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MARIANNE LOISON

Vegetal extracts:

The big potentialin biopesticides applications!

VARIOUS PLANTS HAVE BEENUSED in organic production underthe formula of decoctions, infu-sions, extracted molecules oressential oils for a long time. Garlicas acaricide; pyrethrins or comfreysagainst aphids; nasturtium or sor-rel against cankers to name but afew of the well-known examples.These vegetal compounds aremostly dedicated to protectionagainst pathogenic fungi, nema-todes or insect pests, but some canalso show herbicide efficacy. Other plant extracts have beenstudied during the last years, espe-cially molecules of fructose andsaccharose used as insecticide(apple, maize). Also fatty com-pounds show interesting proper-ties : soya lecithin is tested as fun-gicide in Bio-Blatt (produced byNeudorff), which is a naturalextract against powdery mildew,preventing fungi to enter the crop

foliage cell, but the effect is onlypreventive.

VEGETAL EXTRACTS AS BIOINSECTICIDESIn tropical countries, some specieshave been known for a long time fortheir insecticide effects. The decoc-tion of Quassia amara L. is still beingexplored in different countries. Itsinhibitive action on sucking insects(aphids) is based on the main activeingredient: quassin. Some prepara-tions such as Quassian (AndermattBiocontrol) are already registeredagainst aphids. Quassia has beentested against the apple sawfly formany years by Fredon (France) , inthe framework of the Transorganic IIproject1. Since 2008, in collabora-tion with the CRA-W of Gembloux

(Belgium) in the TransBioFruit proj-ect2, a study programme has alsobeen implemented on this subject.After six years of monitoring in thenorth of France, the efficiency of theapplication of a farm-preparedQuassia amara decoction was con-firmed and various criteria of effi-ciency were better known. Thedecoction is sprayed at a rate of atleast 20kg/ha, at the beginning andat the end of the falling of the blos-soms. At the same time, in 2008,Fredon started testing the efficiencyof other farm preparations againstlettuce aphids under controlled con-ditions. In Germany, different studies doneby Foko show that Quassia is a veryselective product and shows activi-ties only on very few insect species

such as apple aphids. Still, the reli-ability of the efficacy is much lowerthan that of synthetic products. Andit is difficult to establish the rightapplication date. For organic fruitproduction in Germany, the recom-mendation is to add Quassia to aneem natural extract at the end oftree blossom. Neem extract(Azadirachtin) is certainly one ofthe best-known insecticides inIndia and many countries. Theextract of neem-tree fruits is able towork as a systemic insecticide, effi-cient within a few hours. It has awide spectrum against aphids andsucking pests such as whitefliesand thrips. But according to Trifolio:“there is still a lot to do with Neem:more and new countries, more indi-cations on more crops!”

PLANTS USED AS FUNGICIDE OR NEMATICIDESeveral new compounds have beenalready formulated in the past years.This is the case of Nemguard, a gar-lic extract registered by Biogard(CBC Group) as nematicide for hor-ticultural crops in several Europeancountries. Garlic contains numerousbiologically active ingredients,including allicin and polysulfides.Theactive substance of Nemguardincludes fingerprinted polysulfides

If it is well documentedthat a number of vegetalextracts show fungicide orinsecticide effects, the mainchallenge is to define thebest formulation andconcentration, crop by crop.These extracts also start tobe tested and used in IPM to lower the dose of othercompounds such as copperor sulphur.

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News in Brief European Union awards 8 million euros in research budget for new bio products for agricultural and pharma applicationsTHE BUDGET IS EARMARKED for the research and development of novel bio-logical pesticides and fungicides. It has been won by 11 organizations, includ-ing the Israeli Group Stockton. Stockton, which specializes in the developmentand marketing of eco-friendly solutions for the crop protection market, andwhose share in the awarded budget is approx. 1 million Euros, is responsiblefor researching natural substances for agricultural applications and to develop-ing crop protection products based on these agents.The research work of the consortium, which is led by Copenhagen University,is expected to take three years. The Consortium's partners include four univer-sities dedicated to basic research, two universities that focus on collecting plantmaterial from various regions of the globe, a raw material manufacturer, com-mercial pharma and cosmetics companies, and Stockton, which is responsiblefor the pesticide aspect of the new developments.Ziv Tirosh, CEO of Stockton, commented, "We are proud to be part of thedevelopment of a new product with some of Europe's leading universities inthis area and the Weizmann Institute from Israel, with which we are collabo-rating on several other projects. We thank the European Union for its vote ofconfidence in trusting the product development to us. Together with our con-sortium partners, we look forward to creating new bio products which will beof value to the European and global agriculture."The European Union is planning to phase out many products in addition to themany hundreds of molecules which have been discontinued following manydecades of intensive use by growers. With this and other initiatives, the EU issending a strong message of support to the crop protection industry.

