PHOTOSYNTHESIS, RESPIRATION, AND TRANSLOCATION. abee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html .
-
Upload
brisa-goodley -
Category
Documents
-
view
233 -
download
9
Transcript of PHOTOSYNTHESIS, RESPIRATION, AND TRANSLOCATION. abee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html .
![Page 1: PHOTOSYNTHESIS, RESPIRATION, AND TRANSLOCATION. abee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html .](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022013115/56649ca45503460f949650b6/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
PHOTOSYNTHESIS, RESPIRATION, AND TRANSLOCATION
![Page 2: PHOTOSYNTHESIS, RESPIRATION, AND TRANSLOCATION. abee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html .](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022013115/56649ca45503460f949650b6/html5/thumbnails/2.jpg)
http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html
![Page 3: PHOTOSYNTHESIS, RESPIRATION, AND TRANSLOCATION. abee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html .](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022013115/56649ca45503460f949650b6/html5/thumbnails/3.jpg)
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Green plants convert radiant energy
into chemical energy
- utilizes chlorophyll of the chloroplasts
![Page 4: PHOTOSYNTHESIS, RESPIRATION, AND TRANSLOCATION. abee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html .](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022013115/56649ca45503460f949650b6/html5/thumbnails/4.jpg)
Molecular model of chlorophyll
![Page 5: PHOTOSYNTHESIS, RESPIRATION, AND TRANSLOCATION. abee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html .](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022013115/56649ca45503460f949650b6/html5/thumbnails/5.jpg)
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Principal Photosynthetic Process:
Hydrogen + Carbon Dioxide → CH2O
in presence of:
Photosynthetically Active Radiation - PAR
![Page 6: PHOTOSYNTHESIS, RESPIRATION, AND TRANSLOCATION. abee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html .](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022013115/56649ca45503460f949650b6/html5/thumbnails/6.jpg)
Compensation Points
Light: as PAR increases. . .
photosynthetic CO2 fixed equals
respiration CO2 released
no net CO2 movement until more PAR up to the Light Saturation Level
![Page 7: PHOTOSYNTHESIS, RESPIRATION, AND TRANSLOCATION. abee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html .](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022013115/56649ca45503460f949650b6/html5/thumbnails/7.jpg)
Compensation Points
CO2:
CO2 fixed by photosynthesis
equals
CO2 released by respiration
no net CO2 movement
![Page 8: PHOTOSYNTHESIS, RESPIRATION, AND TRANSLOCATION. abee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html .](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022013115/56649ca45503460f949650b6/html5/thumbnails/8.jpg)
Note: PAR level required for
light saturation rises with increasing CO2
Also: as PAR level increases, higher concentrations of CO2 are required
important differences in C3 and C4 plants
![Page 9: PHOTOSYNTHESIS, RESPIRATION, AND TRANSLOCATION. abee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html .](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022013115/56649ca45503460f949650b6/html5/thumbnails/9.jpg)
Chemical equation for photosynthesis (greatly simplified):
6 CO2 + 6 H2O + radiant energy
w/ chlorophyll
Yields:
6O2 + C6H12O6
(Glucose)
![Page 10: PHOTOSYNTHESIS, RESPIRATION, AND TRANSLOCATION. abee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html .](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022013115/56649ca45503460f949650b6/html5/thumbnails/10.jpg)
GLUCOSE ENERGY
1 mole Glucose (a 6-carbon sugar (C6)), has energy equal to ~ 686 kcals
Written as: 686 kcal/mol
![Page 11: PHOTOSYNTHESIS, RESPIRATION, AND TRANSLOCATION. abee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html .](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022013115/56649ca45503460f949650b6/html5/thumbnails/11.jpg)
Light and Dark Reactions
Two reactions in photosynthesis:
Light Reactions - occur only in presence of light
Dark Reactions - don’t require light; occur in light or complete darkness
![Page 12: PHOTOSYNTHESIS, RESPIRATION, AND TRANSLOCATION. abee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html .](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022013115/56649ca45503460f949650b6/html5/thumbnails/12.jpg)
