Management by ExceptionManagement by Exception is a "policy by which management devotes its time to investigating only thosesituations in which actual results differ significantly from planned results. The idea is that management shouldspend its valuable time concentrating on the more important items (such as shaping the company's futurestrategic course). Attention is given only to material deviations requiring investigation." It is not entirelysynonymous with the concept of exception management in that it describes a policy where absolute focus ison exception management, in contrast to moderate application of exception management. In ProjectManagement, an implication of Management by Exception is that the project board should meet when keydecisions about the project should be taken, and not on regular intervals. The Project Manager should producean Exception Report to summon the board for such meetings.

Scientific ManagementScientific management, also called Taylorism, was a theory of management that analyzed and synthesizedworkflows. Its main objective was improving economic efficiency, especially labor productivity. It was one ofthe earliest attempts to apply science to the engineering of processes and to management. Its developmentbegan with Frederick Winslow Taylor in the 1880s and 1890s within the manufacturing industries. Its peak ofinfluence came in the 1910s; by the 1920s, it was still influential but had begun an era of competition andsyncretism with opposing or complementary ideas. Although scientific management as a distinct theory orschool of thought was obsolete by the 1930s, most of its themes are still important parts of industrialengineering and management today. These include analysis; synthesis; logic; rationality; empiricism; workethic; efficiency and elimination of waste; standardization of best practices; disdain for tradition preservedmerely for its own sake or merely to protect the social status of particular workers with particular skill sets; thetransformation of craft production into mass production; and knowledge transfer between workers and fromworkers into tools, processes, and documentation.

Scientific management's application was contingent on a high level of managerial control over employee workpractices. This necessitated a higher ratio of managerial workers to laborers than previous managementmethods. The great difficulty in accurately differentiating any such intelligent, detail-oriented managementfrom mere misguided management also caused interpersonal friction between workers and managers.

Consultative/Participative ManagementAmong the three main management styles (autocratic, consultative and democratic), the consultativemanagement style is where managers consult other team members before arriving at a decision. This is incontrast to autocratic management style wherein the manager gives instructions.

Type of management in which employees at all levels are encouraged to contribute ideas towards identifyingand setting organizational-goals, problem solving, and other decisions that may directly affect them. Alsocalled consultative management. Therefore, listening skills and right consulting channel creation are essentialskills a consultative manager should possess.

Strategic PlanningStrategic planning is an organization's process of defining its strategy, or direction, and making decisions onallocating its resources to pursue this strategy, including its capital and people. In order to determine where itis going, the organization needs to know exactly where it stands, then determine where it wants to go and howit will get there. The resulting document is called the "strategic plan." While strategic planning may be used toeffectively plot a company's longer-term direction, one cannot use it to reliably forecast how the market willevolve and what issues will surface in the immediate future. Therefore, strategic innovation and tinkering withthe "strategic plan" have to be a cornerstone strategy for an organization to survive the turbulent businessclimate. Strategic planning is the formal consideration of an organization's future course. All strategic planningdeals with at least one of three key questions:

"What do we do?""For whom do we do it?""How do we excel?"

In business strategic planning, some authors phrase the third question as "How can we beat or avoidcompetition?" (Bradford and Duncan, page 1). But this approach is more about defeating competitors thanabout excelling.

In today's highly competitive business environment, budget-oriented planning or forecast-based planningmethods are insufficient for a large corporation to survive and prosper. The firm must engage in strategicplanning that clearly defines objectives and assesses both the internal and external situation to formulatestrategy, implement the strategy, evaluate the progress, and make adjustments as necessary to stay on track.A simplified view of the strategic planning process is shown by the following diagram:

The Strategic Planning Process

Mission and Objectives, Environmental Scan: The environmental scan includes the following components:Internal analysis of the firm, Analysis of the firm's industry (task environment), External macro environmentStrategy Formulation: Strategy Implementation: Evaluation & Control: Evaluation and control consists of thefollowing steps:

1. Define parameters to be measured2. Define target values for those parameters3. Perform measurements4. Compare measured results to the pre-defined standard5. Make necessary changes

PlanningPlanning in organizations and public policy is both the organizational process of creating and maintaining aplan; and the psychological process of thinking about the activities required to create a desired goal on somescale. As such, it is a fundamental property of intelligent behavior. This thought process is essential to thecreation and refinement of a plan, or integration of it with other plans, that is, it combines forecasting ofdevelopments with the preparation of scenarios of how to react to them. An important, albeit often ignoredaspect of planning, is the relationship it holds with forecasting. Forecasting can be described as predictingwhat the future will look like, whereas planning predicts what the future should look like. The term is also usedfor describing the formal procedures used in such an endeavor, such as the creation of documents, diagrams,or meetings to discuss the important issues to be addressed, the objectives to be met, and the strategy to befollowed. Beyond this, planning has a different meaning depending on the political or economic context inwhich it is used.

Types of planTactical plans: A tactical plan is concerned with what the lower level units within each division must do, howthey must do it, and who is in charge at each level. Tactics are the means needed to activate a strategy andStrategic plans: A strategic plan is an outline of steps designed with the goals of the entire organization as awhole in mind, rather than with the goals of specific divisions or departments. Strategic planning begins withan organization's mission.

Contingency plans: Intelligent and successful management depends upon a constant pursuit of adaptation,flexibility, and mastery of changing conditions. Strong management requires a “keeping all options open”approach at all times — that's where contingency planning comes in.

Inter-Branch ReconciliationInter-branch reconciliation is a major activity for banks and financial institutions looking to create a balancedco-ordination between their various branches and their activities. TechMech offers inter-branch reconciliationservices whereby our trained professionals cover every transaction, exchange of services and otherinteractions between different branches of a bank or subsidiaries of a company. Our experts ensure a keenattention to detail, covering every interaction in depth, so as not to miss out on any inherent flaws ordiscrepancy.

Inter-branch reconciliation can help the organization discover any errors or negligence in transactions andmake due changes. Our experts, with their detailed financial knowledge, can help to not only find errors butalso facilitate in removing or minimizing them. We are trained to handle large volumes of financial data andhave worked with companies of all scales.

Job AnalysisA job analysis is the process used to collect information about the duties, responsibilities, necessary skills,outcomes, and work environment of a particular job. You need as much data as possible to put together a jobdescription, which is the frequent outcome of the job analysis. Additional outcomes include recruiting plans,

position postings and advertisements, and performance development planning within your performancemanagement system.

Job analysis is the formal process of identifying the content of a job in terms activities involved and attributesneeded to perform the work and identifies major job requirements. Job analysis was conceptualized by two ofthe founders of industrial/organizational psychology, Frederick Taylor and Lillian Moller Gilbreth in the early20th century. Job analyses provide information to organizations which helps to determine which employeesare best fit for specific jobs. Through job analysis, the analyst needs to understand what the important tasks ofthe job are, how they are carried out, and the necessary human qualities needed to complete the jobsuccessfully.

The job analysis may include these activities: reviewing the job responsibilities of current employees, doing Internet research and viewing sample job descriptions online or offline highlighting similar jobs, analyzing the work duties, tasks, and responsibilities that need to be accomplished by the employee

filling the position, researching and sharing with other companies that have similar jobs, and articulation of the most important outcomes or contributions needed from the position.

Job evaluationA job evaluation is a systematic way of determining the value/worth of a job in relation to other jobs in anorganization. It tries to make a systematic comparison between jobs to assess their relative worth for thepurpose of establishing a rational pay structure.

Job evaluation is a method for comparing different jobs to provide a basis for a grading and pay structure. Itsaim is to evaluate the job, not the jobholder, and to provide a relatively objective means of assessing thedemands of a job. It is an assessment of the relative worth of various jobs on the basis of a consistent set ofjob and personal factors, such as qualifications and skills required.

The objective of job evaluation is to determine which jobs should get more pay than others. Several methodssuch as job ranking, job grading, and factor comparison are employed in job evaluation. Research indicates,however, that each method is nearly as accurate and reliable as the other in ranking and pricing different jobs.Job evaluation forms the basis for wage and salary negotiations.

The job evaluation process established the relative value of jobs throughout the university. There are twosteps involved in this process:1. Job Analysis and Job Description - Using a "job profile," the content of each job is analyzed to identify key

duties, responsibilities, and qualification necessary to perform the job. Written job descriptions are thenprepared to contain this information.

2. Job Evaluation - A computer assisted job evaluation plan, measuring 17 dimensions of nonexempt work and28 dimensions of exempt work, is used to evaluate the relative worth of staff positions. This evaluationprocess focuses on valuing the content of each position in terms of a series of well defined compensablefactors.

Job descriptionA job description is a list that a person might use for general tasks, or functions, and responsibilities of aposition. It may often include to whom the position reports, specifications such as the qualifications or skillsneeded by the person in the job, or a salary range. Job descriptions are usually narrative, but some mayinstead comprise a simple list of competencies; for instance, strategic human resource planning methodologiesmay be used to develop a competency architecture for an organization, from which job descriptions are builtas a shortlist of competencies.

Job descriptions are written statements that describe the: duties, responsibilities, most important contributions and outcomes needed from a position, required qualifications of candidates, and reporting relationship and coworkers of a particular job.

Job descriptions are based on objective information obtained through job analysis, an understanding of thecompetencies and skills required to accomplish needed tasks, and the needs of the organization to producework.

The best job descriptions are living, breathing documents that are updated as responsibilities change. They donot limit employees, but rather, cause them to stretch their experience, grow their skills, and develop theirability to contribute within their organization.

Merit RatingSystem of rating employees on the basis of factors such as absenteeism, adaptability, attitude, health, lengthof service, punctuality, and safety record. It is a Computing premium on a policy (such as for auto insurance)on the basis of an insured's loss record.

The main objectives for merit rating:1. employee rating achieved through a periodic employee evaluation system, often used as the basis for pay

increases and/or promotion.2. rating achieved on a standard civil-service type merit examination, signifying the level of achievement on

the exam.

E-CommerceElectronic commerce, commonly known as ecommerce, is a type of industry where buying and selling ofproduct or service is conducted over electronic systems such as the Internet and other computer networks.Electronic commerce draws on technologies such as mobile commerce, electronic funds transfer, supply chainmanagement, Internet marketing, online transaction processing, electronic data interchange (EDI), inventorymanagement systems, and automated data collection systems. Modern electronic commerce typically uses theWorld Wide Web at least at one point in the transaction's life-cycle, although it may encompass a wider rangeof technologies such as e-mail, mobile devices social media, and telephones as well.

Electronic commerce is generally considered to be the sales aspect of e-business. It also consists of theexchange of data to facilitate the financing and payment aspects of business transactions.

E-commerce can be divided into:

E-tailing or "virtual storefronts" on websites with online catalogs, sometimes gathered into a "virtualmall"

The gathering and use of demographic data through Web contacts and social media Electronic Data Interchange (EDI), the business-to-business exchange of data E-mail and fax and their use as media for reaching prospective and established customers (for

example, with newsletters) Business-to-business buying and selling The security of business transactions

The road to creating a successful online store can be a difficult if unaware of ecommerce principles and whatecommerce is supposed to do for your online business. Researching and understanding the guidelines requiredto properly implement an e-business plan is a crucial part to becoming successful with online store building.

Mobile BankingMobile banking is a system that allows customers of a financial institution to conduct a number of financialtransactions through a mobile device such as a mobile phone or personal digital assistant.

Mobile banking differs from mobile payments, which involve the use of a mobile device to pay for goods orservices either at the point of sale or remotely, analogously to the use of a debit or credit card to effect anEFTPOS payment.

The earliest mobile banking services were offered over SMS, a service known as SMS banking. With theintroduction of smart phones with WAP support enabling the use of the mobile web in 1999, the firstEuropean banks started to offer mobile banking on this platform to their customers.

In today world Mobile Banking is a popular term. Mobile Banking means a financial transaction conducted bylogging on to a bank's website using a cell phone, such as viewing account balances, making transfers betweenaccounts, or paying bills. It is a term used for performing balance checks, account transactions, payments etc.via a mobile device such as a mobile phone. In recent time Mobile banking is most often performed via SMS orthe Mobile Internet but can also use special programs called clients downloaded to the mobile device.

Mobile Banking concept

In general term we can categorized the mobile banking below –* Mobile Accounting

* Mobile Brokerage* Mobile Financial Information ServicesMobile banking can offer services such as the following:* Mini-statements and checking of account history* Alerts on account activity or passing of set thresholds* Monitoring of term deposits* Access to loan statements* Mutual funds / equity statements* Insurance policy management* Pension plan management* Status on cheque, stop payment on cheque* Ordering check books* Balance checking in the account* Recent transactions* Due date of payment (functionality for stop, change and deleting of payments)* PIN provision, Change of PIN and reminder over the Internet* Domestic and international fund transfers* Mobile recharging* Commercial payment processing* Bill payment processing* Peer to Peer payments

Online bankingComputerized service that allows a bank's customers to get online with the bank via telephone lines to viewthe status of their account(s) and transaction history. It is system allowing individuals to perform bankingactivities at home, via the internet. It usually also allows them to transfer funds, pay bills, request check Theperformance of banking activities via the Internet. Online banking is also known as "Internet banking" or "Webbanking." A good online bank will offer customers just about every service traditionally available through alocal branch, including accepting deposits (which is done online or through the mail), paying interest onsavings and providing an online bill payment system.

