PLACE- MAKING ATTRIBUTES IN THE STREETS OF INDIAN ......India being rich in religious and cultural...
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International Journal of Civil Engineering and Technology (IJCIET) Volume 9, Issue 11, November 2018, pp. 1548–1557, Article ID: IJCIET_09_11_150
Available online at http://www.iaeme.com/ijciet/issues.asp?JType=IJCIET&VType=9&IType=11
ISSN Print: 0976-6308 and ISSN Online: 0976-6316
© IAEME PublicationScopus Indexed
PLACE- MAKING ATTRIBUTES IN THE
STREETS OF INDIAN RELIGIOUS CITIES
Meeta Tandon
Associate Professor
Faculty of Architecture and Planning, Integral University, Lucknow, India
Vandana Sehgal
Professor, Faculty of Architecture, Dr.A.P.J.AbdulKalam Technical University, Lucknow,
India
ABSTRACT
The research paper aims to analyse the perception of people about the
components of sense of place in Indian streets leading to the temple complex in
religious cities of Mathura and Vrindavan, both being important places for devotees
of Lord Krishna. The traditional streets on which the temples are located have a
distinct character and there seems to be a strong sense of attachment to the place
amongst the pilgrims and the residents alike. A contemporary street may not have a
similar character but might be more functional. The study of both the traditional
(Mathura) and newer contemporary street (Vrindavan) can help us to arrive at
strategies and learning from both to strengthen and enhance sense of place. To
achieve at the objectives of research, a face to face structured questionnaire survey
was conducted. The results indicate that the contemporary streets have scored high
not only in the physical and functional components but also in socio-cultural and
perceptual components as compared to traditional streets implying that the streets are
more than just a transit to the temple. The believer wants the functional amenities as
much as the religious fervor.
Keyword: Contemporary, Religious cities, Sense of place, Streets, Traditional.
Cite this Article: Meeta Tandon and Vandana Sehgal, Place- Making Attributes in the
Streets of Indian Religious Cities, International Journal of Civil Engineering and
Technology, 9(11), 2018, pp. 1548–1557.
http://www.iaeme.com/IJCIET/issues.asp?JType=IJCIET&VType=9&IType=11
1. INTRODUCTION
Public open spaces comprise of mainly streets and squares and are an integral part of life. The
street is multifunctional space serving not only as a place for movement but also for
socializing. It is on streets that numerous social, commercial, religious and even political
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Meeta Tandon and Vandana Sehgal
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activities take place that help in meeting the needs of the people. People tend to walk, sit, eat,
relax, meet friends, shop, watch others on the street, communicate and even sleep. So many
diverse activities tend to happen on the streets and thus the qualities of street spaces have a
direct influence on the quality of life of the users. The streets located in the religious
precincts have an environment that in addition also tends to fulfill the spiritual and sacred
needs of the believers and mostly house commercial activities related to the rituals associated
with the religious complex.
India being rich in religious and cultural heritage consists of many pilgrimage cities
which millions of people visit annually to fulfill their spiritual needs. These pilgrimage cities
have a unique character owing to their historical, cultural, social and religious significance.
Religious and sacred values are at the core of a pilgrimage place [1]. The age old temples
situated on the traditional streets which organically evolved over a period of time mainly in a
dense urban fabric are full of activities, uses pertaining to the rituals and needs of the pilgrims
and thus are assumed to having a strong sense of place. Sivam and Karuppannan [2] state
that, “It is the experience one has within the street that creates a strong connection rather than
the aesthetic value of the street itself”.
The article aims to achieve the following objectives:
1. To explore the components that define sense of place
2. To investigate the perception of residents and pilgrims about the parameters of sense
of place on the selected streets
3. To analyses the components and derive strategies that enhance sense of place in both
traditional and contemporary streets
2. SENSE OF PLACE
Places are created by physical form, activity and meaning [3]. It is the essence of meaning
that converts a space into a place. The perception of people about the place is influenced by
the culture and their experiences of the past. It also leads to association and attachment to a
place and gives an identity to the place or ‘sense of place’. Lynch [4] in his study described
streets as ‘places’ which provide psychological and functional meanings to the life of users.