Light reactions involve:
photons electrons of the chlorophyll molecule water molecule NADP (nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide phosphate)
![Page 13: PHOTOSYNTHESIS, RESPIRATION, AND TRANSLOCATION. abee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html .](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022013115/56649ca45503460f949650b6/html5/thumbnails/13.jpg)
Visible Light
![Page 14: PHOTOSYNTHESIS, RESPIRATION, AND TRANSLOCATION. abee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html .](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022013115/56649ca45503460f949650b6/html5/thumbnails/14.jpg)
Light Reaction Process:
1) photons (light packets) energize electrons in chlorophyll molecule (z scheme)
2) energized chlorophyll splits water molecule3) NADP captures H+ ion; holds it as NADP-H4) ATP (adenosine triphosphate) formed by:
a. light energy changed to chemical energy (NADPH)
b. electron from H2O; energy released forms ATP
Note: free O2 is released in process
![Page 15: PHOTOSYNTHESIS, RESPIRATION, AND TRANSLOCATION. abee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html .](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022013115/56649ca45503460f949650b6/html5/thumbnails/15.jpg)
Structure of ATP
![Page 16: PHOTOSYNTHESIS, RESPIRATION, AND TRANSLOCATION. abee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html .](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022013115/56649ca45503460f949650b6/html5/thumbnails/16.jpg)
Dark Reactions (Calvin Cycle)
Utilize:• NADPH
• ATP
• CO2
CO2 combines w/ C5 sugar
Ribulose Diphosphate (RuDP)
(catalyzed by RuDP-carboxylase, an enzyme)
![Page 17: PHOTOSYNTHESIS, RESPIRATION, AND TRANSLOCATION. abee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html .](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022013115/56649ca45503460f949650b6/html5/thumbnails/17.jpg)
Dark Reactions (Calvin Cycle)
u n s t a b l e - immediately splits into two
PGA molecules (Phosphoglyceric acid)
Plants forming these PGA molecules are:
C3 Plants
![Page 18: PHOTOSYNTHESIS, RESPIRATION, AND TRANSLOCATION. abee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html .](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022013115/56649ca45503460f949650b6/html5/thumbnails/18.jpg)
Dark Reactions (Calvin Cycle)
- H from NADPH transferred to PGA via ATP/NADPH energy
- Phosphoglyceraldehyde (PGAL) is formed (a simple sugar)
- PGAL combines into Glucose; howevermost PGAL is used to regenerate RuDP Special enzymes (RuDP-carboxylase) catalyze RuDP to combine with CO2
![Page 19: PHOTOSYNTHESIS, RESPIRATION, AND TRANSLOCATION. abee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html .](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022013115/56649ca45503460f949650b6/html5/thumbnails/19.jpg)
Dark Reactions (Calvin Cycle)
Takes:
18 molecules ATP
+ 12NADPH
+ 6CO2
= C6H12O6
also yields 6H2O, 18ADP, and 18P
![Page 20: PHOTOSYNTHESIS, RESPIRATION, AND TRANSLOCATION. abee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html .](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022013115/56649ca45503460f949650b6/html5/thumbnails/20.jpg)
Modified photosynthetic equation:
6CO2 + 12H2O + radiant energy
w/ chlorophyll
→ 6O2 + 6H2O + C6H12O6
shows that O2 liberated in light reactions
comes from H2O not CO2 and that there
are newly formed H2O molecules
![Page 21: PHOTOSYNTHESIS, RESPIRATION, AND TRANSLOCATION. abee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html .](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022013115/56649ca45503460f949650b6/html5/thumbnails/21.jpg)
C3 and C4 Plants
Photosynthetic pathways are complicated
Simply stated: C3 plants are less efficient at photosynthesis
Reduced efficiency due to an “energy robber”:
Photorespiration
![Page 22: PHOTOSYNTHESIS, RESPIRATION, AND TRANSLOCATION. abee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html .](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022013115/56649ca45503460f949650b6/html5/thumbnails/22.jpg)
Photorespiration
Occurs when C3 plants oxygenase instead of carboxylase in the dark reaction; thus refer to enzyme as Rubisco for short
Less efficient - can’t metabolize glycolate (C2) produced; only passes one PGA to be reduced to PGAL
Two carbon atoms are “lost” from cycle