Online banking is a service offered by banks that allows account holders to access their account data via theInternet. In order to take advantage of online banking, an account holder would need to meet severaltechnological requirements, such as having a personal computer with Internet access and web browser. Ifthose conditions are satisfied, online banking can be performed from anywhere in the world. To minimize therisk of fraud, online banking is enabled through a secure server, which grants the individual a private access tohis or her bank account. Online banking is designed to streamline banking chores that otherwise requireconsiderable time and effort. Thus, online banking facilitates direct access to account details, enables transferof funds, allows for multiple bills payments, and performs an array other transactions. Online banking isavailable twenty four hours, seven days a week, regardless of the bank's working hours. Today, most banksoffer online banking services.

The common features fall broadly into several categories

A bank customer can perform some non-transactional tasks through online banking, including -

o viewing account balanceso viewing recent transactionso downloading bank statements, for example in PDF formato viewing images of paid chequeso ordering cheque bookso download periodic account statementso Downloading applications for M-banking, E-banking etc.

Bank customers can transact banking tasks through online banking, including -o Funds transfers between the customer's linked accountso Paying third parties, including bill payments (see, e.g., BPAY) and telegraphic/wire transferso Investment purchase or saleo Loan applications and transactions, such as repayments of enrollmentso Register utility billers and make bill payments

Financial institution administration Management of multiple users having varying levels of authority Transaction approval process

Communication ProcessThe sharing of meaningful information between two or more people with the goal of the receiverunderstanding the sender's intended message. In business, the effectiveness of a company's internal andexternal communication process is often very important to its overall success.

Communication (from Latin "communis", meaning to share) is the activity of conveying information throughthe exchange of thoughts, messages, or information, as by speech, visuals, signals, writing, or behavior.

The communication process is the guide toward realizing effective communication. It is through thecommunication process that the sharing of a common meaning between the sender and the receiver takesplace. Individuals that follow the communication process will have the opportunity to become moreproductive in every aspect of their profession. Effective communication leads to understanding.

Figure: Communication model

The communication process is made up of four key components. Those components include encoding,medium of transmission, decoding, and feedback. There are also two other factors in the process, and thosetwo factors are present in the form of the sender and the receiver. The communication process begins withthe sender and ends with the receiver.

Communication requires a sender, a message, and a recipient, although the receiver doesn't have to bepresent or aware of the sender's intent to communicate at the time of communication; thus communicationcan occur across vast distances in time and space. Communication requires that the communicating partiesshare an area of communicative commonality. The communication process is complete once the receiver hasunderstood the message of the sender.

leadershipLeadership has been described as “a process of social influence in which one person can enlist the aid andsupport of others in the accomplishment of a common task". Other in-depth definitions of leadership have alsoemerged.

The ability of a company's management to make sound decisions and inspire others to perform well. Effectiveleaders are able to set and achieve challenging goals, to take swift and decisive action even in difficultsituations, to outperform their competition, to take calculated risks and to persevere in the face of failure.Strong communication skills, self-confidence, the ability to manage others and a willingness to embracechange also characterize good leaders.

Leadership is "organizing a group of people to achieve a common goal". The leader may or may not have anyformal authority. Studies of leadership have produced theories involving traits, situational interaction,function, behavior, power, vision and values, charisma, and intelligence, among others. Somebody whompeople follow: somebody who guides or directs others.

Leadership involves(1) establishing a clear vision,(2) sharing that vision with others so that they will follow willingly,(3) providing the information, knowledge and methods to realize that vision, and(4) coordinating and balancing the conflicting interests of all members and stakeholders.

A leader steps up in times of crisis, and is able to think and act creatively in difficult situations. Unlikemanagement, leadership cannot be taught, although it may be learned and enhanced through coaching or

mentoring. Someone with great leadership skills today is Bill Gates who, despite early failures, with continuedpassion and innovation has driven Microsoft and the software industry to success.

Human Resource Development (HRD)The part of human resource management that specifically deals with training and development of theemployees. Human resource development includes training an individual after he/she is first hired,providing opportunities to learn new skills, distributing resources that are beneficial for theemployee's tasks, and any other developmental activities.Human Resources Development (HRD) as a theory is a framework for the expansion of human capital withinan organization through the development of both the organization and the individual to achieve performanceimprovement. Adam Smith states, “The capacities of individuals depended on their access to education”. Thesame statement applies to organizations themselves, but it requires a much broader field to cover both areas.

Human Resource Development (HRD) is the framework for helping employees develop their personal andorganizational skills, knowledge, and abilities. Human Resource Development includes such opportunities asemployee training, employee career development, performance management and development, coaching,mentoring, succession planning, key employee identification, tuition assistance, and organizationdevelopment.

The focus of all aspects of Human Resource Development is on developing the most superior workforce so thatthe organization and individual employees can accomplish their work goals in service to customers.

Human Resource Development is the integrated use of training, organization, and career development effortsto improve individual, group and organizational effectiveness. HRD develops the key competencies that enableindividuals in organizations to perform current and future jobs through planned learning activities. Groupswithin organizations use HRD to initiate and manage change. Also, HRD ensures a match between individualand organizational needs.

DepartmentationThe process of grouping of activities into units for the purpose of administration is called departmentation. Itcan be defined "as the process by which activities or functions of enterprise are grouped homogeneously intodifferent groups."

The administrative units are called divisions, units or departments. The followings are the basis ofdepartmentation:

(a) When departmentation is done on the bask of functions the departments created are production,marketing, accounting, finance and personnel departments.(b) When departmentation is done on the basis of geographical area, the departments are known as easterndepartment, western department, northern and southern department.(c) Departmentation can be done on the basis of customers.(d) Departmentation can be done on the basis of product handled.

Departmentation is a process resulting out of choice to group tasks according to some criterion. The resultantprocess of departmentation includes decisions regarding segregating organizational work, allocation of work topersons, telling all involved who is in charge and provide for the support needed by those. Given the nature ofthese choices and decisions, departmentation and the criteria or bases used for creating departments can haveserious impact on the organization's effectiveness. Nine bases of departmentation are common amongmanagerial choices:

Departmentation by numbers, Departmentation by time of duty, Departmentation by function,Departmentation by Process or Equipment, Departmentation by Location or territory, Departmentation byProduct, Departmentation by Customer, Departmentation by Market or Distribution Channel,Departmentation by Services.

Departmentation by Customers

Some advantages of this type of structure are:(i) Greater specialized customer service.(ii) Where marketing channels are considerably different for various types of customers, this type of

structure is very useful.Some disadvantages of this type are:

(iii) May not be enough work for certain types of customers. Hence, under employment of facilities andmanpower specialized in terms of customer groups.

(iv) Problems of co-ordination might pose difficulties.(v) Unequal development of customer groups.

CentralizationCentralization, or centralization (see spelling differences), is the process by which the activities of anorganization, particularly those regarding planning and decision-making, become concentrated within aparticular location and/or group.

The term has a variety of meanings in several fields. In political science, centralization refers to theconcentration of a government's power – both geographically and politically – into a centralized government.In neuroscience, centralization refers to the evolutionary trend of the nervous system to be partitioned into acentral nervous system and peripheral nervous system. In business studies, centralization and decentralizationrefer to where decisions are made in the chain of command.

Centralization is said to be a process where the concentration of decision making is in a few hands. All theimportant decision and actions at the lower level, all subjects and actions at the lower level are subject to theapproval of top management. According to Allen, “Centralization” is the systematic and consistent reservationof authority at central points in the organization. The implication of centralization can be:-

1. Reservation of decision making power at top level.2. Reservation of operating authority with the middle level managers.3. Reservation of operation at lower level at the directions of the top level.

The degree of centralization and decentralization will depend upon the amount of authority delegated to thelowest level. According to Allen, “Decentralization refers to the systematic effort to delegate to the lowestlevel of authority except that which can be controlled and exercised at central points.

DecentralizationDecentralization is a systematic delegation of authority at all levels of management and in all of theorganization. In a decentralization concern, authority in retained by the top management for taking majordecisions and framing policies concerning the whole concern. Rest of the authority may be delegated to themiddle level and lower level of management.

Decentralization is not the same as delegation. In fact, decentralization is all extension of delegation.Decentralization pattern is wider is scope and the authorities are diffused to the lowest most level ofmanagement. Delegation of authority is a complete process and takes place from one person to another.While decentralization is complete only when fullest possible delegation has taken place. For example, thegeneral manager of a company is responsible for receiving the leave application for the whole of the concern.The general manager delegates this work to the personnel manager who is now responsible for receiving theleave applicants. In this situation delegation of authority has taken place. On the other hand, on the request ofthe personnel manager, if the general manager delegates this power to all the departmental heads at all level,in this situation decentralization has taken place. There is a saying that “Everything that increasing the role ofsubordinates is decentralization and that decreases the role is centralization”. Decentralization is wider inscope and the subordinate’s responsibility increase in this case. On the other hand, in delegation the managersremain answerable even for the acts of subordinates to their superiors.

Implications of Decentralization1. There is less burden on the Chief Executive as in the case of centralization.2. In decentralization, the subordinates get a chance to decide and act independently which develops skills

and capabilities. This way the organization is able to process reserve of talents in it.3. In decentralization, diversification and horizontal can be easily implanted.4. In decentralization, concern diversification of activities can place effectively since there is more scope for

creating new departments. Therefore, diversification growth is of a degree.5. In decentralization structure, operations can be coordinated at divisional level which is not possible in the

centralization set up.6. In the case of decentralization structure, there is greater motivation and morale of the employees since

they get more independence to act and decide.

Motivation

Motivation is a psychological feature that arouses an organism to act towards a desired goal and elicits,controls, and sustains certain goal directed behaviors. It can be considered a driving force; a psychological onethat compels or reinforces an action toward a desired goal. For example, hunger is a motivation that elicits adesire to eat.

Motivation is an inner drive to behave or act in a certain manner. It's the difference between waking up beforedawn to pound the pavement and lazing around the house all day. These inner conditions such as wishes,desires, goals, activate to move in a particular direction in behavior.

Motivation is the driving force by which humans achieve their goals. Motivation is said to be intrinsic orextrinsic. The term is generally used for humans but it can also be used to describe the causes for animalbehavior as well. According to various theories, motivation may be rooted in a basic need to minimize physicalpain and maximize pleasure, or it may include specific needs such as eating and resting, or a desired object,goal, state of being, ideal, or it may be attributed to less-apparent reasons such as altruism, selfishness,morality, or avoiding mortality. Conceptually, motivation should not be confused with either volition oroptimism. Motivation is related to, but distinct from, emotion.

Job SatisfactionLocke and Lathan (1976) give a comprehensive definition of job satisfaction as pleasurable or positiveemotional state resulting from the appraisal of ones job or job experience. Job satisfaction is a result ofemployee's perception of how well their job provides those things that are viewed as important.

The relationship between job satisfaction and motivation at work has been one of the widely researched areasin the field of management in relation to different professions, but in Pakistan very few studies have exploredthis concept especially on banking sectors employees. According to Khan (1997), in the current businessenvironment, organizations in all industries are experiencing rapid change, which is accelerating at anenormous speed. Finck et al. (1998) also stated that companies must recognize that the human factor isbecoming much more important for organizational survival, and that business excellence will only be achievedwhen employees are excited and motivated by their work. In addition, difficult circumstances, such asviolence, tragedy, fear, and job insecurity create severe stress in employees and result in reduced workplaceperformance (Klein, 2002). According to Watson (1994) business has come to realize that a motivated andsatisfied workforce can deliver powerfully to the bottom line. Since employee performance is a joint functionof ability and motivation, one of management’s primary tasks, therefore, is to motivate employees to performto the best of their ability (Moorhead & Griffin, 1998).

Primary and secondary needsMurray identified needs as one of two types:

1. Primary Needs2. Primary needs are based upon biological demands, such as the need for oxygen, food, and water.3. Secondary Needs4. Secondary needs are generally psychological, such as the need for nurturing, independence, and

achievement.

Theory XIn this theory, which has been proven counter-effective in most modern practice, management assumesemployees are inherently lazy and will avoid work if they can and that they inherently dislike work. As a resultof this, management believes that workers need to be closely supervised and comprehensive systems ofcontrols developed. A hierarchical structure is needed with narrow span of control at each and every level.According to this theory, employees will show little ambition without an enticing incentive program and willavoid responsibility whenever they can. According to Michael J. Papa, if the organizational goals are to be met,theory X managers rely heavily on threat and coercion to gain their employee's compliance. Beliefs of thistheory lead to mistrust, highly restrictive supervision, and a punitive atmosphere. The Theory X manager tendsto believe that everything must end in blaming someone. He or she thinks all prospective employees are onlyout for themselves. Usually these managers feel the sole purpose of the employee's interest in the job ismoney. They will blame the person first in most situations, without questioning whether it may be the system,policy, or lack of training that deserves the blame. A Theory X manager believes that his or her employees donot really want to work, that they would rather avoid responsibility and that it is the manager's job tostructure the work and energize the employee. One major flaw of this management style is it is much morelikely to cause Diseconomies of Scale in large businesses.

Theory YIn this theory, management assumes employees may be ambitious and self-motivated and exercise self-control. It is believed that employees enjoy their mental and physical work duties. According to Papa, to themwork is as natural as play. They possess the ability for creative problem solving, but their talents are underusedin most organizations. Given the proper conditions, theory Y managers believe that employees will learn toseek out and accept responsibility and to exercise self-control and self-direction in accomplishing objectives towhich they are committed. A Theory Y manager believes that, given the right conditions, most people will wantto do well at work. They believe that the satisfaction of doing a good job is a strong motivation. Many peopleinterpret Theory Y as a positive set of beliefs about workers. A close reading of The Human Side of Enterprisereveals that McGregor simply argues for managers to be open to a more positive view of workers and thepossibilities that this creates. He thinks that Theory Y managers are more likely than Theory X managers todevelop the climate of trust with employees that is required for human resource development. It's humanresource development that is a crucial aspect of any organization. This would include managerscommunicating openly with subordinates, minimizing the difference between superior-subordinaterelationships, creating a comfortable environment in which subordinates can develop and use their abilities.This climate would include the sharing of decision making so that subordinates have say in decisions thatinfluence them. This theory is a positive view to the employees, meaning that the employer is under a lot lesspressure than some one who is to influenced by a theory X management style.

