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AUTHORTITLE

INSTITUTIONREPORT NONIB DATENOTEAVAILABLE FROM

DOCUMENT RESUME

95 SO 009 416

Brickman, William W.The Educational System of the Netherlands. EducationAround the World.Office of Education (DHEW), Washington, D.C.DHEW-OE-76-191227516p.Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government PrintingOffice, Washington, D.C. 20402 (order stock no.017-080-01510-2, $0.35 paper, minimum charge $1.00per order)

EDRS PRICE MF-$0.83 HC-$1.67 Plus Postage.DESCRIPTORS Comparative Education; Continnous Learning;

*Curriculum; Educational Adm3nistration; EducationalFinance; Educational History; *Educational Programs;*Educational Trends; Elementary Secondary Education;Foreign Countries; Higher Education; PrimaryEducation; *Teacher Education; *VocationalEducation

IDENTIFIERS *Netherlands

ABSTRACTThe Dutch educational system is described, with

preliminary comment on history, financing, and administration. Anoncompulsory preprimary level is followed by a compulsory 6-yearprimary level, in which both public and private schools teach astandard curriculum of basic skills, arts, and physical training. Abill introduced in 1970, but not yet adopted, proposes more emphasison emotional and social development and determination of curriculumby a new method. The secondary level consists of general/academic andvocational programs, and it follows a policy of flexibility wherebystudents can change from one kind of program to another in responseto the changing educational and social situation. Programs last from2 years (lower general secondary) to 6 years (pre-university).Vocational education, which includes teacher education, spans thesecondary and higher education levels. Trends in the universities andinstitutions of specialized fields include the integration of highertechnical and vocational education with universiiy education andprovisions for lifelong educational programs. (AV)

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U S OEPARTMENT OF HEALTH,EDUCATION& OELFARENATIONAL INSTITUTE OF

EOUCATION

THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN EPROOUTED EXACT y AS RECEP4ED T ROMTHE PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIGIN,ATING IT POINTS 05- VIEW OR OPINIONSSTATED DO NOT NECESSARIL Y PEPRESENT OFF ICIAL NATIONAL INSTITUTE OFEDUCATION POSITION Ok POLICY

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ferent types of handicapped children; ar 1iigheracademic, technical, and professional insft(Sec (hart.) Attendance is compulsory fordren 6 through 1 ti Years of age.Legal Basis and Requirements

rile foundation (If" the l)titch educational sys-tem is article 208 of the 191 7 Constit ution, whichstates: Education shall be an object of constantsolicitude on the part of the government." It pro-vides for regulation bv law of public and privateprimary and scvondary edu-..t;ion, with specific.guarantees that "every person's religiousviews . . . [shall Ind respected" and that the costs

private schools that meet legal requirements"shall be defrayed from public funds," as arcnose I If public sr In iols.

The main educational laws are the following:Primarv Ednation .Act ( 1 920): Pre-Primary Edit-canon Act ( l935); School Fees Act ( 1935): Post-Primary Education Act (Mammoth Law, 1 9(3)and the Apprenticeship Training .Act ( 1966).boll of which went into effect in 1968: Compul-son, Educatiull Act ( 1969); University Adminis-tration (Reform) Act ( 1 97(1); and EducationalExpedments Act ( 1970). In ;tddition, the SpecialEdu(ation 1)ecree ( [)67) governs du educationof ph% sicallY and otherwise handicapped chil-dren. . mendinents refining and expanding as-pects of these laws WCIV ellae[Cd thlringthe early I 970's.

Educational legislation is an exclusive and jointprocess Id' the Parliament and the Crown. TheMinistry of Education and Science is responsible

preparing the bill that is presented to Parlia-ment (S'iaten-(;encraal).

AdministrationThe Ministry of Education and Science, which

controls the Dutch educational system, is directedby a Minister ;md two State Secretaries. There aredirectors general fdr prepriniarv and primaryeducation, secondary educatimi, supervision, and"sciences" (higher e(lucation). 'Ehese officials areassisted In professional specialists of varioustypes. An Education (:Otincil, organize(l by law( 19 19). advises the Nfinister on educational mat-ters. Another body. the Netherlands UniversitiesCouncd, established in 196 1 and retirganized iii197 1 under the U ity Administration Act,advises the Ministr, :.rning university educa-tion and promotes cooperation in the field.

The public sector administers state and munic-ipal schools, while private individuals or groupsoperate publicly or privately subsidized schools.At the primary and secondary levels, a private

4

school must be sponsored by a group of parents;ind must have the minimum registnuion re-quired by law in accordance with die local situa-tion. ln the private sector at these levels there arethree main subsvstemsone Protestant, one(:atholic, and (MC nOndell(Mlinati011ai. Then.' are11150 sChOl )15 OperatCd bV minority religious andmiscellaneous groups.

'Flic law specific's the aim of primary and sec-ondary public education and pre.scribes rules Forboth public and private schools. Failure to complywith the regulations may result in the dosing of apublic school tn. the loss of' subsidy by a privateschool. Even unsubsidized private schools, how-ever, must Fulfill basic curriculum requirements.

The Nfinistries of the Arts. Agriculture andFisheries, Defense and justice are responsible fora number of .:pecialized institutions.

FinancingEducational expenditures arc financed partly

by the National Government (through taxation)and partly by fees. According to the School FeesAct ( 1955), only primary education and the firstthree classes of secondary education are Free.Fees arc charged for the higher secondary schoolclasses, teacher-prepanttory institutions. andhigher education. The upper limit of free educa-tion thus coincides approximately with the upperage limit of compulsory attendance.

The Dutch Government finances equally allpublic and private schools. The costs of buildingand equipping prepriniary and pnillary schoolsare paid For by tlic municipalities, which receive areimbursement from Mc Government. Onlysalaries of requit ed personnd in these schools aredirectly paid by the Government. Public and pri-vate sccondarv and higher institutions receivefnialicing For all expenditures not cm'cred byfees.