protected by four patent families.Another example is rutacea extract(Soleo) used by Daymsa to strength-en crops and protect them againstbotrytis and powdery mildew.Daymsa is developing this extract asa complement or alternative tofungicides during harvesting time.Some plant extracts can also controlsome pests: Terpenes constituents ofChenopodium ambrosioides areactive against thrips, whiteflies,mites... but are considered to be safefor beneficial insects. These terpenescan kill pests by contact and dessica-tion. A commercial compound basedon these components (Requiem) issold by Bayer Crop Science for differ-ent crops: pepper, tomatoes, grapes,treenuts... Requiem is a quick-actinginsecticide, rapidly eliminating suck-ing pests and controlling all stages.In Israël, the Stockton group haslaunched a new generation of natu-ral fungicides based on tea treeplants (Melaleuca alternifolia) devel-oped for the control of fungal dis-eases in edible crops. This naturalbotanical fungicide (Timotex Gold)containing 222 gr/lit of the extract ofthe tea tree plant. The product isregistered and commercially used in23 countries including USA and is inthe registration process in EU coun-tries. The active substance is used forthe control of a wide range of plantdiseases such as downy mildew,early and late blights, cercospora,botrytis, pyricularia, rusts and others.The product is registered for a vari-ety of crops such as banana, vegeta-bles, vineyards, coffee and otherplantations, orchards. Many new biofungicides based onplant extracts are being developedby companies such as Daymsa andTrifolio M with a preparation basedon Glycerrhiza glabra. But DavidBernad from Daymsa points out that“only a few companies in Europehave registered natural productswith a limited number of products inthe market and a limited use.”

VEGETAL EXTRACTS AS COPPER ADDITIVESIn western Europe, local vegetalspecies certainly need a better

exploration and screening for theirprotective effects on crops.Knowing that high doses of cop-per, added each year, can be a riskfor the environment, Researchersdecided to test several vegetalextracts as substitutes to copperon vineyard in France: Equisetumarvense; Salix alba, Artemisia vul-garis, Artemisia absinthium, Mentapiperata, Frangula dodonei ,Rheum... all common species inEurope. During 3 years from 2010-2012, GRAB, ADAbio and IFV havetested different low doses of cop-per mixed with plant extracts, inlabs and in the field. Under highdisease pressure, most of theseextracts used alone are not effi-cient. But some “mix” can be inter-esting. This study indicates that theefficiency of Frangula dodonei orArtemisia associated to a low doseon copper can give equivalent effi-cacy compared to a full dose ofcopper. In some cases, efficacy ofthese ‘mixes’ is better than copperat low doses. So there could be asynergetic effect. The difficultycomes from the dependability inresults. Most of the time, plant-based preparations varies with sev-eral factors: origin, age, and howthe preparation is made (concen-tration, temperature, conserva-tion...) Different modes of applica-tion – preventive or systematic –can also explain variations. To gofurther, other trials mixing copperor sulphur with vegetal extractswere sprayed on orchards.

Alcoholic extracts of Artemisia,Salix and Equisetum showed effi-cacy on apple and pear fleck.