“You can not motivate managers. They are self propelled.” Comment on the statements.Self propelled describes something that moves, progresses or acts on its own power without needing outsidehelp. Like anything else, leadership ability is distributed throughout a population. Can you be a good leaderwithout being a good manager? In my experience, the best leaders are also great managers, and the bestmanagers have strong leadership capabilities. To be successful, you must have both a passion for improvingyour organization and the capability to drive your efforts through to completion. Some people are "natural"leaders, others prefer to operate capably within a well-defined context, and many people are somewhere inbetween. Natural leaders have important core abilities, but they often need careful training in the morepractical aspects of converting a creative vision into a concrete program of action. Very often, they need tounderstand the length of the change lifecycle so they don't underestimate the importance of persistence.Most people, however, can develop their leadership skills by working at it. The process starts with therecognition that leadership requires "ambidextrous" activities. The first hurdle is recognizing that excellence atthe day-to-day is critical, but it is not enough. The second is the need to look inside yourself and decidewhether you are willing to be uncomfortable for a prolonged period while you conceptualize and lead thechange. The ultimate reward is the deep satisfaction that comes from seeing something new that wouldn'thave been there if you had not created it. Once you decide to become a leader, you can develop thecharacteristics you'll need by being thoughtful about the accomplishments that you want on your resume, anddeciding to devote the time and attention needed to achieve them. Like anything else, practice makes perfect.To be a great leader, you need a certain level of intellect, but not necessarily great genius. You need a certainlevel of social skills, but not necessarily those of a great salesperson. However, you do need a compulsion tooperate at two levels: to be a great doer, and a great reflector. Most importantly, to be a great leader, youneed to find what you really like. That's where the passion, commitment, and integrity come from. In myexperience, the most important underlying factor in leadership is whether a person has searched out andfound a great match between what's in his or her heart, which is what he or she really enjoys, and the worksituation. Think about the definition of leaders, "people who leave their footprints in their areas of passion."It's easy to focus on the first part, how to leave footprints. But the real power comes from the second, workingin your area of passion.

To what extent and how is money an effective motivation.Despite the fact that most of the world works for the sake of financial reward, the need for money only obligesus to undertake certain sort of work, but doesn’t motivate in actual fact. For example, one of the theories ofhuman motivation - ‘Money as a motivator theory’ is grounded on the belief that the need for money primarilymotivates all workers (“Theories of Human,” 2004). Nonetheless, such a statement is true just to a limitedextent, to say the least. Although the very word “money” (which in final outcome aims to ensure greaterhappiness) would be the most common reply to the question of whatever causes us to work, in its own right itlags behind the variety of other human values. “A simple pay raise, naturally not identified as part of thecorporate culture, would be defined as an external motivator. Pay is expected, needed, and required - it is notnecessarily an identifier of either corporate or personal identity” (Grossman, n.d., A brief pause section, para.2). “Psychologists have been finding that rewards can lower performance levels, especially when theperformance involves creativity” (Kohn, n.d., Introduction section, para. 2). Furthermore, “if a reward - money,awards, praise, or winning a contest - comes to be seen as the reason one is engaging in an activity, thatactivity will be viewed as less enjoyable in its own right” (Kohn, n.d.). Herzberg said about 'salary': "...whensalary occurred as a factor in the lows (causes of dissatisfaction) it revolved around the unfairness of the wagesystem within the company... It was the system of salary administration that was being described... assomething that went along with a person's achievement on the job. It was a form of recognition; it meantmore than money; it meant a job well done; it meant that the individual was progressing in his work..."

Explain the Maslow’s Need Hierarchy theory of motivation. State why it is criticized?The Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs five-stage model below (structure and terminology - not the precise pyramiddiagram itself) is clearly and directly attributable to Maslow; later versions of the theory with addedmotivational stages are not so clearly attributable to Maslow. These extended models have instead beeninferred by others from Maslow's work. Specifically Maslow refers to the needs Cognitive, Aesthetic andTranscendence (subsequently shown as distinct needs levels in some interpretations of his theory) asadditional aspects of motivation, but not as distinct levels in the Hierarchy of Needs. Each of us is motivated byneeds. Our most basic needs are inborn, having evolved over tens of thousands of years. Abraham Maslow'sHierarchy of Needs helps to explain how these needs motivate us all. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs states thatwe must satisfy each need in turn, starting with the first, which deals with the most obvious needs for survivalitself. Only when the lower order needs of physical and emotional well-being are satisfied are we concernedwith the higher order needs of influence and personal development. Conversely, if the things that satisfy ourlower order needs are swept away, we are no longer concerned about the maintenance of our higher orderneeds. Maslow's original Hierarchy of Needs model was developed between 1943-1954, and first widelypublished in Motivation and Personality in 1954. At this time the Hierarchy of Needs model comprised fiveneeds. This original version remains for most people the definitive Hierarchy of Needs.

1. Biological and Physiological needs - air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, sex, sleep, etc.

2. Safety needs - protection from elements, security, order, law, limits, stability, etc.

3. Belongingness and Love needs - work group, family, affection, relationships, etc.

4. Esteem needs - self-esteem, achievement, mastery, independence, status, dominance, prestige, managerialresponsibility, etc.

5. Self-Actualization needs - realising personal potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal growth and peakexperiences.

Describe the various theories of motivationInstinct Theory of Motivation: According to instinct theories, people are motivated to behave in certain waysbecause they are evolutionarily programmed to do so. An example of this in the animal world is seasonalmigration. These animals do not learn to do this, it is instead an inborn pattern of motivation.Incentive Theory of Motivation: The incentive theory suggests that people are motivated to do things becauseof external rewards. For example, you might be motivated to go to work each day for the monetary reward ofbeing paid. Behavioral learning concepts such as association and reinforcement play an important role in thistheory of motivation.Drive Theory of Motivation: According to the drive theory of motivation, people are motivated to take certainactions in order to reduce the internal tension that is caused by unmet needs. For example, you might bemotivated to drink a glass of water in order to reduce the internal state of thirst. This theory is useful inexplaining behaviors that have a strong biological component, such as hunger or thirst. The problem with thedrive theory of motivation is that these behaviors are not always motivated purely by physiological needs. Forexample, people often eat even when they are not really hungry.Arousal Theory of Motivation: The arousal theory of motivation suggests that people take certain actions toeither decrease or increase levels of arousal. When arousal levels get too low, for example, a person mightwatch and exciting movie or go for a jog. When arousal levels get too high, on the other hand, a person wouldprobably look for ways to relax such as meditating or reading a book. According to this theory, we aremotivated to maintain an optimal level of arousal, although this level can vary based on the individual or thesituation.Humanistic Theory of Motivation: Humanistic theories of motivation are based on the idea that people alsohave strong cognitive reasons to perform various actions. This is famously illustrated in Abraham Maslow'shierarchy of needs, which presents different motivations at different levels. First, people are motivated tofulfill basic biological needs for food and shelter, as well as those of safety, love and esteem. Once the lowerlevel needs have been met, the primary motivator becomes the need for self-actualization, or the desire tofulfill one's individual potential.

Herzberg's theory of motivatorsIn 1959 Frederick Herzberg developed the Two-Factor theory of motivation. His research showed that certainfactors were the true motivators or satisfiers. Hygiene factors, in contrast, created dissatisfaction if they wereabsent or inadequate. Dissatisfaction could be prevented by improvements in hygiene factors but theseimprovements would not alone provide motivation.

He concluded that such factors as company policy, supervision, interpersonal relations, working conditions,and salary are hygiene factors rather than motivators. According to the theory, the absence of hygiene factorscan create job dissatisfaction, but their presence does not motivate or create satisfaction.

Herzberg showed that to truly motivate an employee a business needs to create conditions that make him orher feel fulfilled in the workplace.

Limitations of Two-Factor Theory:1. The two-factor theory overlooks situational variables.2. Herzberg assumed a correlation between satisfaction and productivity. But the research conducted by

Herzberg stressed upon satisfaction and ignored productivity.3. No comprehensive measure of satisfaction was used. An employee may find his job acceptable despite the

fact that he may hate/object part of his job.4. The theory ignores blue-collar workers. Despite these limitations, Herzberg’s Two-Factor theory is

acceptable broadly.

“Motivation as a need satisfying process” Explain from your view point.Basically, motivation stems from a desire to satisfy a need. Understanding the motivation theory, the hierarchyof needs, helps management with the business and the employees. This is based on Abraham Maslow’smotivation theory that says that individuals are motivated to satisfy a number of needs in a hierarchy andpeople move from the basic needs to a higher level needs only after the basic one is satisfied. Until the need issatisfied, other needs have little effect on an individual’s behaviour. In other words, we satisfy the mostprepotent needs first and then progress to the less pressing ones. As one need becomes satisfied, that needbecomes less important; other needs loom up and become motivators of our behavior. Maslow’s NeedsHierarchy is :

1. Physical - such as food, clothing and shelter.

2. Security – which is the feeling a safety, and the assurance of continued satisfaction of physical needs.

3. Social – this is the feeling of belonging, love, affection. It could be expressed in belonging to theorganization or the immediate work group. Have affiliation of some sort, be a part of something.

4. Safety – the need to have physical safety and psychological security, the desire for self esteem and theesteem of others. This is done through increasing competence and development programs. Expressed throughrecognition, titles, offices, awards.

5. Self Actualization – Self fulfillment. Reaching maximum potential. Management should socus on continuousgrowth.

Explain briefly the method of motivating people according to the theory of DavidMcClelland.One of McClelland’s most well known theories is that human motivation is dominated by three needs.McClelland's theory, sometimes referred to as the three need theory or as the learned needs theory,categorizes. The importance of each of these needs will vary from one person to another. If you can determinethe importance of each of these needs to an individual, it will help you decide how to influence that individual.McClelland asserted that a person’s needs are influenced by their cultural background and life experiences. Healso asserted that the majority of these needs can be classified as the needs for affiliation, achievement orpower. A person’s motivation and effectiveness can be increased through an environment, which providesthem with their ideal mix of each of the three needs (N-Ach, N-Pow and/or N-Affil).

The need for affiliation (N-Affil); This is the need for friendly relationships and human interaction. There is aneed “to feel liked” and “accepted” by others. A person with a high need for affiliation is likely to be a teamplayer and thrive in a customer services environment. They will perform best in a co-operative environment.McClelland said that a strong need for affiliation will interfere with a manager’s objectivity. The “need to beliked” will affect a manager’s decisions, prompting them to make decisions to increase their popularity ratherthan furthering the interests of the organization.

The need for power (N-Pow); This is the need to lead others and make an impact. This need can exhibit itselfin two ways. The first which is the need for personal power may be viewed as undesirable as the person simplyneeds to feel that they have “power over others”. They don’t have to be effective or further the objectives oftheir employer. The second type of “need for power” is the need for institutional power. People with the needfor institutional power; want to direct the efforts of their team, to further the objectives of their organization.

The need for achievement (N-Ach); This is the need to achieve, excel and succeed. A person with this type ofneed, will set goals that are challenging but realistic. The goals have to be challenging so that the person canfeel a sense of achievement. However the goals also have to be realistic as the person believes that when agoal is unrealistic, its achievement is dependant on chance rather than personal skill or contribution. This typeof person prefers to work alone or with other high achievers. They do not need praise or recognition,achievement of the task is their reward.

Q. Define organizational behavior.The study of the way people interact within groups. Normally this study is applied in an attempt to createmore efficient business organizations. The central idea of the study of organizational behavior is that ascientific approach can be applied to the management of workers. Organizational behavior theories are usedfor human resource purposes to maximize the output from individual group members.

There are a variety of different models and philosophies of organizational behavior. Areas of research includeimproving job performance, increasing job satisfaction, promoting innovation and encouraging leadership. Inorder to achieve the desired results, managers may adopt different tactics, including reorganizing groups,modifying compensation structures and changing the way performance is evaluated.

Q. What are the three levels of analysis in an organizational behavior?Individual level

In individual level organizational behavior involves the study of learning, perception, creativity, motivation,personality, turnover, task performance, cooperative behavior, deviant behavior, ethics, and cognition. At thislevel of analysis, organizational behavior draws heavily upon psychology, engineering, and medicine.

Group level

At the group level of analysis, organizational behavior involves the study of group dynamics, intra- and intergroup conflict and cohesion, leadership, power, norms, interpersonal communication, networks, and roles. Atthis level of analysis, organizational behavior draws upon the sociological and socio-psychological sciences

Organizational level

At the organization level of analysis, organizational behavior involves the study of topics such as organizationalculture, organizational structure, cultural diversity, inter-organizational cooperation and conflict, change,technology, and external environmental forces. At this level of analysis, organizational behavior draws uponanthropology and political science.

Q. What is a contingency approach to organizational behavior?The contingency approach to management is based on the idea that there is no one best way to manage andthat to be effective, planning, organizing, leading, and controlling must be tailored to the particularcircumstances faced by an organization. Managers have always asked questions such as "What is the rightthing to do? Should we have a mechanistic or an organic structure? A functional or divisional structure? Wideor narrow spans of management? Tall or flat organizational structures? Simple or complex control andcoordination mechanisms? Should we be centralized or decentralized? Should we use task or people orientedleadership styles? What motivational approaches and incentive programs should we use?" The contingencyapproach to management (also called the situational approach) assumes that there is no universal answer tosuch questions because organizations, people, and situations vary and change over time. Thus, the right thingto do depends on a complex variety of critical environmental and internal contingencies.

