On Popular Music

7/29/2019 On Popular Music

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OnPopularMusic.

ByT.W.Adorno

WiththeassistanceofGeorgeSimpson.I.THEMUSICALMATERIAL.Thetwospheresofmusic.Popularmusic,whichproducesthestimuliwearehereinvestigating,isusuallycharacter

izedby itsdifference fromseriousmusic.Thisdifference isgenerally taken forgranted

andislookeduponasadifferenceoflevelsconsideredsowelldefinedthatmostpeople

regardthevalueswithinthemastotallyindependentofoneanother.Wedeemitneces

sary,however,firstofalltotranslatethesesocalledlevelsintomorepreciseterms,mu

sicalaswellassocial,whichnotonlydelimit themunequivocallybut throw lightupon

thewholesettingofthetwomusicalspheresaswell.

Onepossiblemethodofachievingthisclarificationwouldbeanhistoricalanalysisofthe

divisionas itoccurred inmusicproductionandof the rootsof the twomain spheres.

Since,however,thepresentstudyisconcernedwiththeactualfunctionofpopularmusic

initspresentstatus,itismoreadvisabletofollowthelineofcharacterizationofthephe

nomenon itselfas it isgiven today than to trace itback to itsorigins.This is themore

justifiedasthedivision intothetwospheresofmusictookplace inEurope longbefore

Americanpopularmusicarose.Americanmusicfrom its inceptionacceptedthedivision

assomething

pre

given,

and

therefore

the

historical

background

of

the

division

applies

toitonlyindirectly.Henceweseek,firstofall,aninsightintothefundamentalcharacter

isticsofpopularmusicinthebroadestsense.

Aclearjudgmentconcerning the relationofseriousmusic topopularmusiccanbear

rived at only by strict attention to the fundamental characteristic of popularmusic:

standardization.1)


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(page17)1)Thebasic importanceofstandardizationhasnotaltogetherescaped theattentionof

currentliteratureonpopularmusic."Thechiefdifferencebetweenapopularsonganda

standard,orserious,songlikeMandalay,Sylvia,orTrees,isthatthemelodyandthelyric

ofapopularnumberareconstructedwithinadefinitepatternorstructuralform,where

asthepoem,orlyric,ofastandardnumberhasnostructuralconfinements,andthemu

sicisfreetointerpret(hemeaningandfeelingofthewordswithoutfollowingsetpattern

or form.Putting itanotherway, thepopularsong is 'custombuilt,'while thestandard

song allows the composer freerplayof imaginationand interpretation." (Abner Silver

andRobert

Bruce,

HowtoWriteandSellaSongHit,NewYork,1939,p.2.)Theauthor

fail, however, to realize the externally superimposed, commercial character of those

patternswhichaimsatcanalizedreactionsor, inthe languageoftheregularannounce

mentofoneparticularradioprogram,at"easylistening."They.confusethemechanical

patternswithhighlyorganized,strictartforms:"Certainlytherearefewmorestringent

verseformsinpoetrythanthesonnet,andyetthegreatestpoetsofalltimehavewoven

undyingbeautywithin itssmalland limitedframe.Acomposerhasjustasmuchoppor

tunityforexhibitinghistalentandgeniusinpopularsongsasinmoreseriousmusic"(pp.

23).Thusthestandardpatternofpopularmusicappearstothemvirtuallyonthesame

levelasthelawofafugue.Itisthiscontaminationwhichmakestheinsightintothebasic

standardizationofpopularmusicsterile.ItoughttobeaddedthatwhatSilverandBruce

calla"standardsong" isjusttheoppositeofwhatwemeanbyastandardizedpopular

song.


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(page18)Thewholestructureofpopularmusic isstandardized,evenwheretheattempt ismade

tocircumventstandardization.Standardizationextendsfromthemostgeneralfeatures

tothemostspecificones.Bestknown istherulethatthechorusconsistsofthirtytwo

barsandthattherangeislimitedtooneoctaveandonenote.Thegeneraltypesofhits

arealsostandardized:notonlythedancetypes,therigidityofwhosepattern isunder

stood,butalsothe"characters"suchasmothersongs,homesongs,nonsenseor"novel

ty"songs,pseudonurseryrhymes,lamentsforalostgirl.Mostimportantofall,thehar

moniccornerstonesofeachhitthebeginningandtheendofeachpartmustbeat

outthe

standard

scheme.

This

scheme

emphasizes

the

most

primitive

harmonic

facts

no

matterwhat has harmonically intervened. Complications have no consequences. This

inexorabledeviceguaranteesthatregardlessofwhataberrationsoccur,thehitwilllead

back to the same familiar experience, and nothing fundamentally novelwill be intro

duced.

Thedetailsthemselvesarestandardizednolessthantheform,andawholeterminology

existsfor

them

such

as

break,

blue

chords,

dirty

notes.

Their

standardization,

however,

is

somewhatdifferentfromthatoftheframework.Itisnotovertlikethelatterbuthidden

behindaveneerof individual"effects"whoseprescriptionsarehandledastheexperts'

secret,howeveropenthissecretmaybetomusiciansgenerally.Thiscontrastingcharac

terofthestandardizationofthewholeandpartprovidesarough,preliminarysettingfor

theeffectuponthelistener.

Theprimaryeffectofthisrelationbetweentheframeworkandthedetailisthatthelis

tenerbecomesprone to evince stronger reactions to thepart than to thewhole.His

graspofthewholedoesnotlieinthelivingexperienceofthisoneconcretepieceofmu

sichehasfollowed.Thewholeispregivenandpreaccepted,evenbeforetheactualex

perienceofthemusicstarts;therefore, it isnot likelyto influence,toanygreatextent,

thereactiontothedetails,


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(page19)excepttogivethemvaryingdegreesofemphasis.Detailswhichoccupymusicallystrate

gicpositionsintheframeworkthebeginningofthechorusoritsreentranceafterthe

bridgehaveabetterchanceforrecognitionandfavorablereceptionthandetailsnot

sosituated,forinstance,middlebarsofthebridge.Butthissituationalnexusneverinter

fereswith thescheme itself.To this limitedsituationalextentthedetaildependsupon

thewhole.Butnostressiseverplaceduponthewholeasamusicalevent,nordoesthe

structureofthewholeeverdependuponthedetails.

Seriousmusic,forcomparativepurposes,maybethuscharacterized:

Everydetailderives itsmusicalsense from theconcrete totalityof thepiecewhich, in

turn,consistsoftheliferelationshipofthedetailsandneverofamereenforcementofa

musicalscheme.Forexample, inthe introductionofthefirstmovementofBeethoven's

SeventhSymphony thesecond theme (inCmajor)gets its truemeaningonly from the

context.Onlythroughthewholedoesitacquireitsparticularlyricalandexpressivequali

ty,

that

is,

a

whole

built

up

of

its

very

contrast

with

the

cantusfirmus

like

character

of

thefirsttheme.Takeninisolationthesecondthemewouldbedisrobedtoinsignificance.

Another examplemaybe found in thebeginningof the recapitulationover thepedal

pointofthefirstmovementofBeethoven's"Appassionato."Byfollowingthepreceding

outburst it achieves theutmostdramaticmomentum.Byomitting the exposition and

developmentandstartingwiththisrepetition,allislost.

Nothingcorresponding

to

this

can

happen

in

popular

music.

It

would

not

affect

the

musi

calsenseifanydetailweretakenoutofthecontext;thelistenercansupplythe"frame

work"automatically,since it isameremusicalautomatism itself.Thebeginningof the

chorusisreplaceablebythebeginningofinnumerableotherchoruses.Theinterrelation

shipamongtheelementsortherelationshipoftheelementstothewholewouldbeun

affected.InBeethoven,positionisimportantonlyinalivingrelationbetweenaconcrete

totalityanditsconcreteparts.Inpopularmusic,positionisabsolute.Everydetailissub

stitutable;itservesitsfunctiononlyasacoginamachine.


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Themereestablishmentofthisdifferenceisnotyetsufficient.Itispossibletoobjectthat

thefarreachingstandardschemesandtypesofpopularmusicareboundupwithdance,

andthereforearealsoapplicabletodancederivativesinseriousmusic,forexample,the

minuettoand

scherzo

of

the

classical

Viennese

School.

It

may

be

maintained

either

that

thispartofseriousmusicisalsotobe

(page20)comprehended in termsofdetailrather thanofwhole,or that if thewholestill isper

ceivableinthedancetypesinseriousmusicdespiterecurrenceofthetypes,thereisno

reasonwhyitshouldnotbeperceivableinmodernpopularmusic.

Thefollowingconsiderationprovidesananswertobothobjectionsbyshowingtheradi

cal differences evenwhere seriousmusic employs dancetypes. According to current

formalisticviews

the

scherzo

of

Beethoven's

Fifth

Symphony

can

be

regarded

as

ahighly

stylizedminuetto.WhatBeethoven takes from the traditionalminuettoscheme in this

scherzo isthe ideaofoutspokencontrastbetweenaminorminuetto,amajortrio,and

repetitionoftheminorminuetto;andalsocertainothercharacteristicssuchastheem

phatic threefourths rhythm often accentuated on the first fourth and, by and large,

dancelikesymmetry inthesequenceofbarsandperiods.Butthespecificformideaof

thismovementasaconcretetotalitytransvaluatesthedevicesborrowedfromtheminu

ettoscheme.Thewholemovementisconceivedasanintroductiontothefinaleinorder

to create tremendous tension, not only by its threatening, foreboding expressionbut

evenmorebytheverywayinwhichitsformaldevelopmentishandled.

Theclassicalminuettoschemerequiredfirsttheappearanceofthemaintheme,thenthe

introductionofasecondpartwhichmayleadtomoredistanttonalregionsformalisti

callysimilar,tobesure,tothe"bridge"oftoday'spopularmusicandfinallytherecur

renceoftheoriginalpart.AllthisoccursinBeethoven.Hetakesuptheideaofthematic


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dualismwithinthescherzopart.Butheforceswhatwas,intheconventionalminuetto,a

mute andmeaningless gamerule to speakwithmeaning.He achieves complete con

sistencybetweentheformalstructureanditsspecificcontent,thatistosay,theelabora

tionof

its

themes.

