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Transcript of Personal and Social Development Chapter Three Educational Psychology: Developing Learners 6th...
Personal and Social Development
Chapter ThreeEducational Psychology: Developing Learners
6th editionJeanne Ellis Ormrod
Personality Development
Temperament Parenting Culture Peers Self-socialization
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Temperament
Temperament is the genetic predisposition to respond in particular ways to one’s physical and social environments.
Certain cultural groups encourage certain types of behaviors.
In the classroom, there may be multiple temperaments.
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Accommodating Students’ Diverse Temperaments
For students with high energy levels, minimize downtime between activities
Be especially warm and attentive with very shy students When students have trouble adapting to new
circumstances, give them advance notice of unusual activities and provide extra structure and reassurance
If students seem overwhelmed by noisy or chaotic situations, find or create a more calm and peaceful environment for them
Teach self-regulation strategies to students who act impulsively
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Parents’ Influences
Attachment Children with secure attachments to their parents are more
likely to be amiable, affectionate, independent, self-confident, and cooperative than those with insecure or no attachments.
Parenting Style Children of authoritative parents (characterized by
emotional warmth, high standards for behavior, explanation and consistent enforcement of rules, and inclusion of children in decision making) are more apt to be happy, energetic, self-confident, likeable, and popular.
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Cultural Expectations and Socialization
Culture is the behaviors and belief systems of a long-standing social group.
Children develop a cultural “lens” through which appropriate values, behaviors, etc… are determined. Socialization
Not all cultures endorse the same values and behaviors. When expectations at school differ from those
within culture or at home, students may experience culture shock.
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Peer Influences
Peers define options available for leisure time. Peers serve as role models for acceptable
behavior. Also provide reinforcement for acceptable
behavior and sanctions for not engaging in acceptable behavior
Peer pressure is greatest during junior high Peers can encourage fairness and cooperation
but may also encourage aggression, criminal activity, and other antisocial behaviors.
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Self-Socialization
Self-socialization is the tendency to integrate personal observations and others’ input into self-constructed standards for behavior and to choose actions accordingly. “Do I really want to do that? I don’t think I
agree with that, and therefore I won’t engage in that behavior.”
The decisions a child makes are dependent upon his/her experiences and developmental level.
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Development of a Sense of Self
Sense of Self: Perceptions, beliefs, judgments, and feelings about who you are Self-worth Self-efficacy
Factors influencing the development of self views Previous performance Behaviors of others Group memberships and achievements
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Developmental Changes in Sense of Self Childhood
Children focus on physical, concrete characteristics.
Early Adolescence Children’s focus turns to more general traits,
not as much emphasis on the physical. Late Adolescence
Majority of older adolescents have positive self-concepts and overall mental health.
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Erik Erikson’s Eight Stages of Psychosocial Development
Trust vs. mistrust (infancy) Is the world a trustworthy place?
Autonomy vs. shame and doubt (toddler years) Am I capable of doing things on my own?
Initiative vs. guilt (preschool years) Is my growing independence supported?
Industry vs. inferiority (elementary school years) Am I encouraged to make and do things, and
then praised for my accomplishments?Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Erik Erikson’s Eight Stages of Psychosocial Development Identity vs. role confusion (adolescence)
Who am I? What do I believe in? What path will I choose for myself?
Intimacy vs. isolation (young adulthood) Can I fully commit to another person?
Generativity vs. stagnation (middle adulthood) What can I contribute to the next generation?
Integrity vs. despair (late adulthood) Do I have regrets, or am I satisfied with how
my life went?
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Marcia’s Views on Identity
Different statuses of identity identified by Marcia based on certain patterns of behavior Moratorium
Individual is searching for an identity, considering all the options available for a career and belief system.
Identity Diffusion Individual has not made any commitments to a career or belief
system nor has he/she considered them or engaged in exploratory behavior.
Foreclosure Individual has made a firm commitment to an occupation and
belief system but has not engaged in any exploration of other alternatives.
Identity Achievement Individual has gone through a period of moratorium and has
emerged with a commitment to a career and belief system.
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Development of Peer Relationships and Interpersonal Understandings
Peer relationships: Teach important social skills Provide emotional and social support
Different types of peer relationships have different impacts
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Friendships
Friends are peers with whom we spend one-on-one time.
Close friends are similar in age and usually the same sex and have the same interests.
Close friendships foster self-esteem and provide a sense of identity.
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Larger Social Groups
Initially, the peer group is comprised of a single sex but can be of mixed sex at adolescence.
Peers groups consist of: Cliques
Exclusive in nature 3 to 10 individuals
Crowds Jocks and brains Can take form of subculture
Gangs Cohesive social group characterized by initiation
rites, distinctive clothing, etc
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Romantic Relationships
Romantic relationships usually evolve from crushes to real love.
Choices are based on attractiveness or social status. The benefits of romantic relationships include:
Companionship, affection, and security Opportunities to experiment with new social skills and
interpersonal behaviors Romantic relationships may also wreak havoc on
adolescents’ emotions. Adolescence may be an especially confusing time
for homosexual and bisexual students.
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Popularity
Popularity vs. high-status Popular students may or may not hold high
status positions but are considered kind and trustworthy by other students.
Rejected students Viewed as being undesirable social partners
Neglected students Almost seem “invisible” Very few positive or negative ratings
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Social Cognition
The ability to think about how other people are likely to think, act, and react
Highly developed social cognition skills very valuable
Related to the development of a Theory of Mind
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
The Theory of Mind
Childhood: Not until age 4 or 5 do children recognize that another person might have “other thoughts.”