What is an organization? Is the family unit an organization? Explain.An organization is a social group which distributes tasks for a collective goal. The word itself is derived fromthe Greek word organon, itself derived from the better-known word ergon - as we know `organ` - and it meansa compartment for a particular job.

A social unit of people, systematically structured and managed to meet a need or to pursue collective goals ona continuing basis. All organizations have a management structure that determines relationships betweenfunctions and positions, and subdivides and delegates roles, responsibilities, and authority to carry out definedtasks. Organizations are open systems in that they affect and are affected by the environment beyond theirboundaries.

Family unit is an organization: It is good to remember a family is an organization. In fact, it is the basicorganization of society. This is just one of the reasons I am such a proponent of family meetings. You wouldn'tthink of running a successful business without a plan, goal setting meetings, team building sessions and clearmissions and expectations. As such, everyone in the family should have an equivalent of a job description. Eachperson's job description helps him define his roles and responsibilities in the family. Just like in the workplace,the clearer the job description and the more input is solicited from the participant, the more ownership isestablished. If you have ever worked in a workplace where no one knew what their job was day to day andrules were arbitrary, you will recall how chaotic and frustrating it was for everyone. The following informationon structuring a family council has been compiled in part from information contained in The Parent'sHandbook by Dinkmeyer & McKay, as well twenty five years of personal experience.

State different types of organization structure that you know of.The study of organizations includes a focus on optimizing organizational structure. According to managementscience, most human organizations fall roughly into four types:

Pyramids or hierarchies: A hierarchy exemplifies an arrangement with a leader who leads other individualmembers of the organization. This arrangement is often associated with bureaucracy. These structures areformed on the basis that there are enough people under the leader to give him support. Just as one wouldimagine a real pyramid, if there are not enough stone blocks to hold up the higher ones, gravity wouldirrevocably bring down the monumental structure. So one can imagine that if the leader does not have thesupport of his subordinates, the entire structure will collapse. Hierarchies were satirized in The Peter Principle(1969), a book that introduced hierarchiology and the saying that "in a hierarchy every employee tends to riseto his level of incompetence."

Committees or juries: These consist of a group of peers who decide as a group, perhaps by voting. Thedifference between a jury and a committee is that the members of the committee are usually assigned toperform or lead further actions after the group comes to a decision, whereas members of a jury come to adecision. In common law countries, legal juries render decisions of guilt, liability and quantify damages; juriesare also used in athletic contests, book awards and similar activities. Sometimes a selection committeefunctions like a jury. In the Middle Ages, juries in continental Europe were used to determine the law accordingto consensus amongst local notables.

Matrix organization: This organizational type assigns each worker two bosses in two different hierarchies. Onehierarchy is "functional" and assures that each type of expert in the organization is well-trained, and measuredby a boss who is super-expert in the same field. The other direction is "executive" and tries to get projectscompleted using the experts. Projects might be organized by products, regions, customer types, or some otherschema.

Ecologies: This organization has intense competition. Bad parts of the organization starve. Good ones get morework. Everybody is paid for what they actually do, and runs a tiny business that has to show a profit, or theyare fired.Companies who utilize this organization type reflect a rather one-sided view of what goes on inecology. It is also the case that a natural ecosystem has a natural border - ecoregions do not in generalcompete with one another in any way, but are very autonomous.

What is an informal organization? What are its benefits?The informal organization is the interlocking social structure that governs how people work together inpractice. It is the aggregate of behaviors, interactions, norms, personal and professional connections throughwhich work gets done and relationships are built among people who share a common organizational affiliationor cluster of affiliations. It consists of a dynamic set of personal relationships, social networks, communities ofcommon interest, and emotional sources of motivation. The informal organization evolves organically andspontaneously in response to changes in the work environment, the flux of people through its porousboundaries, and the complex social dynamics of its members. An informal organization is one which is notreliant on a hierarchical structure, typical of large-scale companies. It is not typical for an entire organizationto be informal, as this could cause problems which are discussed in a moment, but formal organizations dotend to have informal ones within them. Informal organizations have very loose structures. People canbecome members freely and sometimes spontaneously; relationships are undefined and the sharing ofresponsibility and involvement of members will vary considerably. The best example to give is anorganization’s football team. One might find a managing director, a manager and a manual worker all on thesame team- and we know that relationships between them will be very different than in the office place. So,the football team is an informal organization; the company as a whole is formal since it has increasing levels ofpower. The advantages of informal organizations are that they create strong relationships between theirmembers. There is no theoretical "boss" and this makes all members feel like a larger part of the organizationas a whole. The disadvantages, which explain why there are few purely informal organizations, are that a lackof structure can result in a reduction in professionalism. The company cannot benefit from different peoplemanaging different areas easily. Finally, the members cannot look to the future- after all, with no-one abovethem, they cannot look for promotion and therefore find themselves stuck with the same job.

Q. Distinguish between formal and informal organization.Formal organizations:-They are registered org. and are under the control of govt/private sector. These org. areincluded in organized sector. These org. include MN Cs, Insurance companies, Schools, Malls, etc. In short theyare those org. which employ people organisedly. Informal Organizations:- They are not registered and areamongs local basis only. They are those org. which are not under the control of govt. or organized sector. Theyinclude small shops, Hockers, etc.

Q. “An organization is a social system”- Explain.A social system is a complex set of human relationships interacting in many ways. Within an organization, thesocial system includes all the people in it and their relationships to each other and to the outside world. Thebehavior of one member can have an impact, either directly or indirectly, on the behavior of others. Also, thesocial system does not have boundaries... it exchanges goods, ideas, culture, etc. with the environment aroundit. Culture is the conventional behavior of a society that encompasses beliefs, customs, knowledge, andpractices. It influences human behavior, even though it seldom enters into their conscious thought. Peopledepend on culture as it gives them stability, security, understanding, and the ability to respond to a givensituation. This is why people fear change. They fear the system will become unstable, their security will be lost,they will not understand the new process, and they will not know how to respond to the new situations.Individualization is when employees successfully exert influence on the social system by challenging theculture.

Q. “Informal organization grow within formal organization” elaborate the statement.Historically, some have regarded the informal organization as the byproduct of insufficient formalorganization—arguing, for example, that “it can hardly be questioned that the ideal situation in the businessorganization would be one where no informal organization existed.” However, the contemporary approach—one suggested as early as 1925 by Mary Parker Follett, the pioneer of community centers and author ofinfluential works on management philosophy—is to integrate the informal organization and the formalorganization, recognizing the strengths and limitations of each. Integration, as Follett defined it, meansbreaking down apparent sources of conflict into their basic elements and then building new solutions thatneither allow domination nor require compromise. In other words, integrating the informal organization withthe formal organization replaces competition with coherence. At a societal level, the importance of therelationship between formal and informal structures can be seen in the relationship between civil society andstate authority. The power of integrating the formal organization and the informal organization can also beseen in many successful businesses.

Q. Define management and explain its nature.

Management in all business and organizational activities is the act of getting people together to accomplishdesired goals and objectives using available resources efficiently and effectively. Management comprisesplanning, organizing, staffing, leading or directing, and controlling an organization (a group of one or morepeople or entities) or effort for the purpose of accomplishing a goal. Resourcing encompasses the deploymentand manipulation of human resources, financial resources, technological resources and natural resources.Since organizations can be viewed as systems, management can also be defined as human action, includingdesign, to facilitate the production of useful outcomes from a system. This view opens the opportunity to'manage' oneself, a pre-requisite to attempting to manage others.

Nature of Management.In for-profit work, management has as its primary function the satisfaction of a range of stakeholders. Thistypically involves making a profit (for the shareholders), creating valued products at a reasonable cost (forcustomers) and providing rewarding employment opportunities (for employees). In nonprofit management,add the importance of keeping the faith of donors. In most models of management/governance, shareholdersvote for the board of directors, and the board then hires senior management. Some organizations haveexperimented with other methods (such as employee-voting models) of selecting or reviewing managers; butthis occurs only very rarely.

In the public sector of countries constituted as representative democracies, voters elect politicians to publicoffice. Such politicians hire many managers and administrators, and in some countries like the United Statespolitical appointees lose their jobs on the election of a new president/governor/mayor.

1. Universality: Management is an universal phenomenon in the sense that it is common and essentialelement in all enterprises. Managers perform more or less the same functions irrespective of their position ornature of the organization. The basic principles of management can be applied in all managerial situationsregardless of the size, nature and location of the organization. Universality of managerial tasks and principlesalso implies that managerial skills are transferable and managers can be trained and developed.

2. Purposeful: Management is always aimed at achieving organizational goals and purposes. The success ofmanagement is measured by the extent to which the desired objectives are attained. In both economic andnon-economic enterprises, the tasks of management are directed towards effectiveness (i.e., attainment oforganizational goals) and efficiency (i.e., goal attainment with economy of resource use).

3. Social process: Management essentially involves managing people organized in work groups. It includesretaining, Developing and motivating people at work, as well as taking care of their satisfaction as socialbeings. All these interpersonal relations and interactions makes the management as asocial process.

4. Coordinating force: Management coordinates the efforts of organization members through orderlyarrangement of inter-related activities so as to avoid duplication and overlapping. Management reconciles theindividual goals with the organizational goals and integrates human and physical resources.

5. Intangible: Management is intangible. It is an unseen force. Its presence can be felt everywhere by theresults of its effort which comes in the form of orderliness, adequate work output, satisfactory workingclimate, employees satisfaction etc.

6. Continuous process: Management is a dynamic and an on-going process. The cycle of managementcontinues to operate so long as there is organised action for the achievement of group goals.

7. Composite process: Functions of management cannot be undertaken sequentially, independent of eachother. Management is a composite process made up of individual ingredients. All the functions are performedby involving several ingredients. Therefore, the whole process is integrative and performed in a networkfashion.

8. Creative organ: Management creates energetics effect by producing results which are more than the sum ofindividual efforts of the group members. It provides sequence to operations, matches jobs to goals, connectswork to physical and financial resources. It provides creative ideas, new imaginations and visions to groupefforts. It is not a passive force adopting to external environment but a dynamic life giving element in everyorganization.

Q. Discuss the systems theory of management.Systems theory has had a significant effect on management science and understanding organizations. First,let’s look at “what is a system?” A system is a collection of part unified to accomplish an overall goal. If onepart of the system is removed, the nature of the system is changed as well. For example, a pile of sand is not a

system. If one removes a sand particle, you’ve still got a pile of sand. However, a functioning car is a system.Remove the carburetor and you’ve no longer got a working car. A system can be looked at as having inputs,processes, outputs and outcomes. Systems share feedback among each of these four aspects of the systems.Let’s look at an organization. Inputs would include resources such as raw materials, money, technologies andpeople. These inputs go through a process where they’re planned, organized, motivated and controlled,ultimately to meet the organization’s goals. Outputs would be products or services to a market. Outcomeswould be, e.g., enhanced quality of life or productivity for customers/clients, productivity. Feedback would beinformation from human resources carrying out the process, customers/clients using the products, etc.Feedback also comes from the larger environment of the organization, e.g., influences from government,society, economics, and technologies. This overall system framework applies to any system, includingsubsystems (departments, programs, etc.) in the overall organization. Systems theory may seem quite basic.Yet, decades of management training and practices in the workplace have not followed this theory. Onlyrecently, with tremendous changes facing organizations and how they operate, have educators and managerscome to face this new way of looking at things. This interpretation has brought about a significant change (orparadigm shift) in the way management studies and approaches organizations. The effect of systems theory inmanagement is that writers, educators, consultants, etc. are helping managers to look at the organization froma broader perspective. Systems theory has brought a new perspective for managers to interpret patterns andevents in the workplace. They recognize the various parts of the organization, and, in particular, theinterrelations of the parts, e.g., the coordination of central administration with its programs, engineering withmanufacturing, supervisors with workers, etc. This is a major development. In the past, managers typicallytook one part and focused on that. Then they moved all attention to another part. The problem was that anorganization could, e.g., have a wonderful central administration and wonderful set of teachers, but thedepartments didn’t synchronize at all.

Q. Explain the contingency theory of management.Basically, contingency theory asserts that when managers make a decision, they must take into account allaspects of the current situation and act on those aspects that are key to the situation at hand. Basically, it’s theapproach that “it depends.” For example, the continuing effort to identify the best leadership or managementstyle might now conclude that the best style depends on the situation. If one is leading troops in the PersianGulf, an autocratic style is probably best (of course, many might argue here, too). If one is leading a hospital oruniversity, a more participative and facilitative leadership style is probably best.

Q. Explain theory Z as expounded by William Ouchi.William Ouchi is an American professor of business management who has worked at the Stanford businessschool and the Anderson School of Management at the University of California for many years. He first came toprominence in 1981 for his work on bridging the gap between American management, then in decline, andJapanese management, then riding a boom. His belief that American business could learn from themanagement beliefs of Japanese industry led to his idea of Theory Z and his first book, "Theory Z: HowAmerican Management Can Beat the Japanese Challenge". The book became a New York Times best-seller andtoday ranks as the 7th most widely-read business book in all US libraries. His theory is now regarded asinfluencing the management style of major organisations such as IBM, Procter and Gamble and HewlettPackard.

The Different Assumptions Between American and Japanese ManagementJust as Douglas MacGregor's theory X and Y were based on management assumptions about people, so too isOuichi's Theory Z approach. Here are 5 Theory Z principles.