Sense of place, the ability to recognize places and relationship of people with the physical
settings and the environment can be created by long term connections between people and
place [5]. He also identifies other factors like rituals, myths, traditions and symbols that
enhance sense of place. The streets in religious precincts have a unique character, ‘sense of
place’ and also have meanings associated with the place. This unique character is because of
the street activities pertaining to the rituals related to the religious complex. There might be
age old traditions and beliefs that attract pilgrims on specific days to visit the place and be a
part of the celebrations. The visit thus becomes a memorable one and a feeling of sense of
connection and attachment to the place is generated. Rapoport [6] too stated that meaning and
attachment to a place are influenced by culture and experience. All the senses are actively
engaged in these places.
According to Relph [5], characteristics that define ‘sense of place’ include settings,
activities, meanings and ‘spirit of place’. Steele [7] identified settings, both physical and
social, and psychological factors that describe ‘sense of place’. In the same context, Bott [8]
recognized natural settings, cultural, affective and functional domains and went a step ahead
to measure them by developing psychometric scales.
Ja’afar et.al. [9] Identified four types of elements in traditional streets that give them a
distinctive identity: street activities, physical features, historical significance and circulation
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Place- Making Attributes in the Streets of Indian Religious Cities
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and parking. Ujang [10] in his research stated familiarity, length of engagement, cultural
features of people, and economic dependency as the key factors that had an influence on
place attachment. He further stated the important attributes of place activity like vitality,
diversity and choice, transaction and interaction, contribute to ‘sense of place’. It is not only
the individual experiences of a person (memories, traditions, history, culture and society)
about a place but also the objective dimensions like design, landscape, smell and sound [11].
The physical setting is significant in the construction of place meaning [12]. As suggested
by Ujang and Shamsudin [13], the physical qualities play an important role in supporting
sense of place, being the first visual feature. The materials, texture, colour, form, help in
developing the environmental character of a place. Bott [8] identified natural settings, built
environment and character of a place as influencing ‘sense of place’. He recognized various
sub-components for each domain such as green areas, natural light, cleanliness, alive,
distinctive, and also the material, colour, aesthetics of the built environment. Further, Lynch
[4]emphasised that a visibly organized and sharply identified environment helps a person to
form his own meanings and connections.
Hidalgo and Hernendez [14] described both physical and social dimensions to be
important for place attachment. Environmental perception is influenced by culture, beliefs
and past experiences [6]. It is also strengthened by the social activities taking place on the
streets. The activities not only enhance liveliness and vitality but also develop sense of
belonging and provide opportunities for social interaction with others.
Meaning, one of the three components that create places, is associated with the perceptual
and psychological aspects of the environmental experience [15]. Altman and Low [16] also
agree to the above statement and state that the affective aspects of environmental meaning are
related to place attachment. Affective aspects include places that are memorable, familiar,
meaningful, valuable, significant, beautiful and full of energy and stimulating all our senses
[8]. There is a strong sense of attachment and connection due to the sacred nature of the place
in a religious precinct.
Stolok& Shumaker [17] stated that place attachment is also reflected in functional
connection between people and places. Safety, comfort, shelter are attributes that are
important for effective usage of place. Similarly legible streets with proper signages,
landmarks, well defined boundaries enable a person to locate himself easily and feel safe. The
expectations that one has in mind and presence of amenities like drinking water, seating,
toilet facilities, etc. needs to be fulfilled for a street to be successful and have a ‘sense of
place’.
3. THE STUDY AREAS
Brajbhoomi, the place associated to Lord Krishna, is situated in Uttar Pradesh and comprises
of two specific parts: the eastern and western part of River Yamuna. Mathura, the centre of
Brajbhoomi, is the western region and consists of Vrindavan, Govardhan, KusumSarovar,
Barsana and Nandagram. Both Mathura and Vrindavan (Figure 1) are important places of
pilgrimage located at a distance of nearly 11km. Pilgrims visit both these places as a part of
their sacred journey.
Mathura, one of the seven holy cities of Hindus (the others being Haridwar, Varanasi,
Ujjain, Kanchi, Puri and Dwarka), is located on the banks of river Yamuna and has a long
history of around 5000 years. The city has a tradition that is associated with the birth of
Krishna and thus comprises of a number of temples in the dense urban fabric of the city. The
city is thronged with numerous pilgrims and has a floating population of about 100,000 to
125,000 persons per day and increases to almost twice the urban population on special
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festivals and occasions [18].Dwarkadhish temple is one such temple that is visited by
pilgrims from different parts of the country and is the most visited shrine of Mathura. It is
situated in the core of the city approached by traditional, narrow and winding streets.