The

whole

scherzo

part

of

this

scherzo

(that

is

to

say,

what

occurs

be

fore theentranceof thedeepstrings inCmajor thatmarks thebeginningof the trio),

consistsofthedualismoftwothemes,thecreepingfigureinthestringsandthe"objec

tive," stonelike answer of thewind instruments. This dualism is not developed in a

schematicwaysothatfirstthephraseofthestringsiselaborated,thentheanswerofthe

winds,andthenthestringthemeismechanicallyrepeated.Afterthefirstoccurrenceof

thesecondthemeinthehorns,thetwoessentialelementsarealternatelyinterconnect

ed inthemannerofadialogue,andtheendofthescherzopart isactuallymarked,not

bythefirst,butbythesecondthemewhichhasoverwhelmedthefirstmusicalphrase.

Furthermore,therepetitionofthescherzoafterthetrioisscored

(page21)sodifferentlythatitsoundslikeamereshadowofthescherzoandassumesthathaunt

ing characterwhich vanishesonlywith theaffirmativeentryof theFinale theme.The

wholedevicehasbeenmadedynamic.Notonlythethemes,butthemusicalform itself

havebeensubjectedtotension:thesametensionwhich isalreadymanifestwithinthe

twofoldstructureofthefirstthemethatconsists,asitwere,ofquestionandreply,and

thenevenmoremanifestwithinthecontextbetweenthetwomainthemes.Thewhole

schemehasbecomesubjecttotheinherentdemandsof'thisparticularmovement.

Tosumupthedifference: inBeethovenand ingoodseriousmusic ingeneralweare

not concernedherewithbad seriousmusicwhichmaybeas rigid andmechanical as

popularmusic thedetailvirtuallycontains thewholeand leads to theexpositionof

thewhole,while,atthesametime,itisproducedoutoftheconceptionofthewhole.In


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popularmusictherelationshipisfortuitous.Thedetailhasnobearingonawhole,which

appearsasanextraneousframework.Thus,thewholeisneveralteredbytheindividual

eventandthereforeremains,asitwere,aloof,imperturbable,andunnoticedthroughout

thepiece.

At

the

same

time,

the

detail

is

mutilated

by

adevice

which

it

can

never

influ

enceandalter,sothatthedetailremainsinconsequential.Amusicaldetailwhichisnot

permittedtodevelopbecomesacaricatureofitsownpotentialities.

Standardization.

Thepreviousdiscussion shows that thedifferencebetweenpopularand seriousmusic

can be grasped inmore precise terms than those referring tomusical levels such as

"lowbrowandhighbrow,""simpleandcomplex,""naiveandsophisticated."Forexample,

thedifference

between

the

spheres

cannot

be

adequately

expressed

in

terms

of

com

plexityandsimplicity.AllworksoftheearlierVienneseclassicismare,withoutexception,

rhythmicallysimplerthanstockarrangementsofjazz.Melodically,thewideintervalsofa

goodmanyhitssuchas"DeepPurple"or"SunriseSerenade"aremoredifficulttofollow

persethanmostmelodiesof,forexample,Haydn,whichconsistmainlyofcircumscriptions of tonic triads, and second steps.Harmonically, the supply of chords of the so

calledclassicsisinvariablymorelimitedthanthatofanycurrentTinPanAlleycomposer

who draws from Debussy, Ravel, and even later sources. Standardization and non

standardizationarethekeycontrastingtermsforthedifference.

Structuralstandardizationaimsatstandardreactions.Listeningtopopularmusic ismanipulatednotonlybyitspromoters,butasit


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(page22)were,bytheinherentnatureofthismusicitself,intoasystemofresponsemechanisms

whollyantagonistictotheidealofindividualityinafree,liberalsociety.Thishasnothing

todowithsimplicityandcomplexity. Inseriousmusic,eachmusicalelement,even the

simplestone, is"itself,"and themorehighlyorganized thework is, the lesspossibility

thereisofsubstitutionamongthedetails.Inhitmusic,however,thestructureunderlying

thepiece isabstract,existing independentof the specific courseof themusic. This is

basic to the illusion thatcertaincomplexharmoniesaremoreeasilyunderstandable in

popularmusicthanthesameharmoniesinseriousmusic.Forthecomplicatedinpopular

musicnever

functions

as

"itself

but

only

as

adisguise

or

embellishment

behind

which

the

scheme can always be perceived. Injazz the amateur listener is capable of replacing

complicatedrhythmicalorharmonicformulasbytheschematiconeswhichtheyrepre

sentandwhichtheystillsuggest,howeveradventuroustheyappear.Theeardeals with

thedifficultiesofhitmusicbyachievingslightsubstitutionsderivedfromtheknowledge

ofthepatterns.The listener,whenfacedwiththecomplicated,actuallyhearsonly the

simplewhich itrepresentsandperceivesthecomplicatedonlyasaparodisticdistortion

ofthesimple.

No suchmechanical substitutionby stereotypedpatterns ispossible in seriousmusic.

Hereeven thesimplesteventnecessitatesaneffort tograsp it immediately insteadof

summarizing itvaguelyaccordingto institutionalizedprescriptionscapableofproducing

only institutionalizedeffects.Otherwise themusic isnot "understood."Popularmusic,

however, iscomposed insuchaway that theprocessof translationoftheunique into

thenorm isalreadyplannedand, toacertainextent,achievedwithin thecomposition

itself.

Thecompositionhearsforthe listener.Thisishowpopularmusicdiveststhelistenerof

hisspontaneityandpromotesconditionedreflexes.Notonlydoesitnotrequirehiseffort

tofollowitsconcretestream;itactuallygiveshimmodelsunderwhichanythingconcrete

still

remaining

may

be

subsumed.

The

schematic

build

up

dictates

the

way

in

which

he

mustlistenwhile,atthesametime,itmakesanyeffortinlisteningunnecessary.Popular


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musicis"predigested"inawaystronglyresemblingthefadof"digests"ofprintedmate

rial. It is this structureof contemporarypopularmusic,which in the last analysis, ac

countsforthosechangesoflisteninghabitswhichweshalllaterdiscuss.

Sofarstandardizationofpopularmusichasbeenconsidered instructuraltermsthat

is,asaninherentqualitywithoutexplicit

(page23)

referenceto

the

process

of

production

or

to

the

underlying

causes

for

standardization.

Thoughallindustrialmassproductionnecessarilyeventuatesinstandardization,thepro

ductionofpopularmusiccanbecalled"industrial"onlyinitspromotionanddistribution,

whereastheactofproducingasonghitstillremains inahandicraftstage.Theproduc

tionofpopularmusicishighlycentralizedinitseconomicorganization,butstill"individ

ualistic" in its socialmode of production. The division of labor among the composer,

harmonizer,andarranger isnotindustrialbutratherpretendsindustrialization,inorder

to lookmore uptodate,whereas it has actually adapted industrialmethods for die

techniqueof itspromotion. Itwouldnot increasethecostsofproduction ifthevarious

composersofhittunesdidnotfollowcertainstandardpatterns.Therefore,wemustlook

for other reasons for structural standardization very different reasons from those

whichaccountforthestandardizationofmotorcarsandbreakfastfoods.

Imitation offers a lead for coming to gripswith the basic reasons for it. Themusical

standardsofpopularmusicwereoriginallydevelopedbyacompetitiveprocess.Asone

particularsongscoredagreatsuccess,hundredsofotherssprangup imitatingthesuc

cessfulone.Themostsuccessfulhits,types,and"ratios"betweenelementswereimitat

ed, and the process culminated in the crystallization of standards. Under centralized

conditionssuchasexisttodaythesestandardshavebecome"frozen."1)Thatis,theyhave

been takenoverbycartelizedagencies, the final resultsofa competitiveprocess,and

rigidlyenforced

upon

material

to

be

promoted.

Non

compliance

with

the

rules

of

the

gamebecame thebasis forexclusion.Theoriginalpatterns thatarenow standardized


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evolved inamoreor lesscompetitiveway.Largescaleeconomicconcentration institu

tionalizedthestandardization,andmadeitimperative.Asaresult,innovationsbyrugged

individualistshavebeenoutlawed.Thestandardpatternshavebecomeinvestedwiththe

immunityof

bigness

"the

King

can

do

no

wrong."

This

also

accounts

for

revivals

in

popularmusic.Theydonothavetheoutworncharacterofstandardizedproductsmanu

facturedafteragivenpattern.Thebreathoffreecompetition isstillalivewithinthem.

On theotherhand, the famousoldhitswhicharerevivedset thepatternswhichhave

becomestandardized.Theyarethegoldenageofthegamerules.

This"freezing"ofstandardsissociallyenforcedupontheagen

1)SeeMaxHorkheimer,ZeitschriftfrSozialforschung,vol.VIII,1939,p.115.

(page24)cies themselves. Popularmusic must simultaneously meet two demands. One is for

stimulithatprovoke the listener'sattention.Theother is forthematerialto fallwithin

thecategoryofwhatthemusicallyuntrainedlistenerwouldcall"natural"music:thatis,

thesumtotalofalltheconventionsandmaterialformulasinmusictowhichheisaccus

tomedandwhichheregardsastheinherent,simplelanguageofmusicitself,nomatter

how latethedevelopmentmightbewhichproducedthisnatural language.Thisnatural

language for the American listener stems from his earliestmusical experiences, the

nurseryrhymes,thehymnshesingsinSundayschool,thelittletuneshewhistlesonhis

wayhomefromschool.Allthesearevastlymoreimportantintheformationofmusi

callanguage

than

his

ability

to

distinguish

the

beginning

of

Brahms'

Third

Symphony

fromthatofhisSecond.Officialmusicalcultureis,toalargeextent,ameresuperstruc


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tureofthisunderlyingmusicallanguage,namelythemajorandminortonalityandallthe

tonalrelationships it implies.Butthesetonalrelationshipsoftheprimitivemusical lan

guagesetbarrierstowhateverdoesnotconformtothem.Extravagancesaretolerated

onlyinsofar

as

they

can

be

recast

into

this

so

called

natural

language.

Intermsofconsumerdemand,thestandardizationofpopularmusic isonlytheexpres

sionofthisdualdesideratumimposeduponitbythemusicalframeofmindofthepub

lic,that itbe"stimulatory"bydeviating insomewayfromtheestablished"natural,"

andthatitmaintainthesupremacyofthenaturalagainstsuchdeviations.Theattitudeof

the audience toward the natural language is reinforced by standardized production,

whichinstitutionalizes

desiderata

which

originally

might

have

come

from

the

public.