Of significance as a reflection of Dutch nationalpolicy is the general rise in ratio of the educa-tional budget to the total national budget: Inr)950, 7.3 percent, in 1960. 1 6.0 percent; in 1 966,21.9 percent; in 1969. 26.0 percent; and in 1974,28 percent--or approximately $4.3 billion (nearly1 2 billion guiklers). (The 1974 exchange rate: 1

guilder equaled abo(1 t 38 cents in U.S. money.)

Academic CalendarThe school year begins in late August or early

September and ends in late June. One thousandhours a year are presclibed for ptimary educa-tion and 660 hours for preprimary education.The trend is toward 40 weeks a Year. Schools thatare open on Saturday morning do not have (las-

3

4

Structure of the Dutch Educational System: 1975

Highertechnicaland vocationaleditcadon '

H.A.V.O.

VAV.O.

KEY: V.W.0.=Preuniversity educationH.A.V.0.=Higher general secondary educationM.A.V.0..---Intermediate general secondary educationL.A.V.0.=Lower general secondary educationBroken lines indicate possibility of lateral transfer.

Intermediatetechnical andvocational education '

M.A.V.O.:Lif

1/12kX7.01Lower technical and

..1 vocational education

Transition year

Primary education

Preprimary education

' Includes teaci.er education.

Source: Adapted from : The Netherlands, Ministry of Education and Scienc.7. "Education and Sciencein the Netherlands." The Hague, 1970. P. 90.

14

13

12

11

10

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

Years

5

ses Jil Vednesdav afternoon. The school week is96 hours long un the primarY level and fmn 30to 32 periods of 50 minutes each on the secon-dary level. In higher education, the academicYear extends from September to June.

Language of Instruction

The official language of instruction in theNetherlands is Dutch. The Province of Frieslandhas bilingual (tweetalige) schools, where Dutch andFrisian are used. Frisian, the medium of instruc-tion at least part of the time in the first twogrades, was introduced in 1975 on a Wider scale inthe Province of Friesland. (Frisian, spoken by arelatively small population along the orth Seacoast in the Netherlands and Germany, togetherwith English constitutes one of the three groupsof the Germanic languages :n the European fam-ily: the other two in this group are (1) Dutch andGerman and (2) the Scandinavian languages.)Grading System

The grading system in primary schools and insome secondary schools is on a scale of 1 to 10.with 6 the hm.est satisfactory grade. In acadmicsecondary schools. a 5-point scale prevails, with 3regarded as satisfactory.

PREPRIMARY EDUCATION

The preprimary level, for children 4generally 2 years in length. Attendance is notLompulsory. The goals are to further the physi-cal. sensory, social, and intellectual developmentof the children and to increase their ability toexpress themselves orally and in other ways. Thestress is on general growth and developmentrather than on cognitive learning. The prograwconsists of games, drawing, music, rhymes,storytelling, physical exercise, and modeling.Children who show readi .ess receive instructionin 12nguage and numbers.

PRIMARY EDUCATIONThe goal of primary education, as stated by the

State Secretary for Education and Science, is "togive children . . certain . . elementary knowl-edge and skill that are necessary for their de-velopment.-

Attendance at the primary school (grades 1-6)is required, be,:ause school attendance is compul-sory from age 6 through 16. The responsibilityfor school attendance rests upon Parents orguardians, who are required to sign the reportcards presented to them during the school year.

The principal prepares (often with the help ofan achievement test) a special report on a pupil's

to 6, is

scholastic status at the end of sixth grade, andrecommends the type of secondary school inwhich he believes the pupil will make the mostprogress. The Ministry provides .,uitable publica-tions to enable parents to understand the differ-ences between the various I f secondaryeducation.

CurriculumThe basic curriculum for boo. .ublic and pri-

vate school has been laid down _he 1920 Pri-mary Education Act and succecaing laws. Aminimum of 1,000 hours of instruction per yearis required. The amount of time to be spent oneach subject of the basic curriculum is deter-mined on a national basis, but deviations may beallowed by the Government's school inspectoratefor the primary level. This provision for depar-ture from the centralized plan enablesmunicipalities to deal with particular probkmssuch as enrollment of immi nts or children offoreign workers.

The basic cut riculurn traditionally consists ofthe Dutch language, reading, writing, arithmetic,Dutch history and geography, science, singing,drawing, ph ysical training, safety education,handicrafts, and needlework. Many primaryschools also offer instruction in a foreign lan-guage (French, English, or German) before orafter regular school hours. Many private religiousschools include religion in the curriculum.

A New Proposal

A bill introduced in 1970 proposed an alteredapproach to the elementary stage, integrating theprograms for the age group 4 through 12 "toensure the utmost continuity in the growth andtraining of young and very young children." Adifferentiated curriculum and methodologywould make possible an individualized programto promote equal educational opportunities andeliminate repetition of grades. This new ap-proach, if adopted, will place less stress on cogni-tive aspects and more stress on the emotional andsocial development of the pupils. Considerationhas been given to the possibility of lowering thebeginning compulsory attendance age to at least 5and of admitting children below 4 to nurseryschool. The aim is to reduce the number of pupilswho, because of academic or other problems,finish their period of compulsory school atten-dance while still in elementary school. The possi-bility of introducing a foreign language in tlwelementary schools is also under formal consid-eration.