![Page 23: PHOTOSYNTHESIS, RESPIRATION, AND TRANSLOCATION. abee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html .](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022013115/56649ca45503460f949650b6/html5/thumbnails/23.jpg)
C4 Plants
C4 plants designed to:
reduce O2 concentrations
increase CO2 concentrations favor carboxylase reaction
![Page 24: PHOTOSYNTHESIS, RESPIRATION, AND TRANSLOCATION. abee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html .](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022013115/56649ca45503460f949650b6/html5/thumbnails/24.jpg)
C4 Plants
C4 advantages:
photosynthesize at lower CO2 concentrations
higher temperature optimums higher light saturation points rapid photosynthate movement
![Page 25: PHOTOSYNTHESIS, RESPIRATION, AND TRANSLOCATION. abee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html .](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022013115/56649ca45503460f949650b6/html5/thumbnails/25.jpg)
Rate of Photosynthesis
![Page 26: PHOTOSYNTHESIS, RESPIRATION, AND TRANSLOCATION. abee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html .](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022013115/56649ca45503460f949650b6/html5/thumbnails/26.jpg)
C4 Plants
Examples of C4 plants: Corn* Sugarcane Sorghum Bermudagrass Sudangrass
Note: C4 weeds also - crabgrass, johnsongrass, shattercane, pigweed
![Page 27: PHOTOSYNTHESIS, RESPIRATION, AND TRANSLOCATION. abee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html .](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022013115/56649ca45503460f949650b6/html5/thumbnails/27.jpg)
C3 Plants
Examples of C3 plants: Wheat Rice Soybeans Alfalfa Fescue Barley
![Page 28: PHOTOSYNTHESIS, RESPIRATION, AND TRANSLOCATION. abee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html .](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022013115/56649ca45503460f949650b6/html5/thumbnails/28.jpg)
CAM Plants
CAM Plants - separate light and dark reactions according to:
Time of Day
CAM (Crassulacean Acid Metabolism) Plants include:
Pineapple, Cacti, other succulents
![Page 29: PHOTOSYNTHESIS, RESPIRATION, AND TRANSLOCATION. abee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html .](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022013115/56649ca45503460f949650b6/html5/thumbnails/29.jpg)
CAM Plants
Light reactions occur during daytime but
Initial fixation of CO2 occurs at night
Allows stomata to remain closed during the day - conserve H2O
![Page 30: PHOTOSYNTHESIS, RESPIRATION, AND TRANSLOCATION. abee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html .](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022013115/56649ca45503460f949650b6/html5/thumbnails/30.jpg)
CAM Plants
Also: 4-carbon Malic Acid “pool” accumulates
overnight (lowers pH) During day stomata are closed Malic Acid releases CO2 providing
carbon source for dark reaction
![Page 31: PHOTOSYNTHESIS, RESPIRATION, AND TRANSLOCATION. abee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html .](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022013115/56649ca45503460f949650b6/html5/thumbnails/31.jpg)
CAM Plants
![Page 32: PHOTOSYNTHESIS, RESPIRATION, AND TRANSLOCATION. abee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html .](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022013115/56649ca45503460f949650b6/html5/thumbnails/32.jpg)
Environmental Factors Affecting Photosynthesis
Light: intensity, quality, duration
intensity – (see table 7-1; fig 7-7 p. 127)
- etiolated vs. high light intensity
- compensation point
- saturation point
quality - reds and blues; greens are reflected (fig. 7-6)
duration - longer days = more photosynthesis
![Page 33: PHOTOSYNTHESIS, RESPIRATION, AND TRANSLOCATION. abee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html .](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022013115/56649ca45503460f949650b6/html5/thumbnails/33.jpg)
Light Spectrum
![Page 34: PHOTOSYNTHESIS, RESPIRATION, AND TRANSLOCATION. abee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html .](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022013115/56649ca45503460f949650b6/html5/thumbnails/34.jpg)
Light Quality - Chlorophyll
![Page 35: PHOTOSYNTHESIS, RESPIRATION, AND TRANSLOCATION. abee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html .](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022013115/56649ca45503460f949650b6/html5/thumbnails/35.jpg)