Pseudoindividualisation.

Theparadox

in

the

desiderata

stimulatory

and

natural

accounts

for

the

dual

charac

terofstandardization itself.Stylizationof the^ever identical framework isonlyoneas

pect of standardization. Concentration and control in our culture hide themselves in

theirverymanifestation.Unhiddentheywouldprovokeresistance.Thereforetheillusion

and,toacertainextent,eventherealityofindividualachievementmustbemaintained.

Themaintenanceofitisgroundedinmaterialrealityitself,forwhileadministrativecon

troloverlifeprocessesisconcentrated,ownershipisstilldiffuse.

Inthesphereofluxuryproduction,towhichpopularmusicbelongsandinwhichnone

cessitiesof lifeare immediately involved,while,atthesametime,theresiduesof indi

vidualismaremostalivethereintheformofideologicalcategoriessuchastasteandfree


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ardizationofthenormenhancesinapurelytechnicalwaystandardizationofitsownde

viationpseudoindividualization.

This subservience of improvisation to standardization explains two main socio

psychologicalqualitiesofpopularmusic.One is the fact that thedetailremainsopenly

connectedwiththeunderlyingschemesothatthelisteneralwaysfeelsonsafeground.

Thechoice

(page26)inindividualalterationsissosmallthattheperpetualrecurrenceofthesamevariations

isareassuringsignpostoftheidenticalbehindthem.Theotheristhefunctionof"substi

tution" the improvisatory features forbid their being grasped asmusical events in

themselves.Theycanbereceivedonlyasembellishments.Itisawellknownfactthatin

daringjazz

arrangements

worried

notes,

dirty

tones,

in

other

words,

false

notes,

play

a

conspicuousrole.Theyareapperceivedasexcitingstimulionlybecausetheyarecorrect

edbytheeartotherightnote.This,however,isonlyanextremeinstanceofwhathap

penslessconspicuouslyinallindividualizationinpopularmusic.Anyharmonicboldness,

anychordwhichdoesnotfallstrictlywithinthesimplestharmonicschemedemandsbe

ingapperceivedas"false,"that is,asastimuluswhichcarrieswith it theunambiguous

prescriptiontosubstituteforittherightdetail,orratherthenakedscheme.Understand

ing popularmusicmeans obeying such commands for listening. Popularmusic com

mandsitsownlisteninghabits.

Thereisanothertypeofindividualizationclaimedintermsofkindsofpopularmusicand

differences in namebands. The types of popularmusic are carefully differentiated in

production. The listener is presumed to be able to choose between them. Themost

widelyrecognizeddifferentiationsarethosebetweenswingandsweetandsuchname

bandsasBennyGoodmanandGuyLombardo.The listener isquicklyabletodistinguish


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thetypesofmusicandeventheperformingband,thisinspiteofthefundamentalidenti

tyofthematerialandthegreatsimilarityofthepresentationsapartfromtheirempha

sizeddistinguishing trademarks.This labelling technique,asregards typeofmusicand

band,is

pseudo

individualization,

but

of

asociological

kind

outside

the

realm

of

strict

musicaltechnology.Itprovidestrademarksofidentificationfordifferentiatingbetween

theactuallyundifferentiated.

Popularmusicbecomesamultiplechoicequestionnaire.Therearetwomaintypesand

their derivatives fromwhich to choose. The listener is encouraged by the inexorable

presenceofthesetypespsychologicallytocrossoutwhathedislikesandcheckwhathe

likes.The

limitation

inherent

in

this

choice

and

the

clear

cut

alternative

it

entails

provoke

likedislikepatternsofbehavior.Thismechanicaldichotomybreaksdownindifference;it

isimperativetofavorsweetorswingifonewishestocontinuetolistentopopularmusic.

(page27)II.PRESENTATIONOFTHEMATERIAL.Minimumrequirements.

Thestructureofthemusicalmaterialrequiresatechniqueof itsownbywhich it isen

forced.

This

process

may

be

roughly

defined

as

"plugging."

The

term

"plugging"

originally

hadthenarrowmeaningofceaselessrepetitionofoneparticularhitinordertomakeit

"successful."Wehereuseitinthebroadsense,tosignifyacontinuationoftheinherent

processes of composition and arrangement of themusicalmaterial. Plugging aims to

breakdowntheresistancetothemusicallyeverequaloridenticalby,asitwere,closing

theavenuesofescapefromtheeverequal. It leadsthe listenertobecomeenraptured

withthe inescapable.Andthusitleadstothe institutionalizationandstandardizationof

listeninghabits

.themselves.

Listeners

become

so

accustomed

to

the

recurrence

of

the

samethingsthattheyreactautomatically.Thestandardizationofthematerialrequiresa


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pluggingmechanism fromoutside, since everything equals everything else to such an

extentthattheemphasisonpresentationwhichisprovidedbypluggingmustsubstitute

forthelackofgenuineindividualityinthematerial.Thelistenerofnormalmusicalintelli

gencewho

hears

the

Kundry

motif

of

"Parsifal"

for

the

first

time

is

likely

to

recognize

it

when it isplayedagainbecause it isunmistakableandnotexchangeable foranything

else.Ifthesamelistenerwereconfrontedwithanaveragesonghit,hewouldnotbeable

todistinguishitfromanyotherunlessitwererepeatedsooftenthathewouldbeforced

to remember it.Repetition givesapsychological importancewhich it couldotherwise

neverhave.Thuspluggingistheinevitablecomplementofstandardization.1)

Provided thematerial fulfills certainminimum requirements, any given song can be

plugged andmade a success, if there is adequate tieup between publishing houses,

namebands,radioandmovingpictures.Mostimportantisthefollowingrequirement:To

beplugged,asonghitmusthaveat leastone featurebywhich itcanbedistinguished

fromanyother,andyetpossessthecompleteconventionalityandtrivialityofallothers.

Theactual

criterion

by

which

asong

is

judged

worthy

of

plugging

is

paradoxical.

The

pub

lisherwantsapieceofmusicthatisfundamentallythesameasalltheothercurrenthits

andsimultaneouslyfundamentallydifferentfromthem.Onlyifitisthesamedoesithave

achanceofbeing

1)As theactualworkingof thepluggingmechanismon theAmericansceneofpopular

musicitdescribedinfulldetailInastudybyDuncanMacDougald,thepresentstudycon

fines itself toa theoreticaldiscussionof someof themoregeneralaspectsof theen

forcementofthematerial.


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(page28)soldautomatically,withoutrequiringanyeffortonthepartofthecustomer,andofpre

senting itselfasamusical institution.Andonly if it isdifferent can itbedistinguished

fromothersongs,arequirementforbeingrememberedandhenceforbeingsuccess

ful.

Ofcourse, thisdoubledesideratumcannotbe fulfilled. In thecaseofactualpublished

andpluggedsongs,onewillgenerallyfindsomesortofcompromise,somethingwhichis

byandlargethesameandbearsjustoneisolatedtrademarkwhichmakesitappearto

beoriginal.Thedistinguishingfeaturemustnotnecessarilybemelodic,1)butmayconsist

ofmetricalirregularities,particularchordsorparticularsoundcolors.

Glamor.

Afurtherrequirementofplugging isacertainrichnessandroundnessofsound.Thisre

quirementevolvesthatfeature inthewholepluggingmechanismwhich ismostovertly

boundupwithadvertisingasabusinessaswellaswiththecommercializationofenter

tainment.Itisalsoparticularlyrepresentativeoftheinterrelationshipofstandardization

andpseudoindividualization.

It

is

musical

glamor:

those

innumerable

passages

in

song

arrangements

which

appear

to

communicate the"nowwepresent"attitude.Themusical flourisheswhichaccompany

MGM's roaring lionwheneverheopenshismajesticmouthareanalogous to thenon

leoninesoundsofmusicalglamorheardovertheair.

Glamormindednessmayoptimisticallyberegardedasamentalconstructofthesuccess

storyinwhichthehardworkingAmericansettlertriumphsoverimpassivenature,which

isfinally

forced

to

yield

up

its

riches.

However,

in

aworld

that

is

no

longer

afrontier

world, theproblemofglamorcannotberegardedassoeasilysoluble.Glamor ismade


17/45

into theeternal conqueror's songof the commonman;hewho isneverpermitted to

conquerinlifeconquersinglamor.Thetriumphisactuallytheselfstyledtriumphofthe

1)Technicalanalysismustaddcertainreservationstoanyacceptanceoflistenerreactions

attheirfacevalueinthecaseoftheconceptofmelody.Listenerstopopularmusicspeak

mainly aboutmelody and rhythm, sometimes about instrumentation, rarely or never

aboutharmonyandform.Withinthestandardschemeofpopularmusic,however,mel

odyitself

is

by

no

means

autonomous

in

the

sense

of

an

independent

line

developing

in

thehorizontal dimensionofmusic.Melody is, rather, a functionofharmony. The so

calledmelodies in popularmusic are generally arabesques, dependent upon the se

quenceofharmonies.Whatappears to the listener tobeprimarilymelodic isactually

fundamentallyharmonic,itsmelodicstructureamerederivative.

Itwouldbevaluabletostudyexactlywhatlaymencallamelody.Itwouldprobablyturn

outtobeasuccessionoftonesrelatedtooneanotherbysimpleandeasilyunderstanda

bleharmonic functions,within the frameworkof theeightbarperiod.There isa large

gapbetweenthelayman'sideaofamelodyanditastrictlymusicalconnotation.

(page29)businessmanwhoannouncesthathewillofferthesameproductatalowerprice.

Theconditions for this functionofglamorareentirelydifferent from thoseof frontier

life.Theyapply to themechanizationof laborand to theworkaday lifeof themasses.

Boredomhasbecomesogreat thatonly thebrightestcolorshaveanychanceofbeing

liftedoutofthegeneraldrabness.Yet,itisjustthoseviolentcolorswhichbearwitnessto

theomnipotenceofmechanical,industrialproductionitself.Nothingcouldbemoreste


18/45

reotypedthanthepinkishredneonlightswhichaboundinfrontofshops,movingpicture

theatresandrestaurants.Byglamorizing,theyattractattention.Butthemeansbywhich

theyareusedtoovercomehumdrumrealityaremorehumdrumthanthereality itself.