1. Job Security : The Japanese Theory Z approach believes that people are a far too valuable resource to belost when the economy has a downturn. In a recession, the Japanese don't fire people, they'll reduce theirhours until things pick up. By contrast, when a US company is in trouble, they waste no time laying people offand as a result lose all the knowledge, skills, and expertise that go with them.

2. Trust : The Japanese feel that you should never give people a reason to distrust you. Loyalty is expected ofall employees. In American companies, distrust and suspicion are endemic. If a person or supplier is notdelivering, the company will go elsewhere for a better deal.

3. Decision-Taking : There are two differences between the Japanese and American approaches to decision-making. In Japanese companies, everyone gets involved in the decision-taking process as part of their

commitment to the organisation. As a result, the process is slow. In the US, decision-taking is the responsibilityof the few and so is quick.

4. Teamwork: In Japan, organisational success is viewed as the result of team effort, so it is illogical to rewardinvididuals. In the US, there is still a belief that, if you do the work and claim the results, you should get thereward.

5. Motivation and Target-Setting: The Japanese corporation rarely sets invididuals targets as a way ofmotivating them. They believe that individual motivation comes from others in the team. As a result, it oftentakes years before a Japanese employee receives their first performance evaluation and even longer beforethey are promoted. By contrast, the American corporation believes that the role of management is to set theirsubordinates targets and ensure that these are met, using evaluation and promotion as incentives andrewards.

Q. Why has Henry Fayol been called “The father of Modern management theory”?Henri Fayol was a French mining engineer and management theorist. He developed the theory of ScientificManagement. He studied at the mining school "Ecole Nationale Superieure des Mines" in Saint-Etienne ofFrance. He is well known as the father of modern management theory. Fayol started as an engineer at amining company and he became its managing director in 1888. Fayol's contributions were first published inbook titled "Administration Industrielle et Generale", in 1916. He looked at the problems of managing anorganisation from top management point of view. He has used the term 'administration' instead of'management'. His contributions are generally termed as operational management or administrativemanagement. Fayol has divided the activities of an industrial organisation into six groups. 1.Technical: Relatedto production. 2. Commercial: Related to buying, selling and exchange. 3. Financial: It is search for capital andits optimum use. 4. Security: Protection of property and person. 5. Accounting (Including statistics). 6.Managerial: It includes planning, organisation, command, coordination, and control. Fayol has identified thequalities required in a manager. According to him the qualities a manager has to possess are as under; 1.Physical (health, vigour, and address) 2.Mental (ability to understand and learn, judgement, mental vigour,and capability) 3. Moral (energy, firmness, initiative, loyalty, tact, and dignity) 4. Education (generalacquaintance) 5. Technical (peculiar to the function being performed) 6. Experience (arising form the work).Fayol listed and reviewed fourteen principles of management on the following aspects. Division of Work ,Authority and Responsibility, Discipline, Unity of Command, Unity of Direction, Subordination of IndividualInterest to General Interest, Remuneration, Centralization, Scalar Chain, Order, Equity, Stability of Tenure ofPersonnel, Initiative, Esprit de Corps. The principles enunciated are not aimed at being exhaustive but are theones to which Fayol had recourse most often. He stresses the universality of such principles and theirapplication not only to business but also for the success of all associations of individuals. Fayol regarded theelements of management as the functions of management. He said that management should be viewed as aprocess consisting of 5 elements. They are Planning, Organising, Commanding, Coordination, Controlling. Hehas regarded planning as the most important managerial function. Creation of organisation structure andcommanding function is necessary to execute plans. Coordination is necessary to make sure that every one isworking together , and control looks whether everything is proceeding according to the plan.

Q. Who is the father of scientific management? What was his major concern?Frederick Winslow Taylor (March 20, 1856 – March 21, 1915) was an American mechanical engineer whosought to improve industrial efficiency. He is regarded as the father of scientific management and was one ofthe first management consultants. Taylor was one of the intellectual leaders of the Efficiency Movement andhis ideas, broadly conceived, were highly influential in the Progressive Era. The main elements of his theorywere: 1. Management is a true science. The solution to the problem of determining fair work standards andpractices could be discovered by experimentation and observation. From this, it follows, that there is "oneright way" for work to be performed. 2. The selection of workers is a science. Taylor's "first class worker" wassomeone suitable for the job. It was management's role to determine the kind of work for which an employeewas most suited, and to hire and assign workers accordingly. 3. Workers are to be developed and trained. It ismanagement's task to not only engineer a job that can be performed efficiently, but management isresponsible for training the worker as to how the work is to be performed and for updating practices as betterones are developed. This standardizes how the work is performed in the best way. 4. Scientific management isa collaboration of workers and managers. Managers are not responsible for execution of work, but they areresponsible for how the work is done. Planning, scheduling, methods, and training are

Q. State the essentials of quantitative management theory.

Quantitative Management (also known as Operations Research) off ers a systematic and scientific approach toproblem solving and decision making in complex environments and situations of uncertainty and conflict. Thediscipline is characterised by a search for an optimal (best) answer for a problem by using quantitative(numerical) models. The use of mathematical models enables a decision maker to better understand theproblems facing him/her and provides a tool for making informed and reasoned judgements. QuantitativeManagement is a practical field. It can be applied in many areas: Manufacturing, businesses management,banking, environmental planning, mining, housing and engineering projects, management consultancy – infact, in every situation where numerical data are available and management or decision making takes place.The aim of the undergraduate program in Quantitative Management is to give a student a substantivetheoretical background in Quantitative Management, and – at the same time – to inculcate modeling skills andsystematic thinking when solving decision making problems. At the conclusion of each year of the curriculum astudent would be equipped with a variety of techniques and the skill of applying them to problems that arise inpractice. Quantitative Management is a multidisciplinary subject that can be usefully combined with any othersubject in this College.

Q. What is meant by the term “management theory jungle”?The purpose of this article is to identify the various schools of management theory, indicate the source of thedifferences, and to provide some suggestions for disentangling the management theory jungle. Koontzdescribes six schools of management theory as follows. 1. The Management Process School, 2. The EmpiricalSchool, 3. The Human Behavior School, 4. The Social System School, 5. The Decision Theory School, 6. TheMathematical School. The Major Sources of Mental Entanglement that create the Management Theory Jungle.Five sources of entanglement or confusion include the following: 1. The Semantics Jungle - There is noagreement on the meaning of the words management, organization, leadership, communication, and humanrelations to give a few examples. 2. Differences in the Definition of Management as a Body of Knowledge -What is management? Who is a manager? If everything is management and everyone is a manager, how canmanagement theory be regarded as a useful or scientific? 3. The a priori Assumption - Ignoring the work ofFayol, Mooney, Brown, Urwick, Gulick and others on the grounds that they are universalists. 4. TheMisunderstanding of Principles - For example, confusion over the validity of principles such as unity ofcommand, and span of control. 5. The Inability or Unwillingness of Management Theorists to Understandeach other - The roadblock to understanding is unwillingness.

Q. Describe the contributions of Frank and lillina Gilbreth to put scientific management into effect.Lillian and Frank Gilbreth were certain that the revolutionary ideas of Frederick Winslow Taylor, as Taylorformulated them, would be neither easy to implement nor sufficient; their implementation would require hardwork by both engineers and psychologists to make them successful. Both Lillian and Frank Gilbreth believedthat scientific management as formulated by Taylor fell short when it came to managing the human elementon the shop floor. The Gilbreths helped formulate a constructive critique of Taylorism; this critique had thesupport of other successful managers.Her work included the marketing research for Johnson & Johnson in1926 and her efforts to improve women’s spending decisions during the first years of the Great Depression.She also helped companies such as Johnson & Johnson and Macys with their management departments. In1926, when Johnson & Johnson hired Lillian as a consultant to do marketing research on sanitary napkins., thefirm benefited in three ways. First, it could use her training as a psychologist in measuring and the analysis ofattitudes and opinions. Second, it could give her the experience of an engineer who specializes in theinteraction between bodies and material objects. Third, she would be a public image as a mother and amodern career woman to build consumer trust.

Q. “Management is culture-bound”- explain.Because we live in a cross-cultural world.Diversity is a very similar issue-most workforces are increasinglydiverse- in terms of age,gender,ethnic origin,qualifications etc so managing complex staff. Culture affectsmanagement by affecting the values and beliefs that managers hold towards their job, coworkers andemployees, and the organization. For example, in western management, business values. Any where fromsome degree to the nth degree depending upon your identification with your culture. Culture is learned. Thosewho apply what they learn are bound by those actions. Many people believe that safety should be part of the

workplace culture. In many workplaces, it is clearly not part of the culture, and so must be achieved bymanagement initiative.

Q. Importance of management in organization. It helps in Achieving Group Goals - It arranges the factors of production, assembles and organizes theresources, integrates the resources in effective manner to achieve goals. It directs group efforts towardsachievement of pre-determined goals. By defining objective of organization clearly there would be no wastageof time, money and effort. Optimum Utilization of Resources - Management utilizes all the physical &human resources productively. This leads to efficacy in management. Management provides maximumutilization of scarce resources by selecting its best possible alternate use in industry from out of various uses. Itmakes use of experts, professional and these services leads to use of their skills, knowledge, and properutilization and avoids wastage. Reduces Costs - It gets maximum results through minimum input by properplanning and by using minimum input & getting maximum output. Management uses physical, human andfinancial resources in such a manner which results in best combination. This helps in cost reduction. Establishes Sound Organization - No overlapping of efforts (smooth and coordinated functions). To establishsound organizational structure is one of the objective of management which is in tune with objective oforganization and for fulfillment of this, it establishes effective authority & responsibility relationship i.e. who isaccountable to whom, who can give instructions to whom, who are superiors & who are subordinates.Establishes Equilibrium - It enables the organization to survive in changing environment. It keeps in touch withthe changing environment. With the change is external environment, the initial co-ordination of organizationmust be changed. So it adapts organization to changing demand of market / changing needs of societies. Essentials for Prosperity of Society - Efficient management leads to better economical production which helpsin turn to increase the welfare of people. Good management makes a difficult task easier by avoiding wastageof scarce resource. It improves standard of living.

Q. Distinguish between the science of management and the art of management.FOUNDATIONS OF THE MANAGEMENT AS A SCIENCE PERSPECTIVE

Practicing managers who believe in management as a science are likely to believe that there are idealmanagerial practices for certain situations. That is, when faced with a managerial dilemma, the manager whobelieves in the scientific foundation of his or her craft will expect that there is a rational and objective way todetermine the correct course of action. This manager is likely to follow general principles and theories and alsoby creating and testing hypotheses. For instance, if a manager has a problem with an employee's poor workperformance, the manager will look to specific means of performance improvement, expecting that certainprinciples will work in most situations. He or she may rely on concepts learned in business school or through acompany training program when determining a course of action, perhaps paying less attention to political andsocial factors involved in the situation. Many early management researchers subscribed to the vision ofmanagers as scientists. The scientific management movement was the primary driver of this perspective.Scientific management, pioneered by Frederick W. Taylor, Frank and Lillian Gilbreth, and others, attempted todiscover "the one best way" to perform jobs. They used scientific processes to evaluate and organize work sothat it became more efficient and effective. Scientific management's emphasis on both reducing inefficienciesand on understanding the psychology of workers changed manager and employee attitudes towards thepractice of management. See Exhibit 1 for a summary of the principles of scientific management.

FOUNDATIONS OF THE MANAGEMENT AS AN ART PERSPECTIVE

Practicing managers who believe in management as an art are unlikely to believe that scientific principles andtheories will be able to implemented in actual managerial situations. Instead, these managers are likely to relyon the social and political environment surrounding the managerial issue, using their own knowledge of asituation, rather than generic rules, to determine a course of action. For example, as a contrast to the examplegiven previously, a manager who has a problem with an employee's poor work performance is likely to rely onhis or her own experiences and judgment when addressing this issue. Rather than having a standard responseto such a problem, this manager is likely to consider a broad range of social and political factors, and is likely totake different actions depending on the context of the problem. Henry Mintzberg is probably the most well-known and prominent advocate of the school of thought that management is an art. Mintzberg is an academicresearcher whose work capturing the actual daily tasks of real managers was ground breaking research for itstime. Mintzberg, through his observation of actual managers in their daily work, determined that managers didnot sit at their desks, thinking, evaluating, and deciding all day long, working for long, uninterrupted timeperiods. Rather, Mintzberg determined that mangers engaged in very fragmented work, with constant

interruptions and rare opportunities to quietly consider managerial issues. Thus, Mintzberg revolutionizedthinking about managers at the time that his work was published, challenging the prior notion that managersbehaved rationally and methodically. This was in line with the perspective of management as an art, because itindicated that managers did not necessarily have routine behaviors throughout their days, but instead usedtheir own social and political skills to solve problems that arose throughout the course of work.

“Management is getting things done through others”-explain the statement.This has become a very popular definition of management for several reasons. Firstly, this definition is verysimple and easy to understand. Secondly, it highlights the indirect nature of a manager's job. A manager doesnot operate a machine or sell a product himself. Rather he guides others in producing and selling goods andservices. Thirdly, this definition reveals that a manager is the leader of people working under him. Fourthly, itstates that management is basically an art or practice of achieving results. The above definition is, however,inadequate for the present day concept of management. It suffers from the following drawbacks. (i) Thisdefinition does not reveal that management is a science. The modern concept of management is much widerthan simply a skill in getting things done through other people. Since the days of F.W. Taylor management hasbecome a science based on certain fundamental principles. (ii) The above definition does not highlight howdoes management get things done through people. It fails to reveal the functions of a manager and the skillsused for getting things done. (iii) This definition does not recognize the role of human beings. It treats peopleas mere tools forgetting results and does not consider their feelings, emotions and needs. People areinanimate objects and cannot be treated as mere tools. (iv)The above definition gives an impression thatmanagement gets things done by hook or crook. Results alone are not significant. The means employed toachieve results are equally important. This definition is of man's putative character. (v) This definition does notreveal that a formal organizational set up is needed for getting things done.