ESSENTIAL OILS: ANOTHER PROMISING ROUTEAn essential oil is a concentratedhydrophobic liquid containingvolatile aroma compounds from

plants. It usually carries a distinc-tive scent, or essence, of the plant.Essential oil is generally extractedby distillation. Slowly, essential oilsmake their way in niche markets:vineyards or horticultural crops.Their use requires a precisedosage, depending on the cropstage. A new preparation 100%natural (Prev-am by Vivagro) hasbeen registered in Europe, basedon orange essential oils. It can beused on tomato and cucurbitsagainst whiteflies (Trialeurodesvaporariorum and Bemisia tabaci).It is efficient on both larvae andadults. The orange terpens are ableto dry molecules of the insect cutic-ule in a short time (24 to 72hours). This ‘physical’ mode ofaction is recommended on whiteflies, with 500 liters/ha spraying.Prev-am is completely biodegrad-able, and accepted in organicfarming. It can be tank-mixed withother compounds and leaves no

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residues. Other examples of essen-tial oil efficacy come to commercialuse, as thyme oil against wheatdiseases such as Septoria.

BIOSURFACTANTS: A DEVELOPING NICHEIn order to lower doses of chemicalresidues, surfactants such as rape-seed oil and vegetal fatty acids canbe used as fungicides additives.The regions of the NPDC-Flanders-Wallonia programme have a vari-ety of research teams in universi-

ties of Ghent, Liège, Lille, which aredeveloping and studying new bio-molecules, in particular biosurfac-tants, that are likely to be used asbiological pest control agentsagainst phytopathogens. Farmingand horticultural associations arealso emerging to promote newcropping practices and a new inte-grated farming to reduce inputsand in particular plant protectionproducts of non-organic origin.One example is Helioterpen(Action Pin), added to fungicide on

potato crops. Based on pine treeterpenic polymers, this adjuvant isused with contact fungicide as a“sticker”. On potatoes, experi-ments show that Helioterpen sig-nificantly improves mancozebeefficacy against downy mildew(Phytophtora infestans), especiallyunder high disease pressure. Thenext step is to use this type ofadjuvant to lower fungicide dosewithout impairing efficacy.

HERBICIDES FROM PLANTEXTRACTS: THE NEW FRONTIER!All the effects of plant extracts arecertainly far from being explored.Herbicide activity opens a new eraof development. A component waslaunched a few years ago byNeudorff, based on pelargonic acid(extract from pelargoniumspecies). Pelargonic acid efficacy islimited as it is active only by con-tact on weeds. Marrone BioInnovations, Inc. (MBI), has foundother applications. Marronerecently announced the issuance ofa U.S. patent for sarmentine, anew bioherbicide, currently identi-

fied as MBI-011. The herbicidalactivity of sarmentine was isolatedfrom the extract of a pepperspecies (Piper longum L.) by MBIchemists. The formulations weresubmitted to the United StatesEnvironmental Protection Agencyin December 2012 for registrationas a herbicide. This compound cancontrol annual and perennialgrasses as well as broadleaf weedsin the agricultural, turf and orna-mental sectors. “The issuance ofthe sarmentine patent is a mile-stone for MBI, which has submit-ted over 180 patent applicationsfrom its library of 18,000 microor-ganisms and 350 plant extracts, aswell as from in-licensed technolo-gy.” says Dr. Alison Stewart, MBI’sChief Science Officer, responsiblefor the company’s patent strategyand portfolio. Though registrationis complex especially in Europe,many companies are developingthe screening of vegetal speciesthat could provide “clean solu-tions” in IPM. A business that iscertainly not going to get muchbigger! n

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THE REPORT “North AmericaBiopesticides Market 2013” pub-lished by CPL Business Consultantsshows that the North Americanbiopesticides market is estimated tohave been worth $497.3 million atuser-level in 2010; an increase ofapproximately 27.5% from 2008.The USA is the biggest user of micro-bials in the region with a marketestimated to be worth $372.4 m(74.8% of the total), followed byCanada and, then, Mexico. TheNorth American biopesticide sectorin 2010 represented approximately3.7% of the total pesticide market(3.6% in Canada, 6% in Mexicoand 3.5% in the US).