Thatwhich

aims

to

achieve

glamor

becomes

amore

uniform

activity

than

what

it

seeks

toglamorize.Ifitwerereallyattractiveinitself,itwouldhavenomoremeansofsupport

thanareallyoriginalpopularcomposition. Itwouldviolate the lawof thesamenessof

the putatively unsame. The term glamorous is applied to those faces, colors, sounds

which,bythelighttheyirradiate,differfromtherest.Butallglamorgirlslookalikeand

theglamoreffectsofpopularmusicareequivalenttoeachother.

Asfar

as

the

pioneer

character

of

glamor

is

concerned,

there

is

an

overlapping

and

a

changeoffunctionratherthananinnocentsurvivalofthepast.Tobesure,theworldof

glamorisashow,akintoshootinggalleries,theglaringlightsofthecircusanddeafening

brassbands.Assuch,thefunctionofglamormayhaveoriginallybeenassociatedwitha

sortofadvertisingwhichstroveartificiallytoproducedemandsinasocialsettingnotyet

entirelypermeatedby themarket.Thepostcompetitivecapitalismof thepresentday

usesforitsownpurposesdevicesofastillimmatureeconomy.Thus,glamorhasahaunt

ingqualityofhistoric revival in radio, comparable to the revivalof themidway circus

barker in today's radiobarkerwho imploreshisunseenaudiencenot to fail tosample

waresanddoesso intoneswhicharousehopesbeyondthecapacityofthecommodity

tofulfill.Allglamor isboundupwithsomesortoftrickery.Listenersarenowheremore

trickedbypopularmusic than in itsglamorouspassages.Flourishesandjubilationsex

press triumphant thanksgiving for themusic itselfa selfeulogyof itsownachieve

mentin

exhorting

the

listener

to

exultation

and

of

its

identification

with

the

aim

of

the

agency inpromotinga great event.However,as thiseventdoesnot takeplace apart

fromitsowncelebration,thetriumphantthanksgivingofferedupbythemusicisaself

betrayal.Itislikelytomakeitselffeltas


19/45

(page30)suchunconsciouslyinthelisteners,justasthechildresentstheadult'spraisingthegifts

hemade to thechild in thesamewordswhich thechild feels it ishisownprivilege to

use.

Babytalk.

Itisnotaccidentalthatglamorleadstochildbehavior.Clamor,whichplaysonthelisten

er'sdesireforstrength,isconcomitantwithamusicallanguagewhichbetokensdepend

ence.The children'sjokes, thepurposelywrongorthography, theuseof children'sex

pressionsinadvertising,taketheformofamusicalchildren'slanguageinpopularmusic.

Therearemanyexamplesof lyrics characterizedbyanambiguous irony in that,while

affectingachildren's language,theyatthesametimedisplaycontemptoftheadultfor

thechild

or

even

give

aderogatory

or

sadistic

meaning

to

children's

expressions

("Goody,

Goody,""ATisketaTasket,""LondonBridgeisFallingDown,""Cry,Baby,Cry").Genuine

and pseudonursery rhymes are combinedwith purposeful alterations of the lyrics of

originalnurseryrhymesinordertomakethemcommercialhits.

Themusic,aswellas the lyrics, tends toaffectsuchachildren's language.Someof its

principal characteristics are: unabating repetition of some particularmusical formula

comparableto

the

attitude

of

achild

incessantly

uttering

the

same

demand

("I

Want

to

BeHappy");1)thelimitationofmanymelodiestoveryfewtones,comparabletotheway

inwhichasmallchildspeaksbeforehehas the fullalphabetathisdisposal;purposely

wrongharmonizationresemblingtheway inwhichsmallchildrenexpressthemselves in

incorrectgrammar;alsocertainoversweetsoundcolors,functioning likemusicalcook

ies and candies. Treating adults as children is involved in that representation of fun

which isaimedatrelieving thestrainof theiradultresponsibilities.Moreover,thechil

dren's languageserves tomake themusicalproduct"popular"with thesubjectsbyat


20/45

temptingtobridge,inthesubjects'consciousness,thedistancebetweenthemselvesand

thepluggingagencies,byapproachingthemwiththetrustingattitudeofthechildasking

anadult for the correct timeeven thoughheknowsneither the strangemannor the

meaningof

time.

Pluggingthewholefield.

Theplugging

of

songs

is

only

apart

of

amechanism

and

obtains

its

proper

meaning

with

intheaystemasawhole.Basictothesystem

1) Themost famous literary example of this attitude it "Want to shee thewheels go

wound"(John

Habberton,

Helen'sBabies,NewYork,p.9ff).Onecouldeasily imaginea

"novelty"songbeingbaaeduponthatphrase.

(page31)isthepluggingofstylesandpersonalities.Thepluggingofcertainstylesisexemplifiedin

thewordswing.Thistermhasneitheradefiniteandunambiguousmeaningnordoes it

markasharpdifferencefromtheperiodofpreswinghotjazzuptothemiddlethirties.

Thelackofjustificationinthematerialfortheuseofthetermarousesthesuspicionthat

itsusageisentirelyduetoplugginginordertorejuvenateanoldcommoditybygiving

itanewtitle.Similarlyplugged isthewholeswingterminology indulged inbyjazzjour

nalism and used byjitterbugs, a terminologywhich, according toHobson,makesjazz


21/45

musicianswince.1)The less inherent inthematerialarethecharacteristicspluggedbya

pseudoexpertterminology,themorearesuchauxiliaryforcesasannouncersandcom

mentariesneeded.

There isgood reason tobelieve that thisjournalismpartlybelongs immediately to the

pluggingmechanism, insofaras itdependsuponpublishers,agencies,andnamebands.

Atthispoint,however,asociologicalqualificationispertinent.Undercontemporaryeco

nomic conditions, it is often futile to look for "corruption," because people are com

pelled tobehavevoluntarily inwaysoneexpected them tobehave inonlywhen they

were paid" for it. The journalists who take part in the promotion of a Hollywood

"oomphgirl"

need

not

be

bribed

at

all

by

the

motion

picture

industry.

The

publicity

given

to thegirlby the industry itself is incompleteaccordwith the ideologypervading the

journalismwhich takes itup.And this ideologyhasbecome theaudience's.Thematch

appearstohavebeenmadeinheaven.Thejournalistsspeakwithunboughtvoices.Once

acertainlevelofeconomicbackingforplugginghasbeenreached,thepluggingprocess

transcendsitsowncausesandbecomesanautonomoussocialforce.

Aboveall

other

elements

of

the

plugging

mechanism

stands

the

plugging

of

personalities,

particularlyofband leaders.Mostofthefeaturesactuallyattributabletojazzarrangers

areofficiallycreditedtotheconductor;arrangers,whoareprobablythemostcompetent

musicians in theUnited States,often remain in obscurity, like scenariowriters in the

movies.Theconductoristhemanwhoimmediatelyfacestheaudience;heisclosekinto

theactorwhoimpressesthepubliceitherbyhisjovialityandgenialmannerorbydicta

torialgestures.Itisthefacetofacerelationwiththeconductorwhichmakesitpossible

totransfertohimanyachievement.

Further,the leaderandhisbandarestill largelyregardedbytheaudienceasbearersof

improvisatoryspontaneity.Themore

1)Wilder

Hobson,

AmericanJazzMusic,p.153,NewYork,1939.


22/45

(page32)actual improvisationdisappears intheprocessofstandardizationandthemore it issu

persededbyelaborateschemes,themoremusttheideaofimprovisationbemaintained

before theaudience.Thearrangerremainsobscurepartlybecauseof thenecessity for

avoidingtheslightesthintthatpopularmusicmaynotbeimprovised,butmust,inmost

cases,befixedandsystematized.

III.THEORYABOUTTHELISTENER.Recognitionandacceptance.

Mass listeninghabits todaygravitateaboutrecognition.Popularmusicand itsplugging

arefocused

on

this

habituation.

The

basic

principle

behind

it

is

that

one

need

only

repeat

somethinguntil it isrecognized inordertomake itaccepted.Thisappliestothestand

ardizationofthematerialaswellastoitsplugging.Whatisnecessaryinordertounder

standthereasonsforthepopularityofthecurrenttypeofhitmusicisatheoreticalanal

ysisoftheprocessesinvolvedinthetransformationofrepetitionintorecognitionandof

recognitionintoacceptance.

Theconceptofrecognition,however,mayappeartobetoounspecifietoexplainmodern

mass listening.Itcanbearguedthatwherevermusicalunderstanding isconcerned,the

factorofrecognition,beingoneofthebasicfunctionsofhumanknowing,mustplayan

importantrole.CertainlyoneunderstandsaBeethovensonataonlybyrecognizingsome

of its featuresasbeingabstractly identicalwithotherswhichone knows from former

experience,andbylinkingthemupwiththepresentexperience.TheideathataBeetho

vensonata

could

be

understood

in

avoid

without

relating

it

to

elements

of

musical

lan

guagewhichoneknowsandrecognizeswouldbeabsurd.Whatmatters,however, is


23/45

what isrecognized.Whatdoesareal listenerrecognize inaBeethovensonata?Hecer

tainlyrecognizesthe"system"uponwhich it isbased:themajorminortonality,the in

terrelationship of keyswhich determinesmodulation, the different chords and their

relativeexpressive

value,

certain

melodic

formulas,

and

certain

structural

patterns.

(It

wouldbeabsurdtodenythatsuchpatternsexistinseriousmusic.Buttheirfunctionisof

adifferentorder.Grantedallthisrecognition,itisstillnotsufficientforacomprehension

ofthemusicalsense.)Alltherecognizableelementsareorganizedingoodseriousmusic

byaconcreteanduniquemusicaltotalityfromwhichtheyderivetheirparticularmean

ing, inthesamesenseasawordinapoemderivesitsmeaningfromthetotalityofthe

poemandnotfromtheeverydayuseoftheword,althoughtherecognitionofthiseve

rydaynessoftheword

(page33)maybethenecessarypresuppositionofanyunderstandingofthepoem.