Figure 1 Vishram Bazaar, Mathura Figure 2 BhaktivedantaMarg, Vrindavan
Vrindavan, the twin city of Mathura, also known as ‘the city of temples’ was established
in the 15th century and is considered as the cultural capital of Braj region. It too is a
pilgrimage site that has numerous temples dedicated to Krishna, a place where he spent his
childhood. While Mathura, with its narrow and dust laden streets and urban buzz,
overwhelms the visitors to the city, Vrindavan, which is situated a few miles from Mathura,
offers a more secluded and peaceful experience [1]. Due to its location, Vrindavan exudes the
quietude of the country side and the sanctity of a holy place [1]. It is visited by approximately
two million pilgrims annually, an average of three times the local population every
month.Pilgrims who visit Mathura tend to visit Vrindavan also.
Figure 3 Vishram Bazaar street, Mathura Figure 4 Bhakti Vedanta Marg, Vrindavan
Since both these cities are located in vicinity and are dedicated to Lord Krishna, the study
areas selected are the streets in the two cities: Vishram Bazaar street (Figures 1and 3) leading
to Dwarkadhish temple built in 1815and VishramGhat (the most important ghat from where
the traditional BrajMandal Parikrama starts and ends) , a traditional street in Mathura and
BhaktivedantaMarg (Figures 2 and 4), a street leading to the two contemporary temple
complexes i.e. PremMandir, built in 2012 and ISKCON temple built in 1975 in Vrindavan.
Various other temples small and big are also located on these streets enhancing the sacred
character of the streets. Both the study areas are physically different, one being narrow,
located in the heart of the city, the other being wide and designed for both human and
vehicles alike.
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Place- Making Attributes in the Streets of Indian Religious Cities
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4. RESEARCH METHOD
The research focusses on the physical, socio-cultural, perceptual and functional aspects of the
selected streets of Mathura and Vrindavan only. To understand the perception of both, the
pilgrims and residents about sense of place on the streets, a questionnaire survey was
conducted.
4.1. Research process
The present study aims to assess sense of place on streets in Indian pilgrimage cities, a
questionnaire was designed using a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from “Completely” (+2) to
“Not at all” (-2), with a mid-point rating (0) meaning that the perceptions are “Moderate”. It
comprised of a few demographic questions related to age, sex, occupation and frequency of
visiting the street, followed by a series of structured questions related to the characteristics
defining sense of place. The same were followed by two open ended questions to understand
any other component related to the street.
The survey was conducted face to face in the months of August and September, during
the mornings and evenings when the outdoor environment was comfortable for the
respondents. 202 respondents, 99 on Vishram Bazaar Street and 103 on Bhakti vedanta Marg,
were randomly selected based on their presence on the street at the time of survey and their
willingness to be a part of the survey. The respondents aged above 18 years were categorized
into five groups: 18-24, 25-30, 31-40, and 41-50 and above 50 years of age.
Since the questionnaire comprised of characteristics related to the four aspects of sense of
place using a Likert scale, it was tested for reliability. Cronbach’s Alpha (ɑ) Value
examination, a reliability test was used to measure the internal consistency of the survey and
how closely related a set of items are as a group. It was considered reliable if the alpha value
was 0.7 and above.
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure of sampling adequacy (KMO test) was used to measure the
validity of the survey. The survey was considered to be valid if the KMO value was 0.6 and
above.
Pearson’s coefficient of correlation measures the strength of association between the
variables of sense of place and was hence used to find the relationship between the four
components defining sense of place. The data collected was then analysed using statistical
measures of mean and standard deviation.
5. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
5.1. Reliability and Validity test
The reliability test results obtained Cronbach’s Alpha value for Vishram Bazaar Street and
BhaktivedantaMarg as 0.872 and 0.940 respectively (Table 1). These values are higher than
the minimum value of 0.7 and are hence significant implying that the survey was consistent
in both the study areas.
Table 1 Cronbach’s Alpha and KMO values
Vishram Bazaar Bhaktivedanta
Cronbach's alpha (> 0.7) 0.872 0.940
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure of
sampling adequacy (KMO > 0.6)
0.658 0.744
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Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure of sampling adequacy for validity test has value 0.658 for
Vishram Bazaar Street and 0.744 for BhaktivedantaMarg (Table 1). The survey results are
acceptable for the two streets since the values are higher than the minimum scale i.e. 0.6
thereby indicating the validity of survey conducted.