MICROBIAL BIOPESTICIDES: STILL A HIGH POTENTIALThe North American microbialbiopesticides market is estimated tohave been worth $139.8 million atuser-level in 2010; an increase of10.3% since 2007. Althoughgrowth has been seen in some sec-tors, notably products based onBacillus subtilis, sales of Bacillusthuringiensis for caterpillar controlhave either stagnated or, indeed,declined (notably in the forestry sec-tor). The proportion of the microbialsmarket taken by Bt-based products

(including Bt H14 for mosquitoes)has decreased from an estimated90% in the late 1990s to 51.2% in2010.The US is the biggest user of micro-bials in the region with a marketestimated to be worth $110 million(79% of the total), followed byMexico and, then, Canada, whereinsect pests are far less prevalent.The fastest growing sectors in theUS have been the fungicidal prod-ucts based on Bacillus subtilis andfungal-based materials. Prospectsfor growth in sales in the US overallremain good although there is noevidence for the meteoric rise pre-dicted earlier in the decade. Themarket in Mexico for Bacillus subtilishas increased and there is a steadilygrowing sector in locally-produced,fungal-based products. Sales arelarge and product is cheap. Canadais not a large user of either insecti-cides or fungicides but the prospectsfor growth are good in response togovernment encouragement andpesticide bans.Although overall growth in themicrobial biopesticide market inNorth America has not lived up tothe expectations of the 1990s, thepotential remains high and opportu-nities exist which have the potential

North America & Europe Biopesticides Market:

to raise the total market to $250million by 2020.

EUROPE BIOPESTICIDES' MARKETVALUE REACHES APPROXIMATELY$541.4 MILLIONThe same report shows that theEuropean market for biopesticides isestimated to be worth approximate-ly $541.4 million at end-user level.The breakdown of the figures indi-cates that approximately half themarket can be attributed to inverte-brate biocontrol agents and pollina-tors (IBCAs). The areas with thelargest growth are in biochemicals

North America & Europe Biopesticides Market:

and IBCAs. The largest individualEuropean biopesticide market isSpain, followed by Italy and France.Biopesticides now represent 5.04%of the European pesticide market.In an earlier report, Frost andSullivan had estimated theEuropean biopesticide market in2000 at $97.1 million of which ben-eficial insects took $53.5 million(55%), microbial pesticides $25.1million (26%) and semiochemicals$18.5 million (19%). Based onthese numbers, it is possible to cal-culate growth rates that suggest aCAGR of 16.91% for the Europeanbiopesticide sector since 2000.All the indicators suggest that wewill see growth in biopesticide salesaccelerate into and through 2013and on to 2020. This speed changehas been confirmed by a substantialmove by the agrochemical majorsinto the biopesticide business during2012, notably through acquisition ofsome of the key players, such asBecker Underwood (by BASF) andAgraQuest (Bayer CropScience). n

Accelerated Growth foreseenAccelerated Growth foreseen

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A STUDY WAS CARRIED OUT to testthe effects of the exposure to syn-thetic species-specific sex-pheromone on Lobesia botrana(European grapevine moth) females.The study by Dr. Ally Harari, of BenGurion University, Israel, revealedthat females in vineyards that weretreated with mating disruptionpheromone moved significantlymore agitatedly, but called signifi-cantly less frequently than inuntreated plots. Reduced callingcaused by exposure to the species-specific sex-pheromone mayincrease the age at which femalesmate and thereby reduce females'

Female detection of synthetic sex pheromone contributes to the efficacy of moth pest control

fecundity. Females that called in apheromone-saturated environmentexperienced a decrease in number ofoviposited eggs. A further decreasein reproductive success occur iffemales delay oviposition as theysearch for areas with less airbornepheromone, probably, as it may indi-cate less intraspecific competition. Itis concluded, therefore, that in addi-tion to the already known reductionin the ability of males to locatefemales, the mating-disruption tech-nique can suppress pest numbers asa consequence of its direct effectson the females. The two mechanismsprobably act synergistically.

New bio-pesticide for East African horticultureSINERIA INDUSTRIES FROMCYPRUS in Cooperation withChemtura Agrosolutions sub-sidiaries in Africa has launched thebio-pesticide LEVO 2.4 SL to thegrowing horticulture and ornamen-tal industry in East Africa. The bio-pesticide is an IPMCompliant product; an approvedinput by major supermarkets inEurope as a pest control productwhich can be used on fresh producesuch as various fresh herbs, orna-

mentals and vegetables imported toEurope from East Africa. It is a nat-ural plant agent, refined and pro-duced from wild medicinal plants.Oxymatrine, the product’s activeingredient, acts on the central nerv-ous system of pests which results inbreath inhibition and motion imbal-ance. It does not contain any syn-thetic chemical.Last year Levo 2.4 SL was accredit-ed for organic Farming by IMO ofSwitzerland and by that expanded