Themusicalsenseofanypieceofmusicmayindeedbedefinedasthatdimensionofthe

piecewhichcannotbegraspedbyrecognitionalone,byitsidentificationwithsomething

oneknows.Itcanbebuiltuponlybyspontaneouslylinkingtheknownelementsare

actionasspontaneousbythelistenerasitwasspontaneousbythecomposerinorder

toexperiencetheinherentnoveltyofthecomposition.ThemusicalsenseistheNew

somethingwhichcannotbetracedbacktoandsubsumedundertheconfigurationofthe

known,butwhichspringsoutofit,ifthelistenercomestoitsaid.

Itispreciselythisrelationshipbetweentherecognizedandthenewwhichisdestroyedin

popularmusic.Recognitionbecomesanend insteadofameans.Therecognitionofthe

mechanicallyfamiliarinahittuneleavesnothingwhichcanbegraspedasnewbyalink

ingof thevariouselements.Asamatterof fact,the linkbetween theelements ispre

given inpopularmusicasmuchas,oreventoagreaterextent than, theelementsare


24/45

themselves.Hence,recognitionandunderstandingmustherecoincide,whereas inseri

ousmusicunderstanding is the actbywhichuniversal recognition leads to theemer

genceofsomethingfundamentallynew.

Anappropriatebeginningfor investigatingrecognition inrespectofanyparticularsong

hitmaybemadebydraftingaschemewhichdividestheexperienceofrecognition into

itsdifferentcomponents.Psychologically,all the factorsweenumerateare interwoven

tosuchadegreethatitwouldbeimpossibletoseparatethemfromoneanotherinreali

ty,andany temporalorder given themwouldbehighlyproblematical.Our scheme is

directedmore toward the different objective elements involved in the experience of

recognition,than

toward

the

way

in

which

the

actual

experience

feels

to

aparticular

in

dividualorindividuals.

Thecomponentsweconsidertobeinvolvedarethefollowing:

a)Vagueremembrance.

b)Actualidentification.

c)Subsumptionbylabel.

d)Selfreflectionontheactofrecognition.

e)Psychologicaltransferofrecognitionauthoritytotheobject.

a) Themore or less vague experienceof being remindedof something ("Imust have

heard this somewhere").The standardizationof thematerial sets the stage for vague

remembranceinpracticallyeverysong,sinceeachtuneisreminiscentofthegeneralpat

ternandof


25/45


26/45

1)The interplayof lyricsandmusicinpopularmusic issimilartothe interplayofpicture

andword inadvertising.Thepictureprovides thesensualstimulus, thewordsaddslo

gansorjokesthattendtofixthecommodityinthemindsofthepublicandto"subsume"

itunder

definite,

settled

categories.

The

replacement

of

the

purely

instrumental

ragtime

byjazzwhichhadstrongvocaltendenciesfromthebeginning,andthegeneraldeclineof

purelyinstrumentalhits,arecloselyrelatedtotheincreasedimportanceoftheadvertis

ing structureofpopularmusic.Theexampleof "DeepPurple"mayprovehelpful.This

wasoriginallyalittleknownpianopiece.Itssuddensuccesswasatleastpartlyduetothe

additionoftrademarkinglyrics.

Amodel

for

this

functional

change

exists

in

the

field

of

raised

entertainment

in

the

nine

teenthcentury.The firstpreludeofBach's "WellTemperedClavichord"becamea"sa

cral"hitwhenGounodconceivedthefiendish ideaofextractingamelodyfromthese

quelofharmoniesandcombining itwiththewordsofthe"AveMaria.Thisprocedure,

meretricious from itsvery inception,has sincebeengenerallyaccepted in the fieldof

musicalcommercialism.

(page35)thatis,assomethingestablishedandknownnotmerelytohimalonehefeelssafe

ty innumbersandfollowsthecrowdofallthosewhohaveheard thesongbeforeand

whoaresupposedtohavemadeitsreputation.Thisisconcomitantwithorfollowshard

upontheheelsofelementb).Theconnectingreactionconsistspartlyintherevelationto

the listener thathisapparently isolated, individualexperienceofaparticular song isa

collectiveexperience.Themomentofidentificationofsomesociallyestablishedhighlight

oftenhasadualmeaning:onenotonlyidentifiesitinnocentlyasbeingthisorthat,sub

sumingitunderthisorthatcategory,butbytheveryactofidentifyingit,onealsotends

unwittinglyto

identify

oneself

with

the

objective

social

agencies

or

with

the

power

of

those individualswhomade thisparticularevent fit into thispreexistingcategoryand


27/45

thus"established"it.Theveryfactthatanindividualiscapableofidentifyinganobjectas

thisor that allowshim to take vicariouspart indie institutionwhichmade the event

whatitisandtoidentifyhimselfwiththisveryinstitution.

d)Theelementofselfreflectionontheactofidentification.("Oh,Iknowit;thisbelongs

tome.") This trend can be properly understood by considering the disproportion be

tweenthehugenumberof lesserknownsongsandthefewestablishedones.The indi

vidualwhofeelsdrownedbythestreamofmusicfeelsasortoftriumph inthesplitse

condduringwhichheiscapableofidentifyingsomething.Massesofpeopleareproudof

theirabilitytorecognizeanymusic,asillustratedbythewidespreadhabitofhummingor

whistlingthe

tune

of

afamiliar

piece

of

music

which

has

just

been

mentioned,

in

order

to

indicateone'sknowledgeofit,andtheevidentcomplacencywhichaccompaniessuchan

exhibition.

Bytheidentificationandsubsumptionofthepresentlisteningexperienceunderthecat

egory"this is thehitsoandso," thishitbecomesanobject to the listener,something

fixedandpermanent.This transformationofexperience intoobject the fact thatby

recognizingapiece

of

music

one

has

command

over

it

and

can

reproduce

it

from

one's

ownmemorymakesitmoreproprietablethanever.Ithastwoconspicuouscharacter

isticsofproperty:permanenceandbeingsubjecttotheowner'sarbitrarywill.Theper

manenceconsistsinthefactthatifoneremembersasongandcanrecallitallthetime,it

cannotbeexpropriated.Theotherelement, thatofcontrolovermusic,consists in the

abilitytoevokeitpresumablyatwillatanygivenmoment,tocutitshort,andtotreatit

whimsically.Themusicalpropertiesare,asitwere,atthemercyoftheirowner.Inorder

toclarifythiselement,itmaybeappropriatetopointtooneofitsextremethoughbyno

meansraremanifestations.Manypeople,


28/45

(page36)when theywhistle or hum tunes they know, add tiny upbeat noteswhich sound as

though theywhipped or teased themelody. Their pleasure in possessing themelody

takestheformofbeingfreetomisuseit.Theirbehaviortowardthemelodyislikethatof

childrenwhopulladog'stail.Theyevenenjoy,toacertainextent,makingthemelody

winceormoan.

e)Theelementof"psychologicaltransfer":"Damnit,'NightandDay'isagoodone!"This

isthetendencytotransferthegratificationofownershiptotheobject itselfandtoat

tributeto it, intermsof like,preference,orobjectivequality,theenjoymentofowner

shipwhichonehasattained.Theprocessoftransferisenhancedbyplugging.Whileac

tuallyevokingthepsychicprocessesofrecognition, identification,andownership,plug

gingsimultaneouslypromotestheobjectitselfandinvestsit,inthelistener'sconscious

ness,withallthosequalitieswhichinrealityareduelargelytothemechanismofidentifi

cation. The listeners are executing theorder to transfer to themusic itself their self

congratulationontheirownership.

Itmaybeaddedthattherecognizedsocialvalue inherent inthesonghit is involved in

thetransferofthegratificationofownershiptotheobjectwhichthusbecomes"liked."

Thelabellingprocessherecomestocollectivizetheownershipprocess.Thelistenerfeels

flatteredbecausehetooownswhateveryoneowns.Byowninganappreciatedandmar

ketedhit,onegetsthe illusionofvalue.This illusionofvalue inthe listener isthebasis

for theevaluationof themusicalmaterial.At themomentof recognitionofanestab

lishedhit,apseudopublicutilitycomesunderthehegemonyoftheprivatelistener.The

musicalownerwhofeels"Ilikethisparticularhit(becauseIknowit)"achievesadelusion

ofgrandeurcomparabletoachild'sdaydreamaboutowningtherailroad.Liketheriddles

inanadvertisingcontest,songhitsposeonlyquestionsofrecognitionwhichanyonecan

answer.Yetlistenersenjoygivingtheanswersbecausetheythusbecomeidentifiedwith

thepowersthatbe.

Itisobviousthatthesecomponentsdonotappearinconsciousnessastheydoinanaly

sis.Asthedivergencebetweentheillusionofprivateownershipandtherealityofpublic


29/45

ownershipisaverywideone,andaseveryoneknowsthatwhatiswritten"Especiallyfor

You"issubjecttotheclause"anycopyingofthewordsormusicofthissongoranypor

tionthereofmakestheinfringerliabletoprosecutionundertheUnitedStatescopyright

law,"one

may

not

regard

these

processes

as

being

too

unconscious

either.

It

is

probably

correcttoassumethatmostlisteners,inordertocomplywithwhattheyregardassocial

desiderataandtoprovetheir"citizenship,"halfhumorously

(page37)"join"theconspiracy

1)ascaricaturesoftheirownpotentialitiesandsuppressbringingto

awarenesstheoperativemechanismsby insistingtothemselvesandtoothersthatthe

wholethingisonlygoodcleanfunanyhow.

Thefinalcomponentintherecognitionprocesspsychologicaltransferleadsanaly

sisback

to

plugging.

Recognition

is

socially

effective

only

when

backed

by

the

authority

ofapowerfulagency.That is, the recognitionconstructsdonotapply toany tunebut

onlyto"successful"tunes,successbeingjudgedbythebackingofcentralagencies.In

short,recognition,asasocialdeterminantoflisteninghabits,worksonlyonpluggedma

terial.Alistenerwillnotabidetheplayingofasongrepeatedlyonthepiano.Playedover

theairitistoleratedwithjoyallthroughitsheyday.

Thepsychological

mechanism

here

involved

may

be

thought

of

as

functioning

in

this

way: Ifsomesonghit isplayedagainandagainon theair, the listenerbegins to think

that it isalreadyasuccess.This isfurtheredbytheway inwhichpluggedsongsarean

nounced inbroadcasts,often inthecharacteristicformof"Youwillnowhearthe latest

smashhit."Repetitionitselfisacceptedasasignofitspopularity.2)


30/45

Popularmusicand"leisuretime."

