. Identifytheaudienceandpurposeforthisposter,anddiscusswhetherthisisanexampleoffalse-dilemmapropaganda.

AimedattheAmericanpublic(duringWorldWarI),thisposterwasmeant to encourage people to buy liberty bonds. This is an example of a false dilemma because it suggests that if people fail to buy bonds, there will be no liberty left on earth.

Practice Exercises 23 Answers

Part 6: The Lesser of Two Evils

1. Howisthelesser-of-two-evilstechniquesimilartothefalse-dilemmaapproach?Whatsetsthesetech-niques apart from one another?

Likethelesser-of-two-evilsapproach,thefalsedilemmareducesacomplexsituationtoalimitednumberofpossibilities. Unlike the former technique, however, propaganda that uses the lesser-of-two-evils tactic offers two unpleasant alternatives.

2. Whatarethekeystoidentifyingthelesser-of-two-evilsfallacy?

In the lesser-of-two-evils fallacy, a limited number of possibilities are presented (usually two). This propa-ganda technique also encourages you to make a decision based on the fear of one outcome, rather than the merits of the other.

3. The lesser-of-two-evils fallacy is often used to defend the status quo, as exemplified in the familiaridiom,“betterthedevilyouknowthanthedevilyoudon’tknow.”Generatealistofreal-lifescenariosinwhichthistechniqueofpropagandaisusedtopreservethestatusquo.

Answers will vary.

4. Createacaptiontogowiththis imagethatwouldmaketheposteranexampleof lesser-of-two-evilspropaganda.

Examples: 1) You may not want to spend your summer build-ingafalloutshelter,butit’sbetterthandyingofradiationpoi-soning.2)Maybeyouwon’tbeabletoaffordavacationthisyear,butthat’sasmallpricetopayforprotectingyourfamilyagainstnuclearattacks.3)Itmaynotbepretty,butit’sbetterthan living in a nuclear wasteland.

Practice Exercises 24 Answers

Part 7: Name-Calling

1. Whataresomeexamplesofname-callingyouhaveseeninadvertising,politics,orpopularculture?

Answers will vary.

2. Inindirectname-calling,wordsthatarenotnecessarilynegative,inandofthemselves,areusedtosubtlydisparageanopponent.Listsomeexamplesofwordsthatcanbeusedinthisway,anddescribeapossiblecontextinwhichtheywouldbeconsideredname-calling.

Answers will vary.

3. Whatmakesname-callingalogicalfallacy?

Name-calling is a logical fallacy because it is used to attack not the argument, but the individual delivering it.

4. Identifytheaudienceandpurposeforthisposter,anddiscusswhetherthisisanexampleofname-callingpropaganda.Note:PresidentTheodoreRooseveltcoinedtheterm“muckrakers”todescribejournalistsandpoliticianswhowereknownforexposingsocialinjustices.

Aimed at the American public, this editorial cartoon is intended to pokefunatTeddyRooseveltandthe“muckraking”senatorswithwhomhe sometimes clashed.By referring to these senatorsasa“muckheap,”thecartoonistplaysontheterm“muckrakers.”Thisis a dismissive treatment of the senators, but the degree to which thisqualifiesasaninstanceofname-callingpropagandaisopentodebate.

Practice Exercises 25 Answers

Part 8: Pinponting the Enemy

1. Howispinpointingtheenemysimilartoname-calling?Howarethetwotechniquesdifferent?

Bothtechniquesarefrequentlyusedtoattackanindividual.However,pinpointingtheenemyisoftenusedtoassign blame, while name-calling is usually used to discredit an opponent.

2. Identifyaninstanceofpinpointingtheenemythatyouhavewitnessedinthemedia.Whatcompanies,groups,orindividualshavebeenblamedformanyoftheworld’sproblems?

Answers will vary.

3. Howispinpointingtheenemyrelatedto“scapegoating,”andtheancientHebrewpracticeofdrivingagoatintothewildernesstotakeawaythepeople’ssins?

Scapegoatingisaparticularkindofpinpointing,inwhichthescapegoatisblamedforthepropagandist’sownfailings. As in the Hebrew tradition, the scapegoat is forced to bear the moral failures of others.

4. Identifytheaudienceandpurposeforthisposter,anddiscusswhetherthisisanexampleofpinpointingtheenemy.Note:Theterm“Hun”wasusedtorefertotheGermansduringWorldWarI.