Q. Distinguish between administration and management.Distinguish between administration and management

Q. What are the key characteristics of Japanese management practices?

The culture of Japanese management that is often portrayed in Western media is generally limited to Japan'slarge corporations. These flagships of the Japanese economy provide their workers with excellent salaries,secure employment, and working conditions. These companies and their employees are the business elite ofJapan. Though not as much for the new generation still a career with such a company is the dream of manyyoung people in Japan, but only a select few attain these jobs. Qualification for employment is limited to thefew men and women who graduate from the top thirty colleges and universities in Japan. Service to the public– by providing high-quality goods and services at reasonable prices, we contribute to the public’s well-being;Fairness and honesty – we will be fair and honest in all our business dealings and personal conduct; Teamworkfor the common cause – we will pool abilities, based on manual trust and respect; Uniting effort forimprovement – we will constantly strive to improve our corporate and personal performances; Courtesy andhumility – we will always be cordial and modest and respect the rights and needs of others;

Accordance with natural laws – we will abide by the laws of nature and adjust to the ever-changing conditionsaround us; and Gratitude for blessings – we will always be grateful for all the blessings and kindness we havereceived.”The “guiding principles” were “remarkable for their time.”

Q. What is management by objective(MBO)? Discuss the process of MBO.Management by Objectives (MBO) is a process of defining objectives within an organization so thatmanagement and employees agree to the objectives and understand what they need to do in the organization.The term "management by objectives" was first popularized by Peter Drucker in his 1954 book 'The Practice ofManagement'. The essence of MBO is participative goal setting, choosing course of actions and decisionmaking. An important part of the MBO is the measurement and the comparison of the employee’s actualperformance with the standards set. Ideally, when employees themselves have been involved with the goalsetting and choosing the course of action to be followed by them, they are more likely to fulfill theirresponsibilities. According to George S. Odiorne, the system of management by objectives can be described asa process whereby the superior and subordinate managers of an organization jointly identify its commongoals, define each individual's major areas of responsibility in terms of the results expected of him, and usethese measures as guides for operating the unit and assessing the contribution of each of its members. Here isa quick 5 step process outline that most companies use to manage MBOs (Management by Objectives),recapping some of the things I talked about in my last post. As you will see, this is just common sense. First,companies need to set corporate objectives. Some goals are then set for the employees to meet thoseobjectives. The employee performance is then measured through the performance cycle, and evaluated at theend. Finally, the employee is rewarded for his or her performance, and we repeat the cycle.

To elaborate on the comments I received in the last post, setting good objectives is very important; that’s atthe core of MBOs. Depending on the level of sophistication of the MBO solution, some help with objectivesetting, but most solutions simply help out to manage them. A big aspect of MBO solutions is the performancemonitoring. Traditionally, that’s an activity performed at the end of a performance cycle. With an MBOsolution, managers can usually record some feedback about how employees performed on a certain milestoneat anytime. This way, the employee’s contribution is not forgotten when it’s time to evaluate them. The

performance evaluation is another big piece of MBO management. It is related to performance monitoringbut records final observations

Q. Following Henry Mintzberg explain the different roles played by managers.Mintzberg then identified ten separate roles in managerial work, each role defined as an organised collectionof behaviours belonging to an identifiable function or position. He separated these roles into threesubcategories: interpersonal contact (1, 2, 3), information processing (4, 5, 6) and decision making (7-10).

1. FIGUREHEAD: the manager performs ceremonial and symbolic duties as head of the organisation;2. LEADER: fosters a proper work atmosphere and motivates and develops subordinates;3. LIASION: develops and maintains a network of external contacts to gather information;4. MONITOR: gathers internal and external information relevant to the organisation;5. DISSEMINATOR: transmits factual and value based information to subordinates;6. SPOKESPERSON: communicates to the outside world on performance and policies.7. ENTREPRENEUR: designs and initiates change in the organisation;8. DISTURBANCE HANDLER: deals with unexpected events and operational breakdowns;9. RESOURCE ALLOCATOR: controls and authorises the use of organisational resources;10. NEGOTIATOR: participates in negotiation activities with other organisations and individuals.

Q. Explain the various interpersonal skills of managers.The list of interpersonal skills as a manager includes items that can be invaluable to any type of managementposition.

1. Conflict Management: Conflict management is an essential interpersonal skill that all managers need tohave an understanding of, according to management expert Gregorio Billikopf writing on the University ofCalifornia at Berkeley website. Do not allow conflict between employees to go unaddressed. If you seeconflict starting to happen, take the employees aside and try to address the conflict immediately. The longera pending conflict goes unchecked, the worse it will be when it finally does result in a confrontation.

2. Body Language: Much of what an employee gets from a conversation with you comes from your bodylanguage and the signals you give, according to business communication expert Lyndsay Swinton writing onthe Management for the Rest of Us website. Body language signals such as crossing your arms and notmaking eye contact can make an employee believe that something bad is about to happen. Work on yourbody language skills to make sure you get the point across correctly every time. Make eye contact with youremployee when you are talking to him, and avoid authoritative signals such as crossing your arms that cangive the wrong impression. By the same token, crossing your arms when you are trying to make a seriouspoint will help the employee to understand that you mean what you say.

3. Involvement: When you manage several people, you need to remember that the individual tasks of eachemployee are important to them. If you assign tasks, then keep a log so that you know which employee isengaged in which projects. Have weekly meetings with employees to discuss the activities they are doing intheir daily job tasks, and stay up to date on what all of your employees are doing.

4. Confidant: As a manager, you do not want to get too intimately involved in the personal lives of youremployees. But becoming an employee confidant for the personal issues that affect employees' workperformance is a skill that all managers need to have. If a personal issue is affecting an employee'sperformance, then encourage that employee to let you know what is going on. You cannot help anemployee if he does not give you some idea of what the issue is. Work with your human resourcesdepartment to come up with solutions that will benefit the employee and the company.

Q. What are the skills and interpersonal characteristics that a managers has to possess?Managers need various skills ranging from technical to design to be effective. The relative importance of theseskills varies according to the level in the organization. In addition, analytical and problem-solving abilities andcertain personal characteristics are sought in managers. Analytical and problem solving abilities: One of thefrequently mentioned skills desired of managers is analytical and problem solving ability. In other words,managers must be able to identify problems, analyze complex situations, and by solving the problemsencountered, exploit the opportunities presented. Desire to manage: The successful manager has a strongdesire to manage, to influence others, and to get results through team efforts of subordinates. To be sure,many people want the privileges of managerial positions, which include high status and salary but they lack the

basic motivation to achieve results by creating an environment in which people work together towardcommon aims. The desire to manage requires effort, time, energy, and, usually, long hours of work.Communication skills and empathy: Another important characteristic of managers is the ability tocommunicate through written reports, letters, speeches, and discussions. Communication demands clarity, buteven more, it demands empathy. This is the ability to understand the feelings of another person and to dealwith the emotional aspects of communication. Communication skills are important for effective intra-groupcommunication, that is, communication with people in the same organizational unit. Integrity and honesty:Managers must morally sound and worthy of trust. Integrity in managers includes honesty in money mattersand in dealing with others, effort to keep superiors informed, adherence to the full truth, strength ofcharacter, and behavior in accordance with ethical standards. Past performance as a manager: Pastperformance as a manager is probably the most reliable forecast of a manager's future performance. Ofcourse, an assessment of managerial experience is not possible in selecting first-line supervisors from theranks, since they have not had such experience.

Q. “Every manager is a decision maker” discuss.Decision making is a central aspect of virtually every management and business activity; important decisionsare not only made by managers and entrepreneurs, but also by the consumers of their goods and services, andby their business rivals, partners and employees. The ability to understand how decisions are made, and topredict, guide and improve those decisions, will be an invaluable part of every manager's toolbox. It is thisability that will be developed in this course. Some decisions are impossible to make analytically, for lack oftime, data, computational ability, or awareness. These are situations that could put decision makers at risk offalling into systematic biases and errors. The first part of this course will raise your awareness about these'traps' with a view to becoming a better intuitive decision maker. Other decisions are made with and requireextensive thought and analysis, as the stakes are high, there are multiple conflicting objectives to balance, andmany sources of uncertainty about the future. To these decisions we will devote the second half of the course,where you will learn how to structure decision problems, identify relevant objectives and make trade-offsamong them when objectives are in conflict with one another, as well as, represent and analyse the mainuncertainties and risks involved in a decision.

Q. As a manager describe when a plan considered an effective plan.Project managers can get a head start on success by creating a project planning guide that serves as areference tool for current and future projects. The project planning guide should be company-specific, takingthe organization’s size and standard processes into account, yet flexible enough to accommodate projects ofvarying size and scope. A project manager who is working for a small company and coordinating relatively fewteam members faces a far different task than one who is managing a large, complex project with man. Aneffective project planning guide should outline the questions that need to be answered at the outset in orderto establish clear and measurable project goals and identify the budget and departmental resources requiredfor its completion. Senior management plays an important role in the preliminary steps of a project, as theseindividuals must sign off on the project’s goals and objectives and allocate the necessary resources. It is theresponsibility of the project sponsor to obtain executive-level buy-in, but a project manager will often assist inpreparing the initial presentation or request.

Q. How do the managerial skills differ in the organizational hierarchy?Organisations have usually three levels. Top management is connected with planning & strategy making foroverall organisations & monitoring functional managers & their functions through control reports. Topmanagement should know how to manage managers. Middle level management need to know how to managetheir functions & use their functional skills & managerial skills to unify their activities to overall goalachievement of the organisations. Lower echelon of management should know how to use job .operationalskills to manage their job/operations.Managerial skills at top level would be Managing the managers & atmiddle level managing the functional area & lower level managing the job.

Q. Briefly discuss the different styles of decision making.Intuitive Style: Some people are spontaneous by nature and like to decide “on the spot”. Experience andcircumstances may sometimes support this type of problem solving approach. However, those whoconsistently use this style are – admittedly – comfortable with the “trial and error”, or “hit and miss”approach. Limited Procrastination Style: Not to be confused with never wanting to make a decision, this style

involves the delaying of a decision until enough factors have been evaluated and/or enough time has gone byfor the situation to stabilize. Systematic Style: Involves identifying and evaluating each possible course ofaction. Of all the decision making styles, this is obviously the most likely candidate for computer based decisionmaking tools. Individualistic Style: Some individuals prefer to research and arrive at a decision on their own,without any active input from others. By Consensus Style: Applies to decisions that have to, or shouldpreferably, be arrived at as a group.

Q. What are the most commonly used tests in the selection process of managers?Examples of employment tests and other selection procedures, many of which can be administered online,include the following: Cognitive tests assess reasoning, memory, perceptual speed and accuracy, and skills in arithmetic and

reading comprehension, as well as knowledge of a particular function or job; Physical ability tests measure the physical ability to perform a particular task or the strength of specific

muscle groups, as well as strength and stamina in general; Sample job tasks (e.g., performance tests, simulations, work samples, and realistic job previews) assess

performance and aptitude on particular tasks; Medical inquiries and physical examinations, including psychological tests, assess physical or mental

health; Personality tests and integrity tests assess the degree to which a person has certain traits or dispositions

(e.g., dependability, cooperativeness, safety) or aim to predict the likelihood that a person will engage incertain conduct (e.g., theft, absenteeism);

Criminal background checks provide information on arrest and conviction history; Credit checks provide information on credit and financial history; Performance appraisals reflect a supervisor’s assessment of an individual’s performance; and English proficiency tests determine English fluency.

Q. “Planning and control are Siamese twins” explain it.PPC comprise the planning, routing, dispatching in the manufacturing process sothat the movement ofmaterial, performance of machines and operation of labour however are subdivided and are directed andcoordinated as to quantity, quality, time and place.Planning and control are two basic and interrelatedmanagerial functions. They are sointerrelated that they can be and often are considered as being one function.Planning is the preparation activity while control is the post-operation function. Both of them are socloselyrelated that they are treated as Siamese twins. Planning sets the objectives, goals, targets onthe basis ofavailable resources with their given constraints. Control is the integral part of effective planning. Similarlycontrol involves assessment of the performance, suchassessment can be made effectively only when somestandard of are set in advance. Planninginvolves setting up to such standard. The controlling is made bycomparing the actual performance with these present standard and deviations are ascertained and analyzed.Production is an organised activity of converting raw materials into useful products but before starting thatwork of actual production, production planning is done in order toanticipated possible difficulties and decidein advance as to how the production should becarried out in the best and economical way.Since mere planningof production is not only sufficient, hence management takesall possible steps to see that project or planchalked by the planning department are properlyadhered to and the standards set are attained in order toachieve it, control over production isexercised. The aim of production control is to produce the products ofright quality, in rightquantity at the right time by using the best and least expensive methods.