Light Quality - Photosynthesis
![Page 36: PHOTOSYNTHESIS, RESPIRATION, AND TRANSLOCATION. abee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html .](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022013115/56649ca45503460f949650b6/html5/thumbnails/36.jpg)
Environmental Factors Affecting Photosynthesis
CO2: photosynthetic rate limited by small
amounts of CO2
increase by air movement; also CO2 generators (greenhouse)
Normal CO2 content: 300 - 350 ppm (0.030 - 0.035 %)
![Page 37: PHOTOSYNTHESIS, RESPIRATION, AND TRANSLOCATION. abee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html .](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022013115/56649ca45503460f949650b6/html5/thumbnails/37.jpg)
Environmental Factors Affecting Photosynthesis
CO2 (cont) (see fig. 7-8)
Recall CO2 compensation point:
CO2 evolved in respiration =
CO2 consumed in photosynthesis
![Page 38: PHOTOSYNTHESIS, RESPIRATION, AND TRANSLOCATION. abee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html .](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022013115/56649ca45503460f949650b6/html5/thumbnails/38.jpg)
Environmental Factors Affecting Photosynthesis
Temperature (Heat)
2x Photosynthetic Activity for each 10°C (18°F) increase in temperature
Excess temp can lower photosynthesis and increase respiration
![Page 39: PHOTOSYNTHESIS, RESPIRATION, AND TRANSLOCATION. abee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html .](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022013115/56649ca45503460f949650b6/html5/thumbnails/39.jpg)
Environmental Factors Affecting Photosynthesis
H2O content:
wilted leaves - rate near zero due to reduced CO2 by closed stomata water does not directly limit
photosynthesis (only ~ 0.01 % of water absorbed by
plants is used as H source)
![Page 40: PHOTOSYNTHESIS, RESPIRATION, AND TRANSLOCATION. abee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html .](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022013115/56649ca45503460f949650b6/html5/thumbnails/40.jpg)
Environmental Factors Affecting Photosynthesis
but indirectly:
low turgor - stomatal closing reduced leaf exposure enzymes affected excess soil moisture – anaerobic
• Lack of O2 reduces respiration, uptake, etc.
![Page 41: PHOTOSYNTHESIS, RESPIRATION, AND TRANSLOCATION. abee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html .](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022013115/56649ca45503460f949650b6/html5/thumbnails/41.jpg)
RESPIRATION
Release of energy stored in foods Controlled burning or “oxidation” at
low temps by enzymes
Respiration equation:
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy
(glucose) (oxygen) (carbon dioxide) (water)
![Page 42: PHOTOSYNTHESIS, RESPIRATION, AND TRANSLOCATION. abee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html .](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022013115/56649ca45503460f949650b6/html5/thumbnails/42.jpg)
RESPIRATION
Modified Respiration Equation:
Shows that H2O is an input as well as a product
Specifies total net energy derived from one glucose molecule
![Page 43: PHOTOSYNTHESIS, RESPIRATION, AND TRANSLOCATION. abee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html .](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022013115/56649ca45503460f949650b6/html5/thumbnails/43.jpg)
Modified Respiration Equation:
C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O→6CO2 + 12H2O + 38ATP + heat
![Page 44: PHOTOSYNTHESIS, RESPIRATION, AND TRANSLOCATION. abee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html .](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022013115/56649ca45503460f949650b6/html5/thumbnails/44.jpg)
RESPIRATION
Heat energy is of little value to plant (may be detrimental)
ATP energy used for: Chemical reactions (energy req.) Assimilation (protoplasm) Maintenance (protoplasm) Synthesis (misc.) Accumulation (solutes) Conduction (foods) Motion (protoplasm, chromosomes)
![Page 45: PHOTOSYNTHESIS, RESPIRATION, AND TRANSLOCATION. abee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html .](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022013115/56649ca45503460f949650b6/html5/thumbnails/45.jpg)
Gas Exchange in Respiration
Gas exchange is the opposite of photosynthesis
Respiration takes in O2 and releases CO2
liberates more O2 than needed for respiration
requires more CO2 than released by respiration