AimedatanAmericanaudienceduringWorldWarI,thiscartoon is meant to disparage the German government and the practice of producing and drinking alcohol. This can be considered an example of name-calling propa-gandabecauseoftheuseoftheterm“Hun”andbecauseit depicts the German public as wasteful, poor, alcohol-lovingcriminals,ratherthanarguingagainstthenation’sgovernment.

Practice Exercises 26 Answers

Part 9: Plain Folk

1. Whataresomeexamplesofplain-folkpropagandathatyouhaveseeninadvertising?Whatproductlineshaveusedthistechnique,andhow?

Answers will vary.

2. Whatkindsofadvertisementsand/orpoliticalcampaignswouldnotbenefitfromusingtheplain-folkapproach?Underwhatcircumstanceswouldthistechniquebecounterproductive?

Productsorpoliticianswhoappealtoaneliteaudiencewouldnotbenefitfromusingtheplain-folkstechnique.Likewise,anindividualorproductthatcouldnotmakearealisticclaimtobeingordinaryandcommonshouldnot use this approach.

3. Readthefollowingquote.Then,describeonesituationinwhichthisquotewouldconstituteplain-folkpropaganda and another scenario in which it would not.

IgrewuponafarminruralMississippi,soIknowthemeaningofstruggle.Ilearnedthevalueofhardworkanddeterminationatanearlyage,andit’salessonIwon’tsoonforget.

Thisquotewouldconstituteplain-folkpropagandaifdeliveredbyapublicfigure,suchasapolitician,inanattempt at self-promotion. However, if spoken by a grandfather to his grandchildren, for example, this would not be an instance of propaganda.

4. Imaginethatyouarerunningforoffice,andcreateaspeechinwhichyoupromoteyourselfusingplain-folk propaganda.

Responses will vary.

Practice Exercises 27 Answers

Part 10: Testimonials

1. Whatqualifiesapersontogiveatrustworthy,legitimatetestimonial?

A person with some degree of true expertise who is unbiased and uncompensated may be considered a trust-worthy source for a testimonial.

2. What are some of the warning signs that cast suspicion on a testimonial?

Scripted,paidtestimonialsdeliveredbycelebrities,experts,oreven“plainfolk”shouldbeviewedwithsuspicion.

3. Imaginethatyouareanadvertiser,attemptingtomarketaproduct.Howwouldyougoaboutusingthetestimonial technique in a way that appears trustworthy?

Answers will vary.

4. Identifytheaudienceandpurposeforthisposter,anddiscusswhetherthisisanexampleoftestimonial-basedpropaganda.

AimedattheAmericanpublic(duringWorldWarII),thisposterusesPresi-dentFranklinRoosevelt’sspeechasatestimonialencouragingAmericanstosave food. Americans were expected to trust Roosevelt enough to believe his assertionthat“Hungerdoesnotbreedreform…”andsavefood,basedonhis suggestion.

Practice Exercises 28 Answers

Part 11: Transfer

1. Whatisasymbolthatmostpeopleinyourcommunitywouldviewaspositive,andwhatspecificassocia-tionswouldthissymboltransfer?

Answers will vary.

2. Whatisasymbolthatwouldevokeanegativeresponsefromyourcommunity?Whatnegativeassocia-tionsareattachedtothissymbol?

Answers will vary.

3. Describeaninstanceoftransferthatyouhavewitnessedinadvertising,politics,orsomeotherpublicarena,andexplaintotheclasswhythisqualifiesastransfer.

Answers will vary.

4. Identifytheaudienceandpurposeforthisposter,anddiscusswhetherthisisanexampleoftransferpropaganda.

AimedattheAmericanpublic(duringWorldWarI),thisposterisintendedtoencourageAmericanstoenlistintheArmy.Depictingthefamiliarfigureof“UncleSam,”cladinpatrioticgarb,theposterismeanttotransfertheesteemandloyaltyinspiredbythisfiguretotheArmy’scause.

Practice Exercises 29 Answers

Conclusion: Identifying Propaganda

Identifywhichpropagandatechniqueisrepresentedbytheimageanddescription.

LesserofTwoEvils PlainFolks Transfer

Testimonial False Dilemma Card Stacking

Practice Exercises 30 Answers

Assertion PinpointingtheEnemy Bandwagon

Name-Calling Glittering Generalities