Q. What are the requirement for effective control?Tailoring controls to plans and positions:Control techniques should reflect the plans they follow, and reflectthe place in the organization where responsibility for action lies. This enables managers to take action whencontrols differ from their plans. Tailoring controls to individual managers:When controls are tailored toindividual managers, individual managers carry out their functions of control more effectively. The system ofcontrol shouldn't be too ambiguous to people who will utilize it. Making sure the control point upexpectations at critical points:Controls that point out exceptions help managers detect areas that requireattention. Its is best to look for exceptions at critical points, and the exception principle should beaccompanied by principle of critical point control. Seeking objectivity of controls: An objective, accuracy, andsuitable standards are required for effective control technique. Ensuring flexibility of controls: Controls should

remain in place despite unexpected plans, unforeseen circumstances, or outright failures. Fitting the controlsystem to the organizational culture: Systems that fit within the organizational culture are deemed to do best.Achieving economy of controls: Control techniques are most effective when they achieve maximum output atminimum cost. Establishing controls that lead to corrective action:Controls are useful only if they can correctplans through better planning, organization, staffing

Q. Make a comparison of fed forward and feed back systems of control.Feed-forward is a term describing an element or pathway within a control system which passes a controllingsignal from a source in the control system's external environment, often a command signal from an externaloperator, to a load elsewhere in its external environment. A control system which has only feed-forwardbehavior responds to its control signal in a pre-defined way without responding to how the load reacts; it is incontrast with a system that also has feedback, which adjusts the output to take account of how it affects theload, and how the load itself may vary unpredictably; the load is considered to belong to the externalenvironment of the system.

Q. Briefly describe the steps of the basic control process.Controlling is one of the managerial functions like planning, organizing, staffing and directing. It is an importantfunction because it helps to check the errors and to take the corrective action so that deviation from standardsare minimized and stated goals of the organization are achieved in a desired manner.

Control is a continuous process Control is a management process Control is embedded in each level of organizational hierarchy Control is forward looking Control is closely linked with planning Control is a tool for achieving organizational activities Control is an end process

The control process is a continuous flow in Taj between measuring, comparing and action. Naturally Taj followsthe four steps in the control process: establishing performance standards, measuring actual performance,comparing measured performance against established standards, and taking corrective action. Step 1:Establish Performance Standards. Taj's Standards are created when objectives are set during the planningprocess. Its standard is a guideline established as the basis for measurement. It is a precise, explicit statementof expected results from a product, service, machine, individual, or organizational unit. It is usually expressednumerically and is set for quality, quantity, and time. Tolerance is permissible deviation from the standard.Step 2: Measure Actual Performance. Supervisors collect data to measure actual performance to determinevariation from standard. Written data might include time cards, production tallies, inspection reports, andsales tickets. Personal observation, statistical reports, oral reports and written reports can be used to measureperformance. Management by walking around, or observation of employees working, provides unfilteredinformation, extensive coverage, and the ability to read between the lines. While providing insight, thismethod might be misinterpreted by employees as mistrust. Oral reports allow for fast and extensive feedback.Step 3: Compare Measured Performance against Established Standards. Comparing results with standardsdetermines variation. Some variation can be expected in all activities and the range of variation - theacceptable variance - has to be established. Management by exception lets operations continue as long asthey fall within the prescribed control limits. Deviations or differences that exceed this range would alert thesupervisor to a problem. Step 4: Take Corrective Action. The supervisor must find the cause of deviation fromstandard. Then, he or she takes action to remove or minimize the cause. If the source of variation in workperformance is from a deficit in activity, then a supervisor can take immediate corrective action and getperformance back on track. Also, the supervisors can opt to take basic corrective action, which woulddetermine how and why performance has deviated and correct the source of the deviation. Immediatecorrective action is more efficient; however basic corrective action is the more effective.

Q. State the importance of the control process in an organization.There is a strong school of thought holding forth this premise: chaos does not actually exist. What passes forchaos, say some, is simply a lack of complete understanding of the contributing factors in a seemingly chaoticprocess. "No," say others, "chaos exists and can never be fully controlled nor completely understood." Takethis old example. Pour a bucket containing 100 golf balls onto a gymnasium floor and predict the final restingplace of each of the balls. "Impossible," say the chaotic theory proponents, "because the system at work (in

this case, gravity, mass, variable air currents, floor surface, etc.), produces chaos, and things chaotic can neverbe accurately predicted." "Not so," say the anti-chaos zealots. "With enough data at hand, and understandingof the dynamic processes occurring, the path of each ball could be accurately predicted." Given my experiencewith the flight of golf balls, I tend to side with the chaos proponents on this one. Nevertheless, the followingstatements can be made with certainty: much of what passes for chaos in business today is not chaos at all. Itis a failure to control processes that are imminently controllable. Which brings us to three absolutes:

1. Failure to control processes (whether or not you call it chaos), always results in defects and loss ofquality.

2. Compromises in quality always result in customer dissatisfaction.3. Customer dissatisfaction always results in the eventual failure of the product of any product or

service.

Q. “Planning is looking Ahead & Control is looking back” - Comment.Planning is Looking Ahead is true because it contributes heavily to success and gives us some control over thefuture. By, planning we set aside our tasks and deadlines so we can enlarge our mental focus and seeing thebigger picture. By, planning we can set our Personal or organizational goals and for this defiantly we have tolook ahead. But, Planning is not ending with such strategies or guidelines. It has relation with Implementationand controls. Because plans are not always proceed as conceived. The control process measures progresstowards goal attainment and indicate corrective action if too much deviation is detected. Controllinginvestigates whether planning was successful. Controlling referred to as terminal management function, takesplace after the other functions have been completed. And for this process we have to look back and have toanalyze the performance of our planning, organizing and leading. And therefore we have to look back also. So,yes we can say Control is looking back for Investigation, Analysis, and Understandings and for checking oureffectiveness and efficiency.

Q. Describe the significance of accurate planning to modern business.As organization’s senior leadership sets goals for milestones to be reached, it is the responsibility of themanagement team to create initiatives to achieve these milestones. Each will yield an outcome and require aset of resources – it is these outcomes and resource requirements that need to be planned. For example, anorganization that provides services is required to forecast the offerings demanded in the near future, anddetermine whether they are equipped to meet that need. “Will the sales force be able to effectively drivesignificant demand?” “Is the delivery capacity available to meet the anticipated demand that will be generatedby the sales force?” These questions can only be answered once a sales plan has been created and comparedto the staffing demand.These planning goals affect internal, external and financial decisions based upon theorganization’s commitment to these objectives. Therefore, it is critical that these commitments are achievedand that the associated processes provide accurate results.Most planning processes have been an evolutionwithin a company as organizations have grown. Typically, plans are created within spreadsheets and sharedamong a small number of those who direct the business. As organizations grow, their supporting infrastructuregenerally grows faster than the planning infrastructure since planning occurs once a year. As organizationsmature, the planning processes required mature as well. However, the plans are still managed withinspreadsheets.

Q. Describe the relationship between budget and plan.New small business owners may run their businesses in a relaxed way and may not see the need to budget.However, if you are planning for your business' future, you will need to fund your plans. Budgeting is the mosteffective way to control your cashflow, allowing you to invest in new opportunities at the appropriate time.If your business is growing, you may not always be able to be hands-on with every part of it. You may have tosplit your budget up between different areas such as sales, production, marketing etc. You'll find that moneystarts to move in many different directions through your organisation - budgets are a vital tool in ensuring thatyou stay in control of expenditure.A budget is a plan to:

control your finances ensure you can continue to fund your current commitments enable you to make confident financial decisions and meet your objectives

ensure you have enough money for your future projects

It outlines what you will spend your money on and how that spending will be financed. However, it is not aforecast. A forecast is a prediction of the future whereas a budget is a planned outcome of the future - definedby your plan - that your business wants to achieve.

Benefits of a business budget

manage your money effectively allocate appropriate resources to projects monitor performance meet your objectives improve decision-making identify problems before they occur - such as the need to raise finance or cashflow difficulties plan for the future increase staff motivation

Q. What is meant by Management Information System (MIS)?A management information system (MIS) provides information needed to manage organizations efficientlyand effectively. Management information systems involve three primary resources: people, technology, andinformation. Management information systems are distinct from other information systems in that they areused to analyze operational activities in the organization. Academically, the term is commonly used to refer tothe group of information management methods tied to the automation or support of human decision making,e.g. decision support systems, expert systems, and executive information systems.

Q. Advantage of MIS

The following are some of the benefits that can be attained for different types of management informationsystems.

The company is able to highlight their strength and weaknesses due to the presence of revenuereports, employee performance records etc. The identification of these aspects can help the companyto improve their business processes and operations.

Giving an overall picture of the company and acting as a communication and planning tool.

The availability of the customer data and feedback can help the company to align their businessprocesses according to the needs of the customers. The effective management of customer data canhelp the company to perform direct marketing and promotion activities.

Information is considered to be an important asset for any company in the modern competitiveworld. The consumer buying trends and behaviors can be predicted by the analysis of sales andrevenue reports from each operating region of the company.

Q. “Planning and controlling are the cycling work”- explain.PLAN: Establish the objectives and processes necessary to deliver results in accordance with the expectedoutput (the target or goals). By establishing output expectations, the completeness and accuracy of thespecification is also a part of the targeted improvement. When possible start on a small scale to test possibleeffects.

DO : Implement the plan, execute the process, make the product. Collect data for charting and analysis in thefollowing "CHECK" and "ACT" steps.

CHECK : Study the actual results (measured and collected in "DO" above) and compare against the expectedresults (targets or goals from the "PLAN") to ascertain any differences. Charting data can make this mucheasier to see trends over several PDCA cycles and in order to convert the collected data into information.Information is what you need for the next step "ACT".

ACT :Request corrective actions on significant differences between actual and planned results. Analyze thedifferences to determine their root causes. Determine where to apply changes that will include improvement

of the process or product. When a pass through these four steps does not result in the need to improve, thescope to which PDCA is applied may be refined to plan and improve with more detail in the next iteration ofthe cycle.

Q. Briefly describe the process of strategic planning.In today's highly competitive business environment, budget-oriented planning or forecast-based planningmethods are insufficient for a large corporation to survive and prosper. The firm must engage in strategicplanning that clearly defines objectives and assesses both the internal and external situation to formulatestrategy, implement the strategy, evaluate the progress, and make adjustments as necessary to stay on track.A simplified view of the strategic planning process is shown by the following diagram:

The Strategic Planning Process

Mission and Objectives: The mission statement describes the company's business vision, including theunchanging values and purpose of the firm and forward-looking visionary goals that guide the pursuit of futureopportunities. Environmental Scan: The environmental scan includes the following components:

Internal analysis of the firm Analysis of the firm's industry (task environment) External macroenvironment (PEST analysis)

The internal analysis can identify the firm's strengths and weaknesses and the external analysis revealsopportunities and threats. A profile of the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats is generated bymeans of a SWOT analysis

An industry analysis can be performed using a framework developed by Michael Porter known as Porter's fiveforces. This framework evaluates entry barriers, suppliers, customers, substitute products, and industry rivalry.

Strategy Formulation: Given the information from the environmental scan, the firm should match its strengthsto the opportunities that it has identified, while addressing its weaknesses and external threats.

Strategy Implementation: The selected strategy is implemented by means of programs, budgets, andprocedures. Implementation involves organization of the firm's resources and motivation of the staff toachieve objectives.

Evaluation & Control: The implementation of the strategy must be monitored and adjustments made asneeded.

Evaluation and control consists of the following steps:

6. Define parameters to be measured

7. Define target values for those parameters

8. Perform measurements

9. Compare measured results to the pre-defined standard

10. Make necessary changes

Q. What is decision support system? What is its advantage?A decision support system (DSS) is a computer-based information system that supports business ororganizational decision-making activities. DSSs serve the management, operations, and planning levels of anorganization and help to make decisions, which may be rapidly changing and not easily specified in advance.DSSs include knowledge-based systems. A properly designed DSS is an interactive software-based systemintended to help decision makers compile useful information from a combination of raw data, documents,personal knowledge, or business models to identify and solve problems and make decisions.

Benefits:

1. Improves personal efficiency2. Speed up the process of decision making3. Increases organizational control4. Encourages exploration and discovery on the part of the decision maker

Mission & Objectives Environmental Scanning Strategy FormulationStrategy Implementation Evaluation & Control

5. Speeds up problem solving in an organization6. Facilitates interpersonal communication7. Promotes learning or training8. Generates new evidence in support of a decision9. Creates a competitive advantage over competition10. Reveals new approaches to thinking about the problem space11. Helps automate managerial processes

Q. Discuss why banker-customer relationship is very important.Banker customer relationship, is just a special contract where a person entrusts valuable items with anotherperson with an intention that such items shall be retrieved on demand from the keeper by the person who soentrust. Thus the banker is the one who is entrusted with the above mentioned valuable items, while theperson who entrust the terms with a view to retrieving it on demand is called the customer. The relationship isthus based on contract. It is based on certain terms and conditions. For instance, the customer has the right tocollect his deposit on demand personally or by proxy. The banker too is under obligation to pay, so long theproxy is duly authorized by the customer. It has a semblance of creditor /debtor relationship. Thus thecustomer is the creditor who has the right of demand on the money from the banker. As long as the banker iskeeping the customer items, the banker is indebted to the customer. The relationship is also fiducial. Theterms and conditions governing the relationship should not be leaked to a third party, particularly by thebanker. Also the items kept should not be released to a third party without due authorization by the customer.Banker customer relationship, is just a special contract where a person entrusts valuable items with anotherperson with an intention that such items shall be retrieved on demand from the keeper by the person who soentrust. Thus the banker is the one who is entrusted with the above mentioned valuable items, while theperson who entrust the items with a view to retrieving it on demand is called the customer. The relationship isthus based on contract. It is based on certain terms and conditions. For instance, the customer has the right tocollect his deposit on demand personally or by proxy. The banker too is under obligation to pay, so long theproxy is duly authorized by the customer It has a semblance of creditor /debtor relationship. Thus thecustomer is the creditor who has the right of demand on the money from the banker. As long as the banker iskeeping the customer items, the banker is indebted to the customer. The relationship is also fiducial. Theterms and conditions governing the relationship should not be leaked to a third party, particularly by thebanker. Also the items kept should not be released to a third party without due authorization by the customer.