The draft bill also provides for teaching the

6 5

Enrollments, by level: 1970-71 and 1972-73 '(in thousands)

indicates source gave no data]

Level

Pri IllarV

Students

1970-71 1972-73Full-time Part-time Full-time Part-time

491.7 495.11,-162.4 1,461.5

591.4 19.1 661.2 99.6

re( 11111111 114.9 81.7 ,148.7 80.5

Total 1.006.3 94.1 1,110.8 103.1

Higher:University 103.1 112.9Nonuniversity 74.1 51.7 2 80.6 5-1.5

lotal 177.8 193.-1

Spec MI 74. I 78.1pprentit eship 73.6 73.9

' it 11-t inn. !MORA u(Incalion (lam mt. for 1971/-71 and 1)71- 72.III 197i. the 11111-tinm enrollnwnt ligno: was 83.2.

Sono c: Ada11.(1 from Organisation for 1..conolnh (..:o-operation and Drvylopmeln. "Statistit s ladicamrs FrImationalIt num c: iIt Nclhurlands.- Paris: Fla. 197.1. l'p. I ;mil 3.

Frisian language and for determining the cur-riculum by a new method. The curricullItn wollklbe the result of a joint effort by the principal andthe teachers, and would be subject to approval bythe municipal authority for a municipal school orby the Ovate school board in a private school.

The newly established Foundation for Cur-ricululn Development (Stichting voor Leerplan-ontwikkeling-SLO) is expected to play a signifi-cant role in developing models for teaching mate-rials and programs of study for the differentkinds of education in innovative projects.

SECONDARY EDUCATX.ON

The secondary educational system consists ofgeneral/academic and vocational programs.General/academic programs Mclude academicpre-univ.:rsitY education (V.W.0.) and threenonacademic programs: higher general secon-dary education (H.A.V.0.), intermediate generalsecondary education (NI.A.V.0.), and-for a veryfew pupils-lower general secondary education(LA.V.0.), mostly combined with lower teclmicaland vocational education. Secondary vocational

6

7

programs, of ferech.m the lower and intermediatelevel, are discussed under -Vocational Educationand 'reacher Education." (See chart, p. 4.)

The first year or all types of secondary school isa transition year (brugjaar). The curriculums ofthis first year in pre-university and in inter-mediate and higher general secondary schoolscover identical subjects taught in the samenumber of classes per week. In lower secondaryeducation, the transition year allots more time tohandicrafts and less to foreign languages.

For those young persons who work, there areevening classes with part-time programs thatparallel the various forms of secondary educa-tion. A graduate who has completed a course thatcorre"sponds to the f ull-time day course takes thesame examinations as the full-time graduate andreceives a certificate giving him identical rights tohigher education.

As of 1972-73, 88.5 percent of all 15-year olds,6P-7 percent of all 16-year okls, 46.3 1wrcent ofall 17-year olds, and 28.8 percent of all 18-vearolds were in school-a percentage of 58.1 for the15 through I. age range.

The 1963 Post-Pimary Education ActOn August 1, 1968, the Post-Primary hluca-

.Act became effective and "ushered in a newera in the history of education in the Nether-lands,- iiccording to the then Secretary of State ofEducation and Science. Under this law, the aim ofsecondary education is to introduce it policy offlciIUlj1 NdleIVIM students are enabled to changefrom one form of school to another as deemeddesirable by the changing educational arid socialsituation. Specifically the new law intended bvthe Government to make "each type of-education

ixissible stepping stone to another. higher typeof education. Furthermore. the introduction ofbasic and optional subjects within ea..11 type ofschool permits a considerable degree of differ-entiation in the teaching programme of- thesenior classes.- Further individualitail :n takespi:we under the policy of the transition Year insccondat v education. during which pupils are ob-served and guided.

Flexibility also extends to the organi/ation of-t he currn Ilium and the method of instruction.Teachers are encouraged to Vary subject matterand methods to suit the abilities and needs of thestudents. Examinations consist of achievementtests taken during the last ear and a nationalexamination, to ensure that all schools of- a par-

IW ill "CdLIC:IIC to theSallie 1011.- The average of both examinations isexpressed as a "final result." which is either apass. a fail. or an intermediate level that allows astudent to sit for reexaminatimi.

The present government views the 1963 act asa stepping-stone toward comprehensive secon-dary education. II hopes to reduce the distancebetween general and vocational education in theearly StIlls OF the secondary school. Ultimately. itstrives to have all pupils of the 1 2- to I 5- or16-year-old group "attend the sante school, themiddle school, With a course lasting at least threeyears and a (--Iferentiated curriculum wit h op-tions ...or the pupils." Thus, it is moving n. Thedirection of th... comp-ellensive secondary schoolthat is found in a number of- other \Vest Euro-pean countries.

Full herrn, ire under the act. entrance examina-tions are no longer compulsory.

Pre-University Education (V.W.0.)

The 6-vear curriculum of pre-universitv educa-tion ftoorberehlend wetenArhappelijk onderzeijs, orV.W.0.) varies according to the school. The gym-lla\h/ln :las a classical emphasis. offering Latin.(reek. 1)utch. English, French. German. social

8

sciences. arts, matheinxics, and science. From thefourth veal- onward. str..aill A concelin-ates OnLatin and Greek, while stream B emphasizesmathematics and science. The atheneum stressesmodern languages and social science, althoughLatin ma be taught iii thi, type of school. Afterthe third veal% 51ream A con( entrates oneconomic and social studies, while stream B de-votes particular attention to mathematics and sci-ence. Tlw Iveram, combining the programs of the09mnoAtum and the atheneum, has it common basicC011151 With Ille111 f011 the first (transition)least.

The examination for the pre-universitv cer-tificate includes Dutch and at least one modernforeign language for all students. In addition, a

UM MIT:till-A St Udell( is examined illGreek. Latin, and history: awl a stream-B stu-dent. in Latin o Greek. a science, and mathenia-110', An atheneUM titrCaln-A student is examined illeconomics and geognipliv or hisforv: and astream-13 student. in mathematics and two sci-ences. The examination consists of five requiredand Iwo optional subjects. Upon successful com-pletion of' each program, the correspondingschool-leaving certificate is granted.