Sofartheanalysishasdealtwithreasonsfortheacceptanceofanyparticularsonghit.In

order to understandwhy thiswhole typeofmusicmaintains its holdon themasses,

someconsiderationsofamoregeneralkindmaybeappropriate.

The frameofmind towhichpopularmusicoriginallyappealed,onwhich it feeds,and

whichitperpetuallyreinforces,issimultaneouslyoneofdistractionandinattention.Lis

tenersaredistractedfromthedemandsofrealitybyentertainmentwhichdoesnotde

mandattentioneither.

Thenotion

of

distraction

can

be

properly

understood

only

within

its

social

setting

and

notinselfsubsistenttermsofindividualpsychology.Distractionisboundtothepresent

modeofproduction, to therationalizedandmechanizedprocessof labor towhich,di

rectlyorindirectly,massesaresubject.Thismodeofproduction,whichengendersfears

andanxietyaboutunemployment, lossof income,war,has its"nonproductive"corre

lateinentertainment;thatis,

1)Cf.HadleyCantrilandGordonAllport,ThePsychologyofRadio,NewYork,1935p.69.

2)Thesamepropagandatrickcanbefoundmoreexplicitlyinthefieldofradioadvertising

of

commodities.

Beautyskin

Soap

is

called

"famous"

since

the

listener

has

heard

the

nameofthesoapovertheairinnumerabletimesbeforeandthereforewouldagreetoits

"fame."Itsfameisonlythesumtotaloftheseveryannouncementswhichrefertoit.

(page38)relaxation

which

does

not

involve

the

effort

of

concentration

at

all.

People

want

to

have

fun.Afullyconcentratedandconsciousexperienceofartispossibleonlytothosewhose


31/45

livesdonotputsuchastrainonthemthatintheirsparetimetheywantrelieffromboth

boredomandeffortsimultaneously.Thewholesphereofcheapcommercialentertain

ment reflects this dual desire. It induces relaxation because it is patterned and pre

digested.Its

being

patterned

and

pre

digested

serves

within

the

psychological

household

ofthemassestosparethemtheeffortofthatparticipation(eveninlisteningorobserva

tion)withoutwhich there canbeno receptivity toart.On theotherhand, the stimuli

theyprovidepermitanescapefromtheboredomofmechanizedlabor.

Thepromotersofcommercializedentertainmentexonerate themselvesby referring to

thefactthattheyaregivingthemasseswhattheywant.Thisisanideologyappropriate

tocommercial

purposes:

the

less

the

mass

discriminates,

the

greater

the

possibility

of

sellingculturalcommoditiesindiscriminately.Yetthisideologyofvested interestcannot

bedismissedsoeasily.Itisnotpossiblecompletelytodenythatmassconsciousnesscan

bemoldedbytheoperativeagenciesonlybecausethemasses"wantthisstuff."

Butwhy do theywant this stuff? In our present society themasses themselves are

kneadedby thesamemodeofproductionas thearticraftmaterial foistedupon them.

Thecustomers

of

musical

entertainment

are

themselves

objects

or,

indeed,

products

of

the samemechanismswhichdetermine theproductionofpopularmusic. Their spare

timeservesonlytoreproducetheirworkingcapacity.Itisameansinsteadofanend.The

poweroftheprocessofproductionextendsoverthetimeintervalswhichonthesurface

appear to be "free." Theywant standardized goods and pseudoindividualization, be

cause their leisure isanescape fromworkandat thesame time ismoldedafterthose

psychologicalattitudestowhichtheirworkadayworldexclusivelyhabituatesthem.Pop

ularmusicisforthemassesaperpetualbusman'sholiday.Thus,thereisjustificationfor

speakingo'fapreestablishedharmonytodaybetweenproductionandconsumptionof

popularmusic.Thepeopleclamorforwhattheyaregoingtogetanyhow.

Toescapeboredomandavoideffortareincompatiblehencethereproductionofthe

veryattitudefromwhichescapeissought.Tobesure,thewayinwhichtheymustwork

on

the

assembly

line,

in

the

factory,

or

at

office

machines

denies

people

any

novelty.

They seek novelty, but the strain and boredom associatedwith actualwork leads to


32/45

avoidanceofeffortinthatleisuretimewhichofferstheonlychanceforreallynewexpe

rience.Asasubstitute,theycravea

(page39)stimulant.Popularmusiccomestooffer it.Itsstimulationsaremetwiththe inabilityto

vesteffort in theeveridentical.Thismeansboredomagain. It isa circlewhichmakes

escape impossible.The impossibilityofescapecausesthewidespreadattitudeof inat

tentiontowardpopularmusic.Themomentofrecognitionisthatofeffortlesssensation.

Thesuddenattentionattached to thismomentburns itselfout instanterandrelegates

the listener toarealmof inattentionanddistraction.On theonehand, thedomainof

productionandpluggingpresupposesdistractionand,ontheother,producesit.

In this situation the industry faces an insoluble problem. Itmust arouse attention by

meansofevernewproducts,butthisattentionspellstheirdoom.Ifnoattentionisgiven

tothesong,itcannotbesold;ifattentionispaidtoit,thereisalwaysthepossibilitythat

people

will

no

longer

accept

it,

because

they

know

it

too

well.

This

partly

accounts

for

theconstantlyrenewedefforttosweepthemarketwithnewproducts,tohoundthem

totheirgraves;thentorepeattheinfanticidalmaneuveragainandagain.

Ontheotherhand,distractionisnotonlyapresuppositionbutalsoaproductofpopular

music.The tunesthemselves lullthe listener to inattention.They tellhimnot toworry

forhewillnotmissanything.1)

Thesocialcement.

Itissafetoassumethatmusiclistenedtowithageneralinattentionwhichisonlyinter

ruptedby

sudden

flashes

of

recognition

is

not

followed

as

asequence

of

experiences

thathaveaclearcutmeaningoftheirown,graspedineachinstantandrelatedtoallthe


33/45

precedentandsubsequentmoments.Onemaygosofarastosuggestthatmostlisteners

ofpopularmusicdonotunderstandmusicasalanguageinitself.Iftheydiditwouldbe

vastlydifficult toexplainhowtheycould tolerate the incessantsupplyof largelyundif

ferentiatedmaterial.

What,

then,

does

music

mean

to

them?

The

answer

is

that

the

lan

guage that ismusic is transformedbyobjectiveprocesses intoa languagewhich they

thinkistheirown,intoalanguagewhichservesasareceptaclefortheirinstitutional

izedwants.The lessmusic isa languagesuigeneris tothem, themoredoes itbecomeestablishedas sucha receptacle.Theautonomyofmusic is replacedbyamere socio

psychologicalfunction.Musictodayislargelyasocialcement.Andthe.meaninglisteners

attributetoamaterial,the

1)Theattitudeofdetraction isnota completelyuniversalone.Particularly youngsters

whoinvestpopularmusicwiththeirownfeelingsarenotyetcompletelybluntedtoallits

effects.

The

whole

problem

of

age

levels

with

regard

to

popular

music,

however,

it

be

yond thescopeof thepresent study.Demographicproblems, too,must remainoutof

consideration.

(page40)inherent logic ofwhich is inaccessible to them, is above all ameans bywhich they

achievesomepsychicaladjustmenttothemechanismsofpresentday life.This"adjust

ment" materializes in two different ways, corresponding to two major socio

psychologicaltypesofmassbehaviortowardmusicingeneralandpopularmusicinpar

ticular,the"rhythmicallyobedient"typeandthe"emotional"type.


34/45

Individualsoftherhythmicallyobedienttypearemainlyfoundamongtheyouththe

socalled radio generation. They aremost susceptible to a process ofmasochistic ad

justmenttoauthoritariancollectivism.Thetypeisnotrestrictedtoanyonepoliticalatti

tude.The

adjustment

to

anthropophagous

collectivism

is

found

as

often

among

left

wing

political groups as among rightwing groups. Indeed, both overlap: repression and

crowdmindednessovertakethefollowersofbothtrends.Thepsychologiestendtomeet

despitethesurfacedistinctionsinpoliticalattitudes.

Thiscomes to the fore inpopularmusicwhichappears tobealoof frompoliticalparti

sanship. Itmaybenoted thatamoderate leftist theatreproduction suchas "Pinsand

Needles"uses

ordinary

jazz

as

its

musical

medium,

and

that

acommunist

youth

organi

zationadaptedthemelodyof"Alexander'sRagtimeBand"to itsown lyrics.Thosewho

askforasongofsocialsignificanceaskforitthroughamediumwhichdeprivesitofso

cialsignificance.Theuseofinexorablepopular,musicalmediaisrepressiveperse.Such

inconsistencies indicatethatpoliticalconvictionandsociopsychologicalstructurebyno

meanscoincide.

Thisobedient

type

is

the

rhythmical

type,

the

word

rhythmical

being

used

in

its

everyday

sense.Anymusicalexperienceofthistypeisbasedupontheunderlying,unabatingtime

unitofthemusic, its"beat."Toplayrhythmicallymeans,tothesepeople,toplay in

suchawaythatevenifpseudoindividualizationscounteraccentsandother"differen

tiations"occur,therelationtothegroundmetreispreserved.Tobemusicalmeansto

them tobecapableof followinggiven rhythmicalpatternswithoutbeingdisturbedby

"individualizing"aberrations,andtofiteventhesyncopations intothebasictimeunits.

This is theway inwhich theirresponse tomusic immediatelyexpresses theirdesire to

obey.However,asthestandardizedmetreofdancemusicandofmarchingsuggeststhe

coordinatedbattalionsofamechanical collectivity,obedience to this rhythmbyover

comingtherespondingindividualsleadsthemtoconceiveofthemselvesasagglutinized

withtheuntoldmillionsofthemeekwhomustbesimilarlyovercome.Thusdotheobe

dientinherittheearth.


35/45

Yet, ifone looksattheseriouscompositionswhichcorrespondtothiscategoryofmass

listening,onefindsoneverycharacteristicfea

(page41)ture: that of disillusion.All these composers, among them Stravinsky andHindemith,

haveexpressedan"antiromantic"feeling.Theyaimedatmusicaladaptationtoreality,

areality

understood

by

them

in

terms

of

the

"machine

age."