![Page 46: PHOTOSYNTHESIS, RESPIRATION, AND TRANSLOCATION. abee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html .](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022013115/56649ca45503460f949650b6/html5/thumbnails/46.jpg)
Gas Exchange in Respiration
@ Compensation point (low light intensity):
O2 released in photosynthesis = CO2 released in respiration
![Page 47: PHOTOSYNTHESIS, RESPIRATION, AND TRANSLOCATION. abee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html .](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022013115/56649ca45503460f949650b6/html5/thumbnails/47.jpg)
COMPARISON OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND RESPIRATION
Under ideal photosynthetic conditions:
Photosynthetic Rate ~ 10x Respiration Rate
![Page 48: PHOTOSYNTHESIS, RESPIRATION, AND TRANSLOCATION. abee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html .](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022013115/56649ca45503460f949650b6/html5/thumbnails/48.jpg)
COMPARISON OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND RESPIRATION
Photosynthesis Cells w/chlorophyll In light Uses H20 and CO2
Releases O2
Radiant energy to chemical energy
Dry weight increases Food and energy produced Energy stored
Respiration All living cells Light and dark Uses O2
Forms CO2 and H20 Chemical energy to
useful energy Dry weight decreases Food broken down Energy released
![Page 49: PHOTOSYNTHESIS, RESPIRATION, AND TRANSLOCATION. abee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html .](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022013115/56649ca45503460f949650b6/html5/thumbnails/49.jpg)
Factors Affecting Respiration Temperature - respiration increases as temperature
increases Moisture - respiration increases as moisture decreases
(stress) Injuries - respiration increases with injury Age of tissue - respiration greater in young tissue Kind of tissue - respiration greater in meristematic CO2/O2 - respiration increases with high O2 / low CO2
Stored carbohydrates - respiration increases with increased stored energy
![Page 50: PHOTOSYNTHESIS, RESPIRATION, AND TRANSLOCATION. abee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html .](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022013115/56649ca45503460f949650b6/html5/thumbnails/50.jpg)
Respiration Problems/Hazards
deterioration (fungi and bacteria) rot and decay loss of dry wt. loss of palatability high temperatures / high CO2
(diseases; FIRE hazard)
![Page 51: PHOTOSYNTHESIS, RESPIRATION, AND TRANSLOCATION. abee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html .](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022013115/56649ca45503460f949650b6/html5/thumbnails/51.jpg)
ENERGY TRANSFER
Glycolysis - sugar splitting
Net production of: 2 ATP molecules 2 NADH molecules
Forms: pyruvic acid
![Page 52: PHOTOSYNTHESIS, RESPIRATION, AND TRANSLOCATION. abee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html .](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022013115/56649ca45503460f949650b6/html5/thumbnails/52.jpg)
Aerobic Energy Transfer
If O2 and mitochondria are present:
Krebs cycle - an energy converter converts glucose energy into usable
energy via enzymes occurs in stroma of mitochondria
“powerhouse”
![Page 53: PHOTOSYNTHESIS, RESPIRATION, AND TRANSLOCATION. abee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html .](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022013115/56649ca45503460f949650b6/html5/thumbnails/53.jpg)
Mitochondria Cristae
![Page 54: PHOTOSYNTHESIS, RESPIRATION, AND TRANSLOCATION. abee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html .](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022013115/56649ca45503460f949650b6/html5/thumbnails/54.jpg)
Electron Transport
*must have O2 present convert high energy from Krebs (NADH,
FADH) into usable ATP occurs along cristae fingerlike projections in mitochondria
where: cytochromes in enzymes transport electrons lowers and releases energy last cytochrome passes electrons to O2 associates with 2 H+ protons forming H2O
![Page 55: PHOTOSYNTHESIS, RESPIRATION, AND TRANSLOCATION. abee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html .](https://reader031.fdocuments.in/reader031/viewer/2022013115/56649ca45503460f949650b6/html5/thumbnails/55.jpg)
ALTERNATE ENERGY TRANSFER
If no O2 and mitochondria present to respire alternative is:
fermentation - e.g. fig. 7-14, p. 135 yeast (fungi) in beer, bread silage