Higher General Secondary Education(H.A.V.0.)

Higher general .secondary education (Hogeralgemeen voortgezet onderwijs, (ir H.A.V.0.) offers a5-Year program that includes Dutch, English.French. German, geography, history, economics,commercial science, nntthematics, biology,chemistry, physics. social studies. physical train-ing. art , music, and handicrafts. In the final 2 Yearsa student takes six subjects, which must includeDutch and at least one foreign language. Thec1/4:rtificate examination is awarded for Dutch andItye stiVects selected by the student. Two-vear

ogranis are also offered to students who havecompleted 3 years of V.W.0. or 4 years ofM.A.V.O.

Graduates of H.A.V.O. mav enter higher tech-nical atm Vocational education.

Intermediate General Secondary Education(M.A.V.0.)

Intermediate general secondary educationiddellxmr algemeen yoortgezet onderwijs, or

M.A.V.0.) consists o a 3- or 4-year program ofDutch, English, French. German, mathematics.science, geography. history. business practice, art,music, and other subjects. The leaving examina-tion covers Dutch and other subjects chosen by thepupil. The 3-year M.A.y.O. school requires

Year at

examinations in five subjects and leads to thefourth vear of. A 4-vear M.A.V.O. school; and the4-vear M.A.V.O. school requires examinations insix subjects and leo.ds to the fourth year of aH.A.V.O. school. Graduates may also enter inter-mediate technical and vocational education.

Lower General Secondary Education (L.A.V.0.)Lower general secondary education (Lager alge-

meen voortgezet ondenvijs, or L.A.V.0.) offers a2-year general education program that is usuallycombined with lower technical and vocationaleducation. Relatively few students participate inthis type of program.

VOCATIONAL EDUCATIONThere are three levels of technical and voca-

tional education. The lower level falls within sec-ondary education; the intermediate begins at theupper secondary level and in some instances ex-tends beyond; and the higher falls clearly withinhigher education. (See chart, p. 4.)

Vocational education, as defined by the Post-Primary Education Act of 1963, is provided in thefolh)wing institutions: Lower and intermediatetechnical schools and technical colleges; schoolsand colleges of home economics on all levels pre-paring for housekeeping, rural economy, and so-cial care; lower and intermediate agriculturalschools and agricultural colleges; schools and col-leges on all levels for those preparing for the craft,retail, and catering trades and services in an inde-pendent capacity; schools and colleges on all levelsfor careers in business economics and businessadministration; various types of teachers schoolsand colleges for preparing preprimary, primary,and secondary school teachers; intermediate andhigher sociopedagogic schools and colleges pre-paring students for careers in youth and adulteducation, cultural and social work, personnelwork, community service, child and medical care,and other types of service; and schools of art. Inthe view of the Government, "A vocational schoolis the last stage of their full-time education formost young people though the apprenticeshipscheme, to which entry is direct from lower voca-tional school, may also be regarded as a form offull-time education.'

Lower Technical and Vocational EducationThe importance of the lower stage of technical

and vocational tducation may be determinedfrom the fact that nearly 45 percent of all youngpersons enter a vocational program directly fromprimary school. Recently the general educationcomponent in the vocational school has increased,

8

with the first year devoted entirely to generalsubjects. The 4-year lo.ver vocational program isoffered in institutions that include: (1) technicalschools for occupations such as building, electric-ity. and metalworking; (2) nautical trainingschools for skills such as seafishing, seamanship,inland navigation, and docking; (3) homeeconomics schools for teaching health and childcare, homemaking, nutrition, needlework, care ofclothing, office work, and selling; (4) agricuL,,ralschools with fieldwork; and (5) retail-trade andcommercial schools.

Graduates of this program may enter inter-mediate technical and vocational education or theupper levels of M.A.V.O.

Intermediate Technical and Vocational Educa-tion

On the intermediate level, there are 2- to 4-yearprograms in institutions that include: (1) techni-cal schools for executive, administrative, andsupervisory positions in industry; (2) nauticalschools leading to qualification, with experience,for a certificate as a mate or a ship's engineer; (3)home economics schools for social and healthcare professions, dressmaking, fashion designing,and residential welfare work; (4) agriculturalschools for farming, horticulture, forestry, andother related occupations; (5) retail-track andcommercial schools for future practitioners inbusiness and in commercial and clerical positions;(6) sociopedagogic schools preparing family aidesand sports instructors; and (7) teachers schoolsfor preparing preprimary school teachers.

Admission is to graduates of the M.A.V.O. andthe lower technical and vocational program.Graduates are qualified to enter higher technicaland vocational education.

Higher Technical and Vocational EducationAt the postsecondary level, higher vocational

education lays the theoretical and practicalgroundwork for managerial and senior positions.This system includes 2- to 5-year prog:ams inthe technical colleges, agricultural colleges,sociopedagogical institutions, and other insti-tutions specializing in fields such as hotel andrestaurant catering, art, music, and aviation.

Students who have completed the H.A.V.O.program or the intermediate technical and voca-tional program may be admitted to higher techni-cJ and vocational education. Graduates ofselected programs are qualified for further train-ing at a university in a corresponding discipline;and graduates of all programs are admissibleafter passing a special entrance examination.

9

TEACHER EDUCATION

eacher education, included in vocational edu-cation according to the Post-Primary EducationAct of 1963, is provided on various academiclevels.

Enrollments in teacher training were as fol-lows: preprimary-13,638 in 1972-73 and 14,150in 1973-74; primary-21,691 in 1972-73 and23,851 in 1973-74; secondary technical andagricultural-7,917 in 1970-71 and 8,014 in1971-72; and all other secondary-20,000 in1969-70 and 22,700 in 1970-71.