The

renunciation

of

dreamingbythesecomposersisanindexthatlistenersarereadytoreplacedreamingby

adjustmenttorawreality,thattheyreapnewpleasurefromtheiracceptanceoftheun

pleasant.Theyaredisillusionedaboutanypossibilityofrealizingtheirowndreamsinthe

world inwhich they live,and consequentlyadapt themselves to thisworld.They take

whatiscalledarealisticattitudeandattempttoharvestconsolationbyidentifyingthem

selveswiththeexternalsocialforceswhichtheythinkconstitutethe"machineage."Yet

theverydisillusionuponwhichtheircoordinationisbasedistheretomartheirpleasure.

The cultof themachinewhich is representedbyunabatingjazzbeats involvesa self

renunciation that cannotbut take root in the form of a fluctuatinguneasiness some

where inthepersonalityoftheobedient.Forthemachineisanend in itselfonlyunder

given socialconditions,wheremenareappendagesof themachinesonwhich they

work.Theadaptationtomachinemusicnecessarily impliesarenunciationofone'sown

humanfeelings

and

at

the

same

time

afetishism

of

the

machine

such

that

its

instrumen

talcharacterbecomesobscuredthereby.

Astotheother,the"emotional"type,thereissomejustificationforlinkingitwithatype

ofmovie spectator.Thekinship iswith thepoor shopgirlwhoderivesgratificationby

identificationwithGingerRogers,who,withherbeautiful legsandunsulliedcharacter,

marries theboss.Wishfulfillment isconsidered theguidingprinciple in the socialpsy

chologyof

moving

pictures

and

similarly

in

the

pleasure

obtained

from

emotional,

erotic

music.Thisexplanation,however,isonlysuperficiallyappropriate.


36/45

HollywoodandTinPanAlleymaybedreamfactories.Buttheydonotmerelysupplycat

egoricalwishfulfillmentforthegirlbehindthecounter.Shedoesnotimmediatelyidenti

fyherselfwithGingerRogersmarrying.Whatdoesoccurmaybeexpressedas follows:

whenthe

audience

at

asentimental

film

or

sentimental

music

become

aware

of

the

overwhelming possibility of happiness, they dare to confess to themselveswhat the

wholeorderof contemporary lifeordinarily forbids them toadmit,namely, that they

actuallyhavenopart inhappiness.What issupposed tobewishfulfillment isonly the

scant liberation thatoccurswith therealization thatat lastoneneednotdenyoneself

thehappinessofknowingthatoneisunhappyandthatonecouldbehappy.Theexperi

enceoftheshopgirlisrelatedtothatoftheoldwomanwhoweepsattheweddingser

vices

(page42)ofothers,blissfullybecomingawareofthewretchednessofherown life.Noteventhe

mostgullible individualsbelievethateventuallyeveryonewillwinthesweepstakes.The

actual functionof sentimentalmusic lies rather in the temporary releasegiven to the

awarenessthatonehasmissedfulfillment.

Theemotionallistenerlistenstoeverythingintermsoflateromanticismandofthemu

sicalcommoditiesderivedfrom itwhicharealreadyfashionedtofittheneedsofemo

tional listening.Theyconsumemusic inordertobeallowedtoweep.Theyaretaken in

bythemusicalexpressionoffrustrationratherthanbythatofhappiness.Theinfluence

of thestandardSlavicmelancholy typifiedbyTchaikowskyandDvorak isby fargreater

thanthatofthemost"fulfilled"momentsofMozartoroftheyoungBeethoven.Theso

called releasingelementofmusic is simply theopportunity to feel something.But the

actualcontentofthisemotioncanonlybefrustration.Emotionalmusichasbecomethe

imageof

the

mother

who

says,

"Come

and

weep,

my

child."

It

is

katharsis

for

the

masses,

butkatharsiswhichkeepsthemallthemorefirmlyinline.Onewhoweepsdoesnotre


37/45

sistanymorethanonewhomarches.Musicthatpermits its listenerstheconfessionof

theirunhappiness reconciles them,bymeansof this "release," to their socialdepend

ence.

Ambivalence,spite,fury.

The fact that thepsychological "adjustment"effectedby today'smass listening is illu

sionaryand

that

the

"escape"

provided

by

popular

music

actually

subjects

the

individuals

totheverysamesocialpowersfromwhichtheywanttoescapemakes itselffelt inthe

veryattitudeofthosemasses.Whatappearstobereadyacceptanceandunproblematic

gratification isactuallyofaverycomplexnature,coveredbyaveilofflimsyrationaliza

tions.Masslisteninghabitstodayareambivalent.Thisambivalence,whichreflectsupon

thewhole question of popularity of popularmusic, has to be scrutinized in order to

throwsome lightuponthepotentialitiesofthesituation.Itmaybemadeclearthrough

ananalogyfromthevisualfield.Everymoviegoerandeveryreaderofmagazinefictionis

familiarwiththeeffectofwhatmaybecalledtheobsoletemodern:photographsoffa

mousdancerswhowereconsideredalluringtwentyyearsago,revivalsofValentinofilms

which, though themostglamorousof theirday,appearhopelesslyoldfashioned.This

effect,originallydiscoveredbyFrench surrealists,has sincebecomehackneyed.There

arenumerousmagazinestodaythatmockfashionsasoutmoded,althoughtheirpopular

itydates

back

only

afew

years

and

although

the


38/45

(page43)verywomenwhoappearridiculous inthepaststylesareatthesametimeregardedas

thepeakofsmartness inpresentdayfashions.Therapiditywithwhichthemodernbe

comesobsoletehasaverysignificant implication. It leads to thequestionwhether the

changeofeffectcanpossiblybedueentirely to theobjects in themselves,orwhether

thechangemustbeatleastpartlyaccountedforbythedispositionofthemasses.Many

ofthesewhotodaylaughattheBabsHuttonof1929notonlyadmiretheBabsHuttonof

1940butwerethrilledbyherin1929also.TheycouldnotnowscoffattheBarbaraHut

tonof1929unlesstheiradmirationforher(orherpeers)atthattimecontainedinitself

elementsready

to

tilt

over

into

its

opposite

when

historically

provoked.

The

"craze"

or

frenzyforaparticularfashioncontainswithinitselfthelatentpossibilityoffury.

Thesamethingoccursinpopularmusic.Injazzjournalismitisknownas"corniness."Any

rhythmicalformulawhichisoutdated,nomatterhow"hot"itisinitself,isregardedas

ridiculousandthereforeeitherflatlyrejectedorenjoyedwiththesmugfeelingthatthe

fashionsnowfamiliartothelisteneraresuperior.

One could not possibly offer anymusical criterion for certainmusical formulas today

consideredtabubecausetheyarecornysuchasasixteenthonthedownbeatwitha

subsequentdottedeighth.Theyneednotbelesssophisticatedthananyofthesocalled

swingformulas.Itisevenlikelythatinthepioneerdaysofjazztherhythmicalimprovisa

tionswere lessschematicandmorecomplexthantheyaretoday.Nevertheless,theef

fectofcorninessexistsandmakesitselffeltverydefinitely.

Anadequateexplanationthatcanbeofferedevenwithoutgoingintoquestionsthatre

quirepsychoanalyticalinterpretationisthefollowing:Likesthathavebeenenforcedup

onlistenersprovokerevengethemomentthepressureisrelaxed.Theycompensatefor

their"guilt" inhavingcondoned theworthlessbymaking funof it.But thepressure is

relaxedonlyasoftenasattemptsaremade to foistsomething"new"upon thepublic.

Thus, thepsychologyof thecornyeffect isreproducedagainandagainand is likely to

continueindefinitely.


39/45

Theambivalenceillustratedbytheeffectofcorninessisduetothetremendousincrease

ofthedisproportionbetweentheindividualandthesocialpower.Anindividualpersonis

facedwithan individualsongwhichhe isapparently freeeithertoacceptorreject.By

theplugging

and

support

given

the

song

by

powerful

agencies,

he

is

deprived

of

the

freedomofrejectionwhichhemightstillbecapableofmaintainingtowardtheindividual

song.Todislikethesongisnolongeranexpressionofsubjectivetastebutratherarebel

lionagainst

(page44)thewisdomofapublicutilityandadisagreementwith themillionsofpeoplewhoare

assumed to supportwhat theagenciesaregiving them.Resistance is regardedas the

markofbadcitizenship,asinabilitytohavefun,ashighbrowinsincerity,forwhatnormal

personcansethimselfagainstsuchnormalmusic?

Suchaquantitative increaseofinfluencebeyondcertainlimits,however,fundamentally

altersthecompositionofindividualityitself.Astrongwilledpoliticalprisonermayresist

allsortsofpressureuntilmethodssuchasnotallowinghimtosleep forseveralweeks

are introduced.Atthatpointhewillreadilyconfesseventocrimeshehasnotcommit

ted.Something similar takesplacewith the listener's resistanceasa resultof the tre

mendous quantity of force operating upon him. Thus, the disproportion between the

strengthofany individualand theconcentrated social structurebrought tobearupon

himdestroyshis resistanceandat thesame timeaddsabadconscience forhiswill to

resistatall.Whenpopularmusicisrepeatedtosuchadegreethatitdoesnotanylonger

appear tobeadevicebut ratheran inherentelementof thenaturalworld, resistance

assumes a different aspect because the unity of individuality begins to crack. This of

coursedoesnotimplyabsoluteeliminationofresistance.Butitisdrivenintodeeperand

deeperstrata

of

the

psychological

structure.

Psychological

energy

must

be

directly

in

vestedinordertoovercomeresistance.Forthisresistancedoesnotwhollydisappearin


40/45

yieldingtoexternalforces,butremainsalivewithintheindividualandstillsurviveseven

attheverymomentofacceptance.Herespitebecomesdrasticallyactive.

It is themostconspicuous featureof the listeners'ambivalence towardpopularmusic.

Theyshieldtheirpreferencesfromanyimputationthattheyaremanipulated.Nothingis

moreunpleasantthantheconfessionofdependence.Theshamearousedbyadjustment

to injusticeforbidsconfessionbytheashamed.Hence,theyturntheirhatredratheron

thosewhopointtotheirdependencethanonthosewhotietheirbonds.