Early Adolescence: Children recognize multiple feelings and thoughts, even when they are contradictory.
Late Adolescence: Children are more in tune with others’ intentions, and take time to decipher motives and consider other perspectives.
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Aggression and Social Cognition
There are different types of aggressive behavior.
Physical aggression is more common in boys.
Relational aggression is more common in girls.
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Aggression and Social Cognition
Proactive Aggression Initiating aggressive behavior to reach a goal Results in difficulty maintaining friendships
and often being labeled as bullies Reactive Aggression
Aggressive reaction to provocation or frustration
E.g., Columbine
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Possible Causes of Aggression
Poor perspective-taking skills Misinterpretation of social cues Prevalence of self-serving goals Poor social problem-solving skills Beliefs about appropriateness and
effectiveness of aggression
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Fostering Social Skills
Provide numerous opportunities for social interaction Plan cooperative activities Help students interpret social situations in an
accurate and productive way Teach specific social skills, provide opportunities for
students to practice them, and give feedback Label and praise appropriate behaviors when they
occur Describe students as having desirable social
behaviors Establish and enforce rules for acceptable
classroom behavior
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Moral and Prosocial Development
Prosocial behavior is behavior directed toward promoting the well-being of another. Includes sharing, helping, and comforting
Morality encompasses prosocial behavior. One’s general standards about right and
wrong Includes such traits as honesty, fairness, and
respect for other people
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Developmental Trends in Morality and Prosocial Behavior
Children use internal standards to evaluate behavior at an early age.
Children increasingly distinguish between moral and conventional transgressions.
Children’s understanding of fairness evolves throughout early and middle childhood.
Children’s ability to respond emotionally to others’ harm and distress increases over the school years.
Children increasingly take circumstances into account in their evaluations of behavior.
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Development of Moral Reasoning: Kohlberg’s Theory
“Why” of decision is the most important, not “what” (use of the moral dilemma).
Kohlberg drew on Piaget’s two distinct stages of moral reasoning. Morality of constraint: Focuses on
consequences and authority figures Morality of cooperation: Focuses on intent
Kohlberg’s study found stage-like progression of moral reasoning.
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Level & Stage Age Range Examples
Preconventional
Stage 1: Avoidance of punishment
Stage 2: Exchange of favors
Preschool – elementary; some junior high; few high school students
Stage 1: “I would cheat if I knew I wouldn’t get caught.”
Stage 2: “I’ll let you copy mine if you do my homework.”
Conventional
Stage 3: Good child
Stage 4: Law and order
Few older elementary children, some junior high, many high school students
(Stage 4 does not typically appear until high school)
Stage 3: “I’m not going to tell because I want her to like me.”
Stage 4: “You can’t do that because the teacher said no.”
Postconventional
Stage 5: Social contract
Stage 6: Universal ethical principle
Rarely seen before college (stage 6 is extremely rare)
Stage 5: “In this case, the rule may be wrong.”
Stage 6: “You shouldn’t lie because it violates the Golden Rule.”
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Criticisms of Kohlberg’s Theory
Politically and culturally biased Originally based only on interviews with
individuals from western societies Gender biased
Originally only studied boys and men Carol Gilligan’s criticisms of Kohlberg’s
theory: Doesn’t include compassion and caring for
those in need as “higher development” Females socialized to stress interpersonal
relationshipsJeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Factors Affecting Moral Development Level of moral reasoning
People who exhibit more advanced moral reasoning behave more morally.
Guilt, perspective taking, and empathy Prosocial children are often very empathic and have
above-average perspective-taking skills.
Personal motives Children’s needs and goals come into play.
Self-perceptions Commitment to moral values is integrated into the overall
identity.
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Encouraging Moral Behavior and Development in the Classroom
Encourage and reward prosocial behavior Discuss the reasons why some behaviors are
inappropriate Model moral and prosocial behavior Incorporate moral issues and dilemmas into
classroom discussions Be sensitive to cultural differences
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Encouraging Moral Behavior and Development in the Classroom
Use induction Provide practice in recognizing others’
emotional states Encourage perspective taking, empathy, and
prosocial behavior Expose students to numerous models Talk about moral issues and dilemmas Engage students in community service
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Cultural and Ethnic Differences Strength of ethnic identity fluctuates depending
on the context and situation. Some minority students may have high self-
esteem in general but little faith in their academic ability.
Interpersonal skills vary from person to person and culture to culture.
Considering Diversity in Personal and Social Development
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Considering Diversity in Personal and Social Development Gender Differences
Boys tend to have more positive perceptions about their physical appearance.
Boys rate themselves more highly in mathematics, while girls rate themselves more highly in reading and literature.
Girls have smaller groups of friends. Boys are more likely to be physically
aggressive, whereas girls are more likely to show relational aggression.
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Considering Diversity in Personal and Social Development
Socioeconomic Differences Children from low-income homes are more
likely to have challenges. But may still have positive self-concepts, good
interpersonal skills, and strong moral standards
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
The Big Picture
Standards for acceptable behavior are essential for the optimal development of our students.
Interaction with others provides the impetus for many of our students’ personal, social, and moral advancements.
Development is best fostered within the context of a warm, supportive environment.
Students’ personal, social, and moral understandings are self-constructed
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.