Preprimary TeachersTeachers for preprimary schools are prepared

in a 3-year course within the general structure ofintermediate technical and vocational education.Admission is granted to holders of a M.A.V.O.certificate or to those completing the first 3 yearsof a V.W.O. or a H.A.V.O. course. Prospectiveteachers study pedagogics and psychology, didac-tics and teaching methods, Dutch language andliterature, speech, civics, history, biology, hygieneand child care, street safety, music, drawing,inanual skills, and physical education. Religion isincluded at private teacher-training schools. Ad-ditional subjects that mar be included in the cur-riculum are Frisian, a modern foreign language,Esperanto, religion, acting, cinema, elocution,debating, art history, rhythmics, housekeeping,creative play, nutrition, and clothing. At least 800hours of practical student teaching and observa-tion are required.

In addition, these schools have a 1-year part-time course for preprimary school principals,open to graduates of the regular 3-year program.It comprises pedagogics and psychology, didac-tics and teaching methods, and Dutch languageand literature (especially children's literature).Upon completing the program, a student receivesa certificate.

Primary Teacherseachers for primary schools are prepared

within the general structure of higher technicaland vocational et, acation. Admission is on thebasis of graduation from a H.A.V.O., V.W.O., orpreprimary teachers school. About an equalnumber of men and women teach in Dutch pri-mary schools.

The course of study for primary schoolteachers is made up of pedagogy, didactics, edu-cational and child psychology, aspects of culturaland social life, Dutch language and literature,music, art, handicrafts, physical training, history,

1 0

geography, physics, biology, arithmetic, writing,street safety, and speech improvement. Religionis taught at some private teachers colleges. Addi-tional courses that may be offered are Frisian,English, Esperanto, French, German, Latin, reci-tation, drama, filming, Bible study, Western cul-tural history, aspects of sl iritual life, philosophy,mathematics, child care, and home economics. Atleast 240 hours must be spent in practical studentteaching during the first 2 years and 290 hoursduring the third year.

Successful completion of the 3-year ;:ourse al-lows graduates to teach in primary schools andmakes them eligible for appointment as princi-pals. They are also qualified to teach Dutch andarithmetic in the L.A.V.O. and M.A.V.O. schoolsand in lower technical and vocational schools.

Secondary TeachersIn the past, university graduates with no previ-

ous pedagogical preparation were able to obtainpositions as secondary school teachers upon pass-ing a state examination. The new policy requiresteacher-training courses in a higher educationalinstitution in additicn to proficiency in at leasttwo subjects. Proof of proficiency in a particularsecondary school subject can be demonstrated byacquisition of a university degree (doctoraal) orother degrees or diplomas. Grade-1 proficiencyof this type is necessary for appointment in aV.W.O. school, in the last 2 years of a H.A.V.O.school, and in higher technical and vocationaleducation colleges; a grade-2 proficiency is neces-sary for teaching in the first 3 years of a H.A.V.O.school and in intermediate technical and voca-tional schools; and a grade-3 proficiency is

adequate in all other secondary schools. Teachereducation at all levels is in the process of reform.

Inservice EducationThe Government recognizes that inservice

education is necessary for teachers to enable themto become better prepared for their present andfuture task. Associations, foundations, and theMinistry of Education and Science organizecourses for which teachers with the appropriatecertificate may apply. These courses, often free ofcharge, cover both subjects taught in school andalso topics that reflect new educational develop-ments.

UNIVERSITY EDUCATION

The Dutch university education system consistsof four state universitiesin Leiden (1575),Groningen (1614), Utrecht (1636), and Rotter-dam (1973); one municipal university in Amster-

9

dam (1632); two independent instil utionsfreeCtliVertill V of Amsterdam (1880) and (atholicIiniversity of Nijmegen (1923); lour state profes-sional universitiesDelft Technological Univer-sity (1812), Eindhoven Technologkal University(1957). Enschede Ti2chnological University(196-1), and Wageningen Agricullural University(1918); and one independent institutin for socialsciences and lawCatholic Coll(i.e of Tilburg(1927). In 1971, a medical faculty was started onan experimental basis at Nlitastricht.

Interliatilal courses On the university level arcgiven in special institutions such as the interna-tional Development Institute for !lousing, Plan-ning. and Building: the International Institutefor Aerial Survey and Earth Sciences; and theInstitute of Social Studies. founded in 1952 bv theNclherlands universities to promote graduateand advanced international research and trainingin the social sciences. (The language of instruc-(ion at the Institute k English.) Also, as previousknoted certain teacher-education nisi:unionsOf fur programs of studv at the higher cdtwationlevel. The Netherlands Universities Foundationfur Internatiomil CO-operation (NUFFI(:) pro-motes international cooperation ill the academic111(1 scientific fields, particularly in relation to de-veloping countries.

A distinction is made ill the Netherlands be-tween a univeniteii and a huL..r/imil. the latterbeing generally. as in the case of a GermanIlochschule. any higher education institution. in-cluding those devoted to one Or two specialties.neither of which is medicine. natural science. ormathematics. All recogni/ed higher education in-stitutions. however. are authorized to gramacademic degrees. The aim of a unkersity orother higher education institution is to ofTer in-struction in various fields. carry on research proj-ects to advance knowledge. and "foster a sense ofsocial responsibility...

The academic Year. which starts in the begin-ning of September and ends in July, is a con-tinuous one, not formally broken into semesters.Instruction is given in Dutch. except in interna-tional postuniversity courses such as those givenat the Institute of Social Studies. (Most of theseinternational courses, which enroll many foreignstudents, are conducte(i in Fiiglish.) Studentsoften use publications in English. French, andGerman in connection with their courses, anddoctoral dissertations are frequently written i aforeign language.