The transferof resistance skyrockets in those sphereswhich seem toofferan escape

fromthematerialforcesofrepressioninoursocietyandwhichareregardedastheref

ugeof individuality. In the fieldofentertainment the freedomof taste ishailedassu

preme.Toconfessthat individuality is ineffectivehereaswellas inpractical lifewould

leadtothesuspicionthat individualitymayhavedisappearedaltogether;that is,that it

hasbeenreducedbystandardizedbehaviorpatternstoatotallyabstract ideawhichno

longerhasanydefinitecontent.Themassoflistenershavebeenputincompletereadi

ness

(page45)tojointhevaguelyrealizedconspiracydirectedwithout inevitablemaliceagainstthem,

toidentify

themselves

with

the

inescapable,

and

to

retain

ideologically

that

freedom

whichhasceasedtoexistasareality.Thehatredofthedeception istransferredtothe

threatofrealizingthedeceptionandtheypassionatelydefendtheirownattitudesinceit

allowsthemtobevoluntarilycheated.

Thematerial, tobeaccepted,necessitates this spite, too. Its commoditycharacter, its

domineeringstandardization,isnotsohiddenastobeimperceptiblealtogether.Itcalls

forpsychological

action

on

the

part

of

the

listener.

Passivity

alone

is

not

enough.

The

listenermustforcehimselftoaccept.


41/45

Spiteismostapparentinthecaseofextremeadherentsofpopularmusicjitterbugs.

Superficially,thethesisabouttheacceptanceoftheinescapableseemstoindicatenoth

ingmorethantherelinquishingofspontaneity:thesubjectsaredeprivedofanyresidues

offreewillwithrelationtopopularmusicandtendtoproducepassivereactionstowhat

isgiventhemandtobecomemerecentersofsociallyconditionedreflexes.Theentomo

logicaltermjitterbugunderscoresthis. Itreferstoan insectwhohasthejitters,who is

attractedpassivelybysomegivenstimulus,suchas light.Thecomparisonofmenwith

insectsbetokenstherecognitionthattheyhavebeendeprivedofautonomouswill.

But this idea requires qualifications. They are already present in the officialjitterbug

terminology. Terms like the latest craze, swing frenzy, alligator, rugcutter, indicate a

trendthatgoesbeyondsociallyconditionedreflexes:fury.Noonewhohaseverattend

edajitterbugjamboreeordiscussedwithjitterbugscurrentissuesofpopularmusiccan

overlooktheaffinityoftheirenthusiasmtofury,whichmayfirstbedirectedagainstthe

criticsoftheiridolsbutwhichmaytiltoveragainsttheidolsthemselves.Thisfurycannot

beaccountedforsimplybythepassiveacceptanceofthegiven.Itisessentialtoambiva

lencethat

the

subject

not

simply

react

passively.

Complete

passivity

demands

unambig

uousacceptance.However,neither thematerial itselfnorobservationof the listeners

supportstheassumptionofsuchunilateralacceptance.Simplyrelinquishingresistanceis

notsufficientforacceptanceoftheinescapable.

Enthusiasmforpopularmusicrequireswilfulresolutionbylisteners,whomusttransform

theexternalordertowhichtheyaresubservientintoaninternalorder.Theendowment

ofmusicalcommoditieswithlibidoenergyismanipulatedbytheego.Thismanipulation

isnotentirelyunconscious therefore. Itmaybeassumed thatamong thosejitterbugs

whoarenotexpertsandyetareenthusiastic


42/45

(page46)aboutArtieShaworBennyGoodman,theattitudeof"switchedon"enthusiasmprevails.

They "join the ranks," but thisjoining does not only imply their conformity to given

standards; italso impliesadecision toconform.Theappealof themusicpublishers to

thepublic to"join the ranks"manifests that thedecision isanactofwill,close to the

surfaceofconsciousness.1)

Thewholerealmofjitterbugfanaticismandmasshysteriaaboutpopularmusicisunder

thespellofspitefulwilldecision.Frenziedenthusiasmimpliesnotonlyambivalenceinso

farasitisreadytotiltoverintorealfuryorscornfulhumortowarditsidolsbutalsothe

effectuationofsuchspitefulwilldecision.Theegoinforcingenthusiasm,mustoverforce

it,since"natural"enthusiasmwouldnotsufficetodothejobandovercomeresistance.It

is thiselementofdeliberateoverdoingwhich characterizes frenzyand selfconscious2)

hysteria.Thepopularmusicfanmustbethoughtofasgoinghiswayfirmlyshuttinghis

eyes and gritting his teeth in order to avoid deviation fromwhat he has decided to

acknowledge.Aclearandcalmviewwouldjeopardizetheattitudethathasbeeninflicted

uponhim

and

that

he

in

turn

tries

to

inflict

upon

himself.

The

original

will

decision

upon

whichhis enthusiasm isbased is so superficial that the slightest critical consideration

woulddestroyitunlessitisstrengthenedbythecrazewhichhereservesaquasirational

purpose.

Finallyatrendoughttobementionedwhichmanifestsitselfinthegesturesofthejitter

bug:thetendencytowardselfcaricaturewhichappearstobeaimedatbythegaucheries

ofthejitterbugssooftenadvertisedbymagazinesandillustratednewspapers.Thejitter

bug looksas ifhewouldgrimaceathimself,athisownenthusiasmandathisownen

joymentwhichhedenouncesevenwhilepretendingtoenjoyhimself.Hemockshimself

as ifheweresecretlyhopingforthedayofjudgment.Byhismockeryheseekstogain

exonerationforthefraudhehascommittedagainsthimself.Hissenseofhumormakes

everythingsoshiftythathecannotbeputor,rather,puthimselfonthespotfor

any

of

his

reactions.

His

bad

taste,

his

fury,

his

hidden

resistance,

his

insincerity,

his

la

tentcontemptforhimself,everythingiscloakedby"humor"andtherewithneutralized.


43/45

Thisinterpretationisthemorejustifiedasitisquiteunlikelythattheceaselessrepetition

of the sameeffectswouldallow forgenuinemerriment.Nooneenjoysajokehehas

heardahundredtimes.3)

1)On thebackof thesheetversionofacertainhit, thereappears theappeal: ''Follow

YourLeader,ArtieShaw."

2)

One

hit

goes:

"I'm

Just

aJitterbug."

3)Itwouldbeworthwhiletoapproachthisproblemexperimentallybytakingmotionpic

turesofjitterbugs inactionand laterexamining them in termsofgesturalpsychology.

Suchanexperimentcouldalsoyieldvaluableresultswithregardtothequestion

(footnotecontinuedonnextpage)

(page47)Thereisanelementoffictitiousnessinallenthusiasmaboutpopularmusic.Scarcelyany

jitterbugisthoroughlyhystericalaboutswingorthoroughlyfascinatedbyaperformance.

Inaddition to some genuine response to rhythmical stimuli,masshysteria, fanaticism

andfascinationthemselvesarepartlyadvertisingslogansafterwhichdievictimspattern

theirbehavior.Thisselfdelusionisbaseduponimitationandevenhistrionics.Thejitter

bugistheactorofhisownenthusiasmortheactoroftheenthusiasticfrontpagemodel

presented tohim.Heshareswiththeactor thearbitrarinessofhisown interpretation.

Hecanswitchoffhisenthusiasmaseasilyandsuddenlyasheturnsiton.Heisonlyun

deraspell

of

his

own

making.


44/45

Butthecloserthewilldecision,thehistrionics,andthe imminenceofselfdenunciation

inthejitterbugaretothesurfaceofconsciousness,thegreateristhepossibilitythatthe

setendencieswillbreakthrough inthemass,and,onceandforall,dispensewithcon

trolledpleasure.

They

cannot

be

altogether

the

spineless

lot

of

fascinated

insects

they

arecalledandliketostylethemselves.Theyneedtheirwill,ifonlyinordertodownthe

alltooconsciouspremonitionthatsomething is"phony"withtheirpleasure.Thistrans

formationoftheirwillindicatesthatwillisstillaliveandthatundercertaincircumstanc

esitmaybestrongenoughtogetridofthesuperimposedinfluenceswhichdogitsevery

step.

Inthe

present

situation

it

may

be

appropriate

for

these

reasons

which

are

only

exam

plesofmuchbroaderissuesofmasspsychologytoasktowhatextentthewholepsy

choanalyticaldistinctionbetweentheconsciousandtheunconsciousisstilljustified.Pre

sentdaymass reactionsarevery thinlyveiled fromconsciousness. It is theparadoxof

the situation that it is almost insuperablydifficult tobreak through this thin veil. Yet

truthissubjectivelynolongersounconsciousasitisexpectedtobe.Thisisborneoutby

thefactthatinthepoliticalpraxisofauthoritarianregimesthefranklieinwhichnoone

actuallybelievesismoreandmorereplacingthe"ideologies"ofyesterdaywhichhadthe

power to convince thosewho believed in them.Hence,we cannot content ourselves

withmerelystating thatspontaneityhasbeenreplacedbyblindacceptanceof theen

forcedmaterial.Eventhebeliefthatpeopletodayreactlikeinsectsandaredegenerating

intomerecentersofsociallyconditioned reflexes, stillbelongs to the facade.Toowell

doesitservethepurposeofthose

of howmusical standards and "deviations" in popularmusic are apperceived. If one

wouldtakesoundtrackssimultaneouslywiththemotionpicturesonecouldfindouti.e.

how far the Jitterbugs react gesturally to the syncopations they pretend to be crazy

aboutandhowfartheyrespondsimplytothegroundbeats.Ifthelatteristheitwould

furnishanotherindexforthefictitiousnessofthiswholetypeoffrenzy.


45/45

(page48)whoprateabouttheNewMythosandtheirrationalpowersofcommunity.Rather,spon

taneityisconsumedbythetremendouseffortwhicheachindividualhastomakeinorder

toacceptwhatisenforceduponhimaneffortwhichhasdevelopedfortheveryrea

sonthattheveneerveilingthecontrollingmechanismshasbecomesothin.Inorderto

becomeajitterbugorsimplyto"like"popularmusic,itdoesnotbyanymeanssufficeto

giveoneselfupandtofall in linepassively.Tobecometransformed intoaninsect,man

needsthatenergywhichmightpossiblyachievehistransformationintoaman.

On Popular Music

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