5.2. Comparative analysis: Questionnaire survey
The respondents on both the streets consisted of approximately 80% pilgrims and 20%
residents almost equally distributed in various age groups as demonstrated in Figure5. 46%
male and 54% females, 57% male and 43% female respondents took part in the survey on
Vishram Bazaar Street and BhaktivedantaMarg respectively, clearly signifying a fair
distribution of sample.
(a) (b)
Figure 5 Percentage of respondents in various (a) age groups and (b) according to sex on Vishram
Bazaar and BhaktivedantaMarg
The results of the respondent’s identification of the characteristics related to physical
aspects (Figure 6a) clearly indicate dissatisfaction on Vishram Bazaar Street. There are no
landscape features or trees on the street though there is a courtyard abutting the street which
is not much visible. At the same time it is not used as an interactive open space but for
parking. Though the street is enclosed by buildings which are historical and architecturally
important, some being in dilapidated condition, people do not seem to notice them and are
more involved with the commercial activities on the street. The activities also enliven the
street. But cleanliness and maintenance is one major issue here and is overlooked by the
concerned authorities and the residents alike. The pilgrims find it difficult to commute on the
street and only visit due to the presence of the temple, as stated by some of the
respondents,“Though the street is unclean and full of dirt, we still come here due to presence
of temple and darshan of Lord” or “The street has cows roaming on the street, traffic jam, are
narrow, congested, nuisance of monkeys, potholes”or“During rainy season, it is filled with
water and it becomes difficult to commute. There is no proper drainage system”and“The
presence of shops on both sides of street makes it lively as well as crowded.”
Bhaktivedantamarg (Figure 6a) on the other hand being a contemporary street scores
better in terms of physical aspects with ample amount of light both natural and street lights.
The positive means of the respondents for all the characteristics signify their satisfaction with
the least being that for cleanliness and maintenance as stated by pilgrims, “Proper streetlights,
parking space, wide streets, greenery, market place, proper management, clean”and“This is a
very beautiful place”.
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(a) (b)
Figure 6 Means of responses for (a) physical aspects and (b) socio-cultural aspects on Vishram
Bazaar and BhaktivedantaMarg
Vishram Bazaar has a strong historical importance (Figure 5b) due to location of age old
temples on the street especially Dwarkadhish temple. At the same time the activities on the
street support the rituals related rituals and perform puja like selling of flowers, Prasad, attires
for Lord Krishna and other puja items as responded by the pilgrims, “It is a historical and
beautiful street and is thus different from others but needs to be maintained” and “Old
historical buildings, shops selling puja items add value to the character of street”.
But since the first ritual involves going bare foot inside the temple, there is no specific
space for keeping ones footwear either on the street or inside the premises. It is the shops
selling varied items that provide this facility for the pilgrims in a haphazard way. Though
ample opportunities exist on the street for interaction due to high transparency, pilgrims fail
to perceive them because of large crowd and do not also have a sense of belonging.
The means obtained from the survey of responses, as indicated in Figure 5b, are positive
and indicate that the respondents are very much satisfied with these aspects on Bhaktivedanta
marg. In due course of time, the place has developed providing supporting activities for
rituals, more than the street of Mathura. The place has also evoked a feeling of sense of
belonging among both the pilgrims and residents alike.
The qualities related to perceptual aspects (Figure 6a) are perceived to be positive on
both traditional and contemporary streets. The most important characteristic on both streets is
its sacred nature. As one of the pilgrims on Vishram bazaar responded, “Beautiful place as it
is connected to Lord Jagannath, making it lively with chanting of Radhey-Radhey”.Another
respondent stated,“People here are more religious and respect others” and “It is a historical
and beautiful street and is thus different from others but needs to be maintained”.
Similarly pilgrims on Bhaktivedantamarg stated, “Chanting of Krishna mantra makes it
different from other streets” and “Rickshaw pullers saying Radhe - Radhe to give side to
passer byes is a special feature” signifying a spiritual setting in the precincts.
There is a strong sense of attachment that respondents feel on Bhaktivedantamarg(Figure
7a) and consider their visit to be more memorable, are more familiar with this street and also
have a strong sensory experience, find it more meaningful to be on this street as compared to
Vishrambazaar street. Familiarity with the street is observed to be dependent on the
frequency of visit of the pilgrims. We also see foreigners deep into Krishna Bhakti on the
street and inside the Iskcon temple.