AdministrationThe ferment in European. American, and

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other higher education systems during the late1960's echoed in at least two institutions ill theNetherlandsthe Catholic Colkge of. Tilburgand the Nffinicipal University of Amsterdam. TheDutch Government ill 1970 passed the UniversityAdministration (Reform) Act, to remain in effectuntil .Atigust 31, 1976. Thc basic aims of this laware to er hance the democratic administratiini andimprove the efficiency of universities hy givingfaculty, students. and nonacademic personnel a

policymaking. Accordingly. -All [dieselmembers of the university have the light to electmembers a the -10-member University Council!the highest administrative body], die FactillyBoard and the Sub-Faculty Board and to standfor election themselves.- At least one-third of theUniversity Council must consist of academics: atleast one-sixth, of nonmembers of the universityappointed by the Crown on the Councirs recom-mendation; at most one-third, of nonacademicvl-sonnel; and at inust one-third. of students. Atleast 50 percent of the Faculty Board is made tipof' academic stall member s. while students andnonacademic personnel constitute the rest of theEaculty Board.

Admission

Admission to university has been on the basispre-universitv leaving certificate or its equiva-

lent. Until recently. holders of a Gymhu.sium-..1 cer-tificate were admitted to all faculties. exceptmathematics natural science. and engineering; ofa Gymna.sium-B certificate. to all faculties exceptclassical studies: of an A certificate from a 5-YearELA.V.O. school only to economics. law. theol-ogy. and social science faculties; of a B certificatefrom the same school, only to faculties other thanlaw, theology, and letters. Since the SecondaryEducation Act bee:1111'2 effective in 1968,graduates of pre-universitv education (V.W.0.)are admitted without an entrance examination toall faculties if they pass the corresponding sub-jects in the leaving examination. Admission macalso be secured by those lacking a secondaryschool certificate if they are at least 25 years oldand have passed a special examination (the od-loquinm doduni). Gradu.les of higher educationschools that arc not in the university system mustalso pass this test for entrance.

In recent years. admission to university sill&has become increasingly difficult. Because of thedramatic increase in total university studypopulationFrom -10.000 in 1960 to 120.000 ill197-1---Facilities have been taxed to the point of-endangering educational standards. Nforcover.

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faced with economic constraints. die Governmenthas recently been unwilling to continue investinglarge sums of money in university buildings andequipment. It has chosen. rattier. to set a nanwruNclan.ws or "student l'I'el'A!" IN some universityprograms. This decision resulied duringacademic %ear 197.1-75, for example, in only3,208 new students being able to register forthese courses out of 7,105 applicants. It is possiblethat the "free/e- will he extended to ()di

academic fields and dim it will be maimaine..' onsome continuing basis. In speech delivered illfall 1971. Nlinister of him:Mon and Science" A.Va» Nemenade soid that "the present s%stem fof

rhlUAHAI can Intige be regarded as atemporal.% measure, Inn must Ie regarded as partof the permanent educational structure.-

DegreesDufth higner edmational institutions, in com-

111011 With iii ttv ii thic CMItillellt,:olminister semester

examinations. nor assign credits to the courses.The intermediate test, the &milldam' examination,usually taken after 2 to 4 years of study. is anindication of progres5 . but has no offiCial signifi-cance for a profession or die civil service. In somesubjects. a preliminary or propaedeutic examina-tion is taken after 1 or 2 Years of study. There areno fixed requirements as to Me length of thestudy period and students have considerablefreedom ilexibility in planning their pro-grams.

\lost students conclude their university or col-lege study with the dialoraal examination, whichleads to ihe degree of' dortoramins (drs,) in mostfaculties. the degree of ingenieur (ir.) in a

technological and agricultural college, or the de-gree of meccter (mr.) in a faculty of' law. IheCornier governmental Commissioner of HigherE(lucation. 1)r. K. Post humus, stated that ihe doe-torandus is 'a title which can be cotnpar:d with theL'.S. 'Master's Degree.' Stink. U.S. specialists iiiacademic equivalence consider it to be on a levelbet ween the American master's degree and thedoctorate. Dr. Posthumus also noted that the de-gree -gkes the right of admission to studies toqualif % as doc tor. chemist, dentist, veterinary andpsychologist, eligibility as a secondary schoolteachei ,after the completion of a supplementarypedagogic didactic stu(hy). and io many other po-sitions in society.-

Students varv in the time taker in study priorto the ,.(cloraul examination. On the average. thelength o nine is about 7 years, although therange is f rom S (rare) to 9 or more years. The

resultant degree requires a terminal examination:ittesting to the st udent'.s qualification in a particu-lar field. There is no dissertation requirement forthis degree. III the fields of medicine, dentistry,%.eterinary scienc e, and pltarmacv, a period of'practical experience followed by a state or profes-sional examination is necessary before admissionto practice.

!folders of the degrees of dartorandns, wester,and ingenienr may obtain a doctorate (doctor de-gree) after completing and defending a disserta-tion of "on experimental design- and formulating"at least six propositions that do not relate to thethesis or experimental design." No course work isrequired. "The Dutch doctorate is the crowningof independent reseal'Cll, which takes atleast 10%0) or three, but often many more %Tars,"according lo the Ministry of' Education and 56-ence.

lii Mav 1975 a bill was proposed that wouldsimile!! university courses to at most 5 Years,the possibility for a student to enroll fOr 2 moreyears. In every field, students will takc the pro-paedentic examination. The kandidnato examen willno longer be required, but under certain condi-tions a kandidwas certificak can be issued to a stu-dent.Financing

Since 1973, the tuition fee for Dutch univer-sitiesfias been I. 500 (gu;Iders) per annuir duringthe first 5 years and a yearly enrollment fee off. 100. 'file examination fee is f. 60. "The Govern-ment provides grants to students in accordancewith their total family income, In 1974-75, themaximum grant was 1. 7,470 per annum, withstudents living at hotne receiving f. 5,300 andmarried students receiving large sums. Grants arepartly in the form of interest-free loans (f. 1,100plus 30 percent of the remainder).