Gowan and Isagro Partnership FormedGOWAN GROUP AND ISAGRO S.p.A.recently announced a partnership tomarry Isagro’s research and discoverycapability with Gowan’s field develop-ment and face to market. The partner-ship is grounded in an investment byGowan in a new company which willown a majority of Isagro shares. Thereis no change in control in Isagro; thiscontinues with Piemme S.r.L.In the short and medium term,Gowan USA and Gowan Italia willassume distribution for some ofIsagro’s proprietary products. The twopartners participate equally in a busi-ness steering committee to identifybusiness opportunities and conse-quent synergies for both companies. Anumber of active ingredients andtechnology collaboration are on theagenda now."This agreement," Giorgio Basile,President and C.E.O. of Isagro com-mented, "reinforces and projects in

the long term Isagro’s industrial proj-ect, also thanks to a strengthening inits financial structure. At this stage, wecan measure only part of mid-longterm synergies, with significant addi-tional upsides still to be seized. Fullyidentified synergies will offset (in themedium term) potential short-termnegative effects related to the termi-nation, partial or total, of other distri-bution agreements with third partiesthat Isagro might face in the shortterm as a consequence of the agree-ment.”Gowan Group is a 50 year old familycompany based in Yuma, Arizona.Together with its affiliates, Gowandevelops, registers and markets con-ventional and biorational pest controlproducts in many countries. We spe-cialize in challenging niche pest prob-lems for growers. Our original retailroots continue to prosper and keep usgrounded.

the spectrum of usage of the prod-uct into this important niche mar-ket, enabling farmers to have abroader spectrum of solutionswhich are safe and environmentallyapproved. LEVO 2.4 SL has a verylow toxicity to beneficial insects andcauses no pollution to the environ-ment, water or soil. LEVO 2.4 SL ischaracterized by its high efficiency,low toxicity, wide spectrum andquick results causing no harm andno residue.

Biopesticide from tapioca developed in India The Central Tuber Crops ResearchInstitute (CTCRI) here has developeda bio-pesticide from tapioca foreffectively tackling pests destroyingvegetable and fruit plants.The pilot application of the pesticidein banana plantations here has beenfound highly successful and it couldbe considered a major step forwardin avoiding ill-effects of chemicalpesticides, especially in view of

growing worldwide demand fororganic products, a senior scientistat the CTCRI said.The research in this direction wasconducted by a team led by Dr C AJayaprakas, Principal Scientist &Head, Division of Crop Protection."We isolated the insecticidal princi-ples from the leaves and tuber rindsof tapioca (cassava) and developedthe bio-pesticides which could actagainst noxious insect pests afflict-ing field crops," Jayaprakas said.Tapioca is an important tuber cropcultivated in over 80 countries andits tubers are used as a staple orsubsidiary food.The bio-pesticides from cassavacould be used for management ofborer pests like pseudostem weevil(Odoiporus longicollis) in banana,red palm weevil (Rhynchophorusferrugineus) and other borer pests oftree and fruits crops.A formulation has also been madeagainst sucking pests like mealy bugs,aphids and leaf eating caterpillars.

SDP turns towards green chemistry THE FRENCH COMPANY SDP is mov-ing towards green chemistry. Thelast-born product is the adjuvantTRS2/ Cocktail, formulated with sun-flower extracts and ethanol comingfrom cereals. It is marketed in France,the UK, Germany and Belgium andregistered for herbicide application.While adjuvants have been until nowSDP’s main business, the range ofproducts is also expanding withnutrition specialities, biostimulantssuch as Activeine (seaweed extractswith trace elements) and roots acti-vators such as Microbio (boron + Mo

+ co-formulants). Other projects aretalked about: a biofungicide basedon essential oils and a bio-herbicidecurrently tested in Hungary. All SDPproducts are tested on an 8 hectaresplatform near the main office as wellas in greenhouses. Recently, SDP hastaken a strategic international turn,expanding in 21 countries includingSpain, Tukey or Argentina. The com-pany has also announced a projectto build formulation units abroad.SDP, created in 1991, expects aturnover of 15.5 million Euros in2013.