Q. What is code of ethics?An ethical code is adopted by an organization in an attempt to assist those in the organization called upon tomake a decision (usually most, if not all) understand the difference between 'right' and 'wrong' and to applythis understanding to their decision. The ethical code therefore generally implies documents at three levels:codes of business ethics, codes of conduct for employees and codes of professional practice. Code of ethics(corporate or business ethics): A code of business ethics often focuses on social issues. It may set out generalprinciples about an organization's beliefs on matters such as mission, quality, privacy or the environment. Itmay delineate proper procedures to determine whether a violation of the code of ethics has occurred and, ifso, what remedies should be imposed. The effectiveness of such codes of ethics depends on the extent towhich management supports them with sanctions and rewards. Code of conduct (employee ethics): A code ofconduct for employees sets out the procedures to be used in specific ethical situations, such as conflicts ofinterest or the acceptance of gifts, and delineate the procedures to determine whether a violation of the codeof ethics occurred and, if so, what remedies should be imposed. Code of practice (professional ethics): A codeof practice is adopted by a profession or by a governmental or non-governmental organization to regulate thatprofession. A code of practice may be styled as a code of professional responsibility, which will discuss difficultissues, difficult decisions that will often need to be made, and provide a clear account of what behavior isconsidered "ethical" or "correct" or "right" in the circumstances.

conceptConcept is an idea of something formed by mentally combining all its characteristics or particulars; a construct.

principleA principle is a law or rule that has to be, or usually is to be followed, or can be desirably followed, or is aninevitable consequence of something, such as the laws observed in nature or the way that a system isconstructed. The principles of such a system are understood by its users as the essential characteristics of the

system, or reflecting system's designed purpose, and the effective operation or use of which would beimpossible if any one of the principles was to be ignored.Examples of principles:

a descriptive comprehensive and fundamental law, doctrine, or assumption, a normative rule or code of conduct, a law or fact of nature underlying the working of an artificial device.

A principle refers to a fundamental truth. It establishes cause and effect relationship between two or morevariables under given situation. They serve as a guide to thought & actions.Therefore, management principles are the statements of fundamental truth based on logic which providesguidelines for managerial decision making and actions. These principles are derived: -

a. On the basis of observation and analysis i.e. practical experience of managers.b. By conducting experimental studies.

TheoryTheory - a well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world; an organized system ofaccepted knowledge that applies in a variety of circumstances to explain a specific set of phenomena;"theories can incorporate facts and laws and tested hypotheses"; "true in fact and theory".

A collection of ideas which set forth general rules on how to manage a business or organization. Managementtheory addresses how managers and supervisors relate to their organizations in the knowledge of its goals, theimplementation of effective means to get the goals accomplished and how to motivate employees to performto the highest standard.

Theory is a proposed explanation whose status is still conjectural and subject to experimentation, in contrastto well-established propositions that are regarded as reporting matters of actual fact. Synonyms: idea, notionhypothesis, postulate. Antonyms: practice, verification, corroboration, substantiation.

Conflictconflict - an open clash between two opposing groups (or individuals); "the harder the conflict the moreglorious the triumph"--Thomas Paine; "police tried to control the battle between the pro- and anti-abortionmobs"

An armed struggle or clash between organized groups within a nation or between nations in order to achievelimited political or military objectives. Although regular forces are often involved, irregular forces frequentlypredominate. Conflict often is protracted, confined to a restricted geographic area, and constrained inweaponry and level of violence. Within this state, military power in response to threats may be exercised in anindirect manner while supportive of other instruments of national power. Limited objectives may be achievedby the short, focused, and direct application of force.

In literature, conflict is an inherent incompatibility between the objectives of two or more characters or forces.Conflict creates tension and interest in a story by adding doubt as to the outcome. A narrative is not limited toa single conflict. While conflicts may not always resolve in narrative, the resolution of a conflict createsclosure, which may or may not occur at a story's end.

Basic nature of conflictConflict in literature refers to the different drives of the characters or forces involved. Conflict may be internalor external—that is, it may occur within a character's mind or between a character and exterior forces. Conflictis most visible between two or more characters, usually a protagonist and an antagonist/enemy/villain, butcan occur in many different forms. A character may as easily find himself or herself in conflict with a naturalforce, such as an animal or a weather event, like a hurricane. The literary purpose of conflict is to createtension in the story, making readers more interested by leaving them uncertain which of the characters orforces will prevail.

There may be multiple points of conflict in a single story, as characters may have more than one desire or maystruggle against more than one opposing force. When a conflict is resolved and the reader discovers whichforce or character succeeds, it creates a sense of closure. Conflicts may resolve at any point in a story,particularly where more than one conflict exists, but stories do not always resolve every conflict. If a story endswithout resolving the main or major conflict(s), it is said to have an "open" ending. Open endings, which can

serve to ask the reader to consider the conflict more personally, may not satisfy them, but obvious conflictresolution may also leave readers disappointed in the story.

ClassificationThe basic types of conflict in fiction have been commonly codified as "man against man", "man againstnature", and "man against self." In each case, "man" is the universal and refers to women as well.

Although frequently cited, these three types of conflict are not universally accepted. Ayn Rand, for instance,argued that "man against nature" is not a conflict because nature has no free will and thus can make nochoices. Sometimes a fourth basic conflict is described, "man against society", Some of the other types ofconflict referenced include "man against machine" (The Terminator, Brave New World), "man against fate"(Slaughterhouse Five), "man against the supernatural" (The Shining) and "man against god" (A Canticle forLiebowitz).

Man against man"Man against man" conflict involves stories where characters are against each other. This is an externalconflict. The conflict may be direct opposition, as in a gunfight or a robbery, or it may be a more subtle conflictbetween the desires of two or more characters, as in a romance or a family epic. This type of conflict is verycommon in traditional literature, fairy tales and myths. One example of the "man against man" conflict is therelationship struggles between the protagonist and the antagonist stepfather in This Boy's Life.Man against societyWhere man stands against a man-made institution (such as slavery or bullying), "man against man" conflictmay shade into "man against society". In such stories, characters are forced to make moral choices orfrustrated by social rules in meeting their own goals. The Handmaid's Tale and Fahrenheit 451 are examples of"man against society" conflicts.Man against nature"Man against nature" conflict is an external struggle positioning the hero against an animal or a force ofnature, such as a storm. The "man against nature" conflict is central to Ernest Hemingway's The Old Man andthe Sea, where the protagonist contends against a marlin. It is also common in adventure stories, includingRobinson Crusoe.Man against selfWith "man against self" conflict, the struggle is internal. This is a conflict that is usually associated with anexternal conflict. A character must overcome his own nature or make a choice between two or more paths -good and evil; logic and emotion. A serious example of "man against himself" is offered by Hubert Selby, Jr.'s1978 novel Requiem for a Dream, which centers around stories of addiction.

Competition vs. ConflictBut in a conflict the desired result of one person is actually incompatible with the desired result of another. Ifone succeeds, the result is contrary to the desires of the other. Competition is one or more people striving forthe same goal--being the person who sells the most shoes, or runs the fastest in the race, or scores the highestin the test. Everyone wants to see the same thing happen--shoes getting sold, fast running or high scoring.Competition is a secretive, zero-sum game played by individuals for private gain; conflict is open andsometimes raucous but always communal, a public encounter in which it is possible for everyone to win bylearning and growing.

The first assumption is a scarcity mindset as opposed to an abundance mindset. Here, all resources areassumed to be scarce and limited. When we assume that we’re fighting for a slice of a pie of a fixed size, thenour win must be someone else’s loss. I know I’ve written posts in the past critiquing modernity’s assumptionthat there are no limits to anything, but there are pitfalls to assuming there’s only a limited amount ofdesirable things to go around.

The second assumption is a closed mindset as opposed to an open mindset. This is a “if you’re not for us,you’re against us” attitude. In a closed mindset, one is not receptive to being enriched by other sides in adebate.

Many of the problems our nation faces stem from a mindset of competition between individuals or interestgroups in society rather than a mindset of conflict. In so many areas, we see dualistic, competition-basedlogic: politics, culture war issues, economic issues, church policies, etc.

Conflict is not all bad.

Conflict has been broadly defined as the perceptions held by the parties involved, in that they hold discrepantviews or have interpersonal incompatibilities (Jehn, 1995). Typically, interpersonal conflicts at workplacesinvolve interaction between two interdependent parties that perceive incompatibility of goals, interests,values, or ideas.

People sometimes think that being a part of a best place to work means that it is party time all the time. That’snot the case. Sure we work hard and play hard, but really what we do is challenge each other to greatness. Weknow that to be challenged can also be truly rewarding.

It says somewhere in the bible that a ‘good wife’ will debate and challenge her husband so he can see what hecannot see. I think this is the basis of all partnerships or even leadership teams. If we keep playing it safe, livingin our comfort zone then how can we ever possibly create something bigger than ourselves?

There are more people in the Red Balloon team than it once was, and I don’t necessarily have the samemoment-by-moment contact with each individual that I used to. As a result I rely heavily on the team leadersaround me to deliver on the vision, the passion and the commitment to our people.

Having differences of opinion, viewing the world differently, holding the mirror up so we can see how we arereally performing is all healthy. When there is fundamental respect for each other, then challenges are seen asgrowth opportunities.

Neutralizing of ConflictThere are times in life when a conflict may arise that needs intervention from a third party. You may findyourself in a situation where you have to mediate a conversation between others who may not agree on aspecific topic or procedure. When faced with this challenge, it is critical to “put out the fire” before it spreadsto others and / or possibly impacts productivity. Consider these tips the next time you have to mediate aconversation between two or more people.

There are times in life when a conflict may arise that needs intervention from a third party. You may findyourself in a situation where you have to mediate a conversation between others who may not agree on aspecific topic or procedure. When faced with this challenge, it is critical to “put out the fire” before it spreadsto others and / or possibly impacts productivity.

Below are some tips to consider the next time you have to mediate a conversation between two or morepeople.

At the beginning of the discussion, ask each party to provide an opening statement regarding what broughtthem to the table and what they are hoping to achieve.

Based upon the opening statements, build an agenda for “cross-talk” (conversation between all parties). Thegoal of cross-talk is to:

Promote venting Identify needs and interests Generate options Get the parties to talk to each other Clarify issues Exchange information Build rapport among parties Summarize the information. (You cannot do this enough.) Use the agenda to frame the discussion. In the agenda, be neutral, concise, and fairly broad. Identify the needs and interest first before providing the options. This helps the transition intonegotiation. Express empathy towards the disputants to help minimize emotions.

Management by Exception, Scientific Management .......................................... 1Consultative/Participative Management, Strategic PlanningPlanning, Inter-Branch Reconciliation .......................................................... 2Job Analysis, Job evaluationJob description, Merit Rating .......................................................................... 3E-ommerce , Mobile BankingOnline banking........................................................................................................................... 4Communication Process, Leadership............................................................. 5Human Resource Development (HRD)Departmrentation, Centralisation, Decentralization......................................... 6Motivation, Job Satisfaction, Theory X ........................................................................... 7Theory Y ......................................................................................................... 8You can not motivate managers. They are self propelledTo what extent and how is money an effective motivation.Explain Maslows Need Hirarcy theory of motiv. State criticized ......................... 9Herzberg's theory of motivators ..................................................................... 10Motivation as a need satisfying processMethod of motivating people according of David C.Mc ClellandDefine organizational behavior. ..................................................................... 11What are the three levels of analysis in a organizational behabiorWhat is a contingency approach to organizational behaviorWhat is an organization? Is the family unit an organizationState different types of organization structure that you know ofWhat is an informal organization? What are its benefits .................................. 12Distinguish between formal and informal organizationAn organization is a social systemInformal organization grow within formal organizationDefine management and explain its nature ..................................................... 13Discuss the systems theory of managementExplain the contingency theory of management ........................................... 14Explain theory Z as expounded by William OuchiDifferent Assumptions between American and Japanese ManagementThe father of Modern management theoryWho is the father of scientific management ................................................... 15State the essentials of quantitative management theoryWhat is meant by the term “management theory jungleContributions of Frank and lillina Gilbreth scientific management

Management is culture-bound ....................................................................... 16Importance of management in organizationDistinguish science of management and the art of managementManagement is getting things done through others ...................................... 17Distinguish between administration and managementWhat are the key characteristics of Japanese management practices?What is management by objective(MBO)? Discuss the process of MBOHenry Mintzberg explain different roles played by managers ...................... 18Explain the various interpersonal skills of managers.Skills and interpersonal charac. that a managers possess .......................... 19Every manager is a decision maker” discussAs a manager describe when a plan considered an effective planHow do the managerial skills differ in the organizational hierarchyBriefly discuss the different styles of decision making .................................. 20Most commonly used tests in the selection process of managersPlanning and control are Siamese twins” explain itWhat is the requirement for effective control?Make a comparison of fed forward and feed back systems of controlBriefly describe the steps of the basic control process ................................ 21State the importance of the control process in an organizationPlanning is looking Ahead & Control is looking back” – CommentSignificance of accurate planning to modern business ............................... 22Describe the relationship between budget and planWhat is meant by Management Information System (MISPlanning and controlling are the cycling work ............................................ 23Briefly describe the process of strategic planningWhat is decision support system? What is its advantageBanker-customer relationship is very important ........................................ 24What is code of ethics?Theory, Conflict ................................................................... 25Basic nature of conflict, ClassificationCompetition vs.Conflict,Conflict is not all bad.Neutralizing of Conflict 26