TrendsDutch officials have set the closer integration of'

higher teclinkal and vocational education withuniversity education as a key priority in the de-velopment of' postsecondary education. More-over, it is likely that in the near future statutes willbe implemented that will shorten the total lengthof time a student will be required to devote to hisor her university study.

Consideration is being given to offering pro-grams of study on a recurrent basis with legisla-tive provisions for paid educational leave. Socialand educational planners believe that such pro-grams of lifelong education will enable graduategeneralists to retrain themselves to tneet thespecific: demands of constantly changing job mar-

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kets and sdentific specialists to maintain and up-date their skills in a time of rapid technologicaland industrial change. Programs of lifelong edu-cation also represent an attempt by Dutch officials

to provide a "second chance" for citizens who fora variety of reasons could not pursue or fullybenefit from their education in their youth.These programs are in an experimental stage.

SELECTED GLOSSARY

AAte van bekuaamheid Certificate of qualificationAlgemene landbouws<haol Secondary agricultural schoolellgemene tuinbouu5choal Secondary horticultural schoolAndragogiek Adult education.4theneum Secondary pre-university school

that stresses modern languagesand social science

Avondnijeerhenbirhool Evening vocational and tech-nical school

elvondschoal Evening school

Basisonderu i Primary educationBt'si.riisschool Industrial school in factoriesBeroepsonderwijs Vocational educationBeroepskeuzta,orlichtang Vocational guidanceBijzontler nu& rwtjs Private educationBijzwidere ii hoof Private schoolBrugmar "Vhe first vcay of secondary udn-

cation. by law a transition yearBrugklos "Fraositional classBuifrngeumn lageronderwijs Elementary education for hand-

icapped pupils lugruieur (ir3 .

Geprogr ammeerd instructieGodsdienstonderwijsGymnasium

Gymnastiek ..............

tinridelsat.ondschool

Handelsdagschoal

Programed instructionReligious educationSecondary pre-university schoolchat stresses the classics

... Physical education

Part-time commercial second-ary school, with evening classesCommercial secondary schuol.full-time

Hager algemeen tvartgettet

onderwijs ................... Higher general secondary edu-cation (H.A.V.O.)Higher technical and vocationaleducation

Hager onderwijs Higher educationHogecchoni Higher education institution

o0A,,leranr University professortluishoud- en nip

home economics education

Hager beroepsasulerwijs

Buiten,woon onderuai Special educationBuitegandse kaidereu Foreign children

Central Bureau Vnor leStatistsek Central Bureau of Statistics

(which dissenunates educationalinformation and statistics)

Confess ioncel en de rwijs Religious educationCu rricu lumplanning Curriculum planning

Docent TeacherDocentenoplenling Teacher ed ucat ionDoctor Doctorate, the degree con-

ferred upon the recipient of adoctorandus, merster, or in-genieur who writes a disserta-tion

Doctoraal examen Examination for the doctarandu.sdegree

Doctorandw (drs.) University degree roughly com-parable to a master's degree

Einddiploma Secondary school certificateEindexamen Final examination in a second-

ary school course

Geesttlijkt vorming Religious and moral education

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Degree from 0 technologicaland agricultural university (lit..engineer)

lotelligenuelect Intelligence test

jeugch.orming ............... Youth education

Kandidaat ................. Intermediate certificate in theuniversity

K leuteronderwijs Preprimary educationKleuterschool Preprimary schoolKunstnijeerheid. emi boutekun-stonderrieh: Arts and craft vocational edu-

cationKweekschool ................. Training school for elementar!.

teachers

Lager algemeen voortgezetonderaijs Lower general sec< idary edu-

cation (L.A.V.O.)Lower technical and vocationaleducation

Lagere school ................ Elementary schoolLandbouwonderwijs Agricultural educationLeerlingwezen ............ A.pprenticeship systemLeerplan CurriculumLeerplicht Compulsory educationLeerschool Regular primary school that ac-

cepts students from teacher-

Lager beroe.spsondertelp

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training schools hir practiceteaching

Lei iltter Prepriinary teacherLeraar Secondary school teacherLit-hay:id* op:welling Physical educationLyceum Secondary pre-university that

comhilles the gym n atin m andathen('um programs.

,11elh,ehe opleiding Medical education.1fee,ter Onr.) Degree received front a Liculty

of Ianivortge-

zri onderu.its Intermediate general secondaryeducation (M.A.V.O.)

.111,/,/,Umat beimpsmiderWlis . . intermediate techniial and vo-cational cducation

Afiddeiodo.o/ Middle school, a secondaryschool for 12- to 15- or 16-yearolds, planned in the Post-Primary Education Aa t.

.1hdderotawbondercip Vocational school for the retailtrades

Middelbaar algemom

.11moterie ran nmlerults citll'eterisehappen NI inist r of Ed ucat ion ancl

Scieme

NautOch (,;tication

0(.1ruIrru',7, Ed mat ionOwlerzeipre.,earch Fdiumiional researchOnileneit:er Primary school teacherOpenbaar Publi( cd twat ionOlwribare sclumlOpleuling Training

pleid ing hnol Teacher-training school forpreprimary teachers

Optweding Educat itot.1,17Ikunde Pedagogy

Orthopoutgogiek Special education

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Paoieipatie Part-dine education, alternatingschool and work periods foryouths aged 15-18

Partirel ondeneift Put-time educationPolagnicicehe ahademie Primary teachers college

ThesisPrinfultrift

Rijkw.hool Public school

Sehooljaar School yeartelij k anderwifi Correspondence course

Trehnoeh under-wilt 'Technical educationTentamen Preliminary examinationTerunir onderwals Higher educationTnelatingiexamen Entrance examinationTao, Test

University

Vl'ak School subjectI'er.ryfijkende polagogiek Comparative education

school Fishery schoolI MIliminta.iltheling Adult educationl'worbereilloal weten.uhap-pelith under-unit Pre-university education

(V.W.O.)Vonftgezet wallenvip Sectmdaryl'orMing Educat ion

Wet LiwWetemehappeltik mulerwifs University education

leerplieht Compulsory e:'...;cation

Z revaarbehnol Nautica I training college

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SELECTED REFERENCES

Bagley, Christopher. "The Dutch Plural Society:A Comparative Study ri RIRT Relations... Lon-don: Oxford 1..7niversity Press. 1973.