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(a) (b)
Figure 7 Means of responses for (a) perceptual aspects and (b) functional aspects on Vishram Bazaar
and BhaktivedantaMarg
The mean values for the features associated with functional aspects (Figure 7b) clearly
signify the dissatisfaction of pilgrims on Vishram bazaar. All the responses are negative and
range from ‘slightly’ to ‘not at all’ for the presence of these characteristics. There seems to be
a consensus as far as this aspect is considered. The respondents do not feel safe or
comfortable though the street is active and lively at almost all times of the day. Most of the
responses were like “I do not feel like walking on this street because it is overcrowded, dirty,
undulating”.Absence of amenities on this street makes it all the more difficult for the
pilgrims. It does have well defined boundaries but pilgrims fail to acknowledge it. Due to the
street being full of temples and also a route to VishramGhat, it is evident that pilgrims feel
like exploring it.
Bhaktivedantamarg (Figure 6b), on the other hand rates high in this aspect as it fulfils the
expectations people have from the place. Since the street is a straight throughfare, it gives a
sense of direction. The pilgrims come to the place with a feeling of spirituality and find it
calm and peaceful as stated by the respondents, “I feel at peace when I come here”.The
temples located on the street act as landmarks and facilities like seating, provisions for eating,
drinking water, stay are present as observed by the pilgrims, “Facilities for tourists are
present on this street”.Another respondent agrees to the above statement but feels
that“Number of tourists using this street is much higher than the residents hence more
facilities for them should be provided”.
Table 2 Pearson’s Coefficient of Correlation
Physical Socio-cultural Perceptual Functional
Physical 1
Socio-cultural 0.767 1
Perceptual 0.929 0.946 1
Functional 0.950 0.539 0.781 1
The results of Pearson’s coefficient of correlation (Table 2) indicate that the physical
aspects are comparatively more strongly associated to perceptual and functional facets than to
socio-cultural aspects. Moderate correlation exists between socio-cultural and functional
facets. The strength of association between the physical and functional aspectsis maximum
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and that between socio-cultural and perceptual aspects signifying that improving the
characteristics of one can enhance other aspects.
6. CONCLUSION
Vishram Bazaar, Mathura is perceived more in perceptual aspects than physical, socio-
cultural or functional domains and has a negative and moderate sense of place (Table 3). This
is due to the fact that it is associated with Lord Krishna and his stories but at the same time,
the street is heavily encroached upon, has limited width, is overcrowded and accounts for a
number of other problems like, haphazard and inadequate parking, movement of all types of
vehicles, poor drainage system, garbage on the street, dilapilated buildings, overhanging
electrical wires, poor maintenance, and absence of public amenities that deter the spiritual
charm of the place. The street is still visited by pilgrims because of their faith and beliefs.
Table 3 Means of responses of both residents and pilgrims on Vishram Bazaar and
BhaktivedantaMarg
Vishram Bazaar BhaktivedantaMarg
Pilgrims Residents Pilgrims Residents
Physical -0.363 -0.504 0.660 0.467
Socio-cultural -0.267 0.406 0.871 0.845
Perceptual 0.243 0.452 0.912 0.807
Functional -0.655 -1.456 0.595 0.021
On the other hand, Bhaktivedantamarg in Vrindavan, a contemporary street is better in
terms of physical and functional characteristics as indicated in their mean values, and at the
same time also satisfies the perception for socio-cultural and perceptual domains (Table 3).
Overall this street has sense of place close to ‘very much’ whereas Vishram Bazaar has
moderate and negative sense of place. This can be attributed to the fact that Lord Krishna
spent more time here, performed various ‘leelas’ in the forests of Vrindavan and thereby
pilgrims have more sense of attachment and connection to the place implying more sense of
place. The ambience on the street also accounts for this and not even the Indians but a lot of
foreigners can be seen engrossed in Krishna Bhakti. The presence of Iskcon temple on the
street has given an international flavor to the sacred town of Vrindavan.
The study clearly indicates the significance of both tangible and intangible aspects in
determining sense of place. The traditional streets lack in physical and functional aspects and
sense of place on these streets can therefore be enhanced by improving their physical
conditions and providing more infrastructure facilities for the pilgrims. The street shall be
converted into a pedestrian zone and vehicles complying with no pollution shall be allowed in
and around. The streetscape should be improved by conserving the character of buildings
having historical and architectural significance. Signages should also become a part of the
streetscape. The management should come forward to cater to the demands of increasing
number of pilgrims and tourists in these places with strategies for crowd control.
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