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Pathogen Host Compost feedstock* ReferenceClavibacter michiganense subsp. Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) Greenhouse waste Yogev et al., 2009michiganensis

Cylindrocladium spathiphylli Spathiphyllum spp. Green waste compost van der Gaag et al., 2007

Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. melonis Melon (Cucumis melo) Greenhouse waste; prunings Raviv et al., 2005; Ros et al., 2005;

F. oxysporum f. sp. radicis-cucumerinum Cucumber (Cucumis sativus) Greenhouse waste Yogev et al., 2006

F. oxysporum f. sp. radicis-lycopersici Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) Greenhouse waste Cheuk et al., 2005; Raviv et al., 2005

F. oxysporum f. sp. basilici Sweet basil (Ocimum basilicum) Separated cattle manure (SCM) Reuveni et al., 2002

F. oxysporum f.sp. dianthi Carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus) Hard wood bark, olive pomace Pera & Filippi, 1987; Pera & Calvet, 1989

Meloidogyne incognita Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) Municipal solid waste (MSW) Ryckeboer & Coosemans, 1996

Meloidogyne javanica Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) Cattle manure; Greenhouse waste Oka & Yermiyahu, 2002; Raviv et al., 2005

Pythium ultimum Cucumber (Cucumis sativus) Hard wood bark Chen et al., 1987

Pythium aphanidermatum Cucumber (Cucumis sativus) Licorice compost, Hadar & Mandelbaum, 1986; Theodore & sugarcane residues, Grape marc Toribio, 1995; Santos et al., 2008

Phytophthora cinnamomi Rhododendron catawbiense Hard wood bark Hoitink et al., 1977

P. cinnamomi Aucuba japonica Soft & hard wood bark Spencer & Benson, 1981

P. citricola Aucuba japonica Soft & hard wood bark Spencer & Benson, 1981

P. nicotianae Various citruses at the nursery stage MSW Widmer et al., 1998

P. nicotianae Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) Olive press cake Ntougias et al., 2008

Rhizoctonia solani Poinsettia (Euohorbia pulcherrima) Hard wood bark Hoitink et al., 1979

Rhizoctonia solani Radish (Raphanus sativus) SCM, grape marc Gorodecki & Hadar, 1990

Rhizoctonia solani Cucumber (Cucumis sativus) MSW Tuitert, 1998

Sclerotinia minor Lettuce (Lactuca sativa) Sewage sludge Lumsden et al., 1986

Sclerotium rolfsii Radish (Raphanus sativus) SCM, grape marc Gorodecki & Hadar, 1990

Rhizoctonia solani Cucumber (Cucumis sativus) MSW Tuitert, 1998

Sclerotium rolfsii Radish (Raphanus sativus) Cattle manure, grape marc Gorodecki & Hadar, 1990

Verticillium dahliae Eggplant (Solanum melongena) Horse manure Malandraki et al., 2008

* Main components.

Prof. Michael Raviv of the Agricultural Research Organization in Israel, has recently put together a comprehensive review about feasible uses of composts for suppression of soil-borne disease in soilless media

Potential development of novel postharvest decay management in applesA JOINT RESEARCH TEAM from theUS and Israel, headed by Dr.Michael Wisniewski (AppalachianFruit research Station, USDA-ARS,US) and Prof. Samir Droby (ARO, theVolcani Center, Israel) is aiming atproviding the tools for apple breed-ers to develop cultivars resistant tothe postharvest blue-mold decaycaused by Penicillium expansum. P. expansum is the major cause ofpostharvest losses in apples. It isalso of great concern to the appleprocessing industry, due to the pro-duction of the mycotoxin patulin.Chemical fungicides are currently

the primary means to control themold, but concerns about risksinvolved in their residues in the fruithave prompted the development ofalternative methods, such as biolog-ical approaches. One of the bestmeans, however, to control plantdiseases is the use of resistant culti-vars. Genetic mapping of blue-moldresistance in 170 apple genotypeswas conducted, along with fruitquality traits (firmness, acidity, color,soluble solids). The mapping identi-fied two quantitative trait loci, oneon linkage group (LG) 4 and one on

LG 10. RNA-seq data clearlydemonstrated differential geneexpression in individual and pooledsusceptible and resistant genotypes.