Breitenstein. P. H. "The Teaching of ForeignLanguages in the Netherlands,"PAIL-I. Vol. 73,September 1958. Pp. 1-6.

Clayton, .A. Stafford. -Religion and Schooling: AComparative Stink." Waltham. Mass.: Blais-dell. 1968.

Durnin. Richard G. "The University of Leydenand Amelica." Paedagogira Historita. Vol. VIII.no. 2, 1968. Pp. 333-50.

Goole. M. -Education and Science in the Nether-lands." The Kin Oom of the .Vetheilandc 1970 //97/. Part 32. The flague: Government Prim-ing Office [1970].

Gotidsbltun.lolum. "Dutch Society.- New 'York:Random House. 1967.

f-Luisen, Erik. "Nlarxism. Socialism, and theDutch Primary Schools." Hictor..... of EthffotionQuarterly. Vol. XIII. Winter 1973. Pp, 367-91.

Higher Education and Research in the NetherlandA.he Hague: Netherlands Universities Founda-tion for International Co-operation. A luar-terly published since 1957.

Holtrop, William F. "Vocational Education in tfi,Netherlands." Berkeley: University of Cali, --nia Press. 1951,

Idenburg. Philip J. "Education in the Nether-lands." The Hague: Netherlands GovernmentInformatif in Office, 1951.

Male, George A. "Teacher Education in theNetherlands, Belgium. Luxembourg." U.S.Office of Education, Bulletin No. 4, 1960.Washington. D.C.: U.S. Government PrintingOffice, 1960.

Mason, Henry L. "Reflections on the PoliticizedUniversity: IL Triparity and Tripolarity in theNetherlands." Bulletin. Vol. 60. Winter 1974.Pp. 383-400.

Mostert, John. "The Netherlands: A Guide to theAcademic Placement of Students From the

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15

Netherlands 01 Educational Institutitnis in theUnited States of America." IVashingion, D.C.:American ,Association of Collegiate Registrarsand Admissions Officers, 1961.

Netherlands. Ministry of Edit( ation. Arts. andScience. "The Dutch School System." TheHague: The Ministry. 196i.

Netherlands. Nfinistry of Education and .Science."Education Policy in the Netherlands ill 1972:Problems and l'r,:ssures." 'Elie Hague: TheAtinistry. 1972.

- "Going To School in the Netherlands.- TheHague: Tlw Ministry. 1974.

"The Main Aspects of Educational Reformin the Netherlands. 1963-1969." The Ilague:The Minist IA'. 1969.

. "Netherlands 1..'uiversio, A(lministration(Reform) Act. 1970." The Ilague: The Minis-try. nal.

. "A New Approach to Education." TheHague: Government Printing Office, 1971.

_. "Organization of Education in the Nether-lands in 1971-1973." The Hague: The Minis-try, 1973.

"Outline of Vocational Education Policy inthe Netherlands." The Hague: The Ministry.1974.

"Primary Education: Action on AP Fronts."The Hague: Government Printing Office,1971.

"School System in ttle Netherlands... TheHague: The Ministry, 1969.

-Summary of the Post-Primary EducationAct in the Netherlands... The Ilague: Informa-tion Service, 1968.

--. "University Education in the Nether-lands." The Hague: The Ministry. 1970.

Organisation for Economic CO-1 weration andDevelopment. "Ed ucationa 1 P()licv and Plan-ning: The Netherlands." Paris: The Organisa-tion, 1968.

"Reviews of National Policies for Education:Netherlands.- Paris: 'Elie Organisation, 1970.

"Study on Teachers: Netherlands and Por-tugal.- Paris: The ()rgattisation. 1968.

"Planning and Development in the Netherlands.-Vol. III, nos. 1 and 2, 1969. "Ehe Hague:Netherlands Universities Foundation forInternational Co-opermion. Entire issue de-voted to educational structure. innovation, andplanning in the Netherlands.

Schtichardt, Nlax. "The Netherlands.- London:Thames and Hudson. 1972.

Sloos.j. et al. "Correspondence Education in theNetherlands.- Leiden: Leidsche Onderwii-sinstellingen, 1967.

Stellwag. !Mena \V. F. "Problems and Tiviids inDutch Education.- bibTnilliolul Rrviezr of Educa-tion. Vol. 3, no. I. 1957. Pp. 54-67.

b.v

William W. BrickmanI'mksww of Educational History and Cmnparative EducationGradmite chool of Education. University al Penasylvania

'Study in Holland: A Guide for Prospective Stu-dents.- New York: Netherlands InformationService, 1961.

Van Glder, L. "The Bridge-Year: An Aid toAdaptation From Elementarv To SecondaryEducation in the Netherlands.- International

journal ty' Erlw (Ilion. Vol. 6, no. 4, 1960. Pp.468-71.

Van Lutsenberg NIaits, J. "The Mammoth aw.Reforms in Dutch Education," ComparativeEducation Review. Vol. 7. Fehruary 196-1. Pp.2;9-85.

Veleina, Elzo. "Primary and Post-Prinvary Educa-tion in the Netherlands,- Comlwrathy Eeluration

Vol. 7. Ocuther 1963. Pp. 119-24.

Verlinden. J. A. A. "Public Private Educationin the Netherlands,- Educational Forum. Vol. 22.November 1957. Pp. 51-7.

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S GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1976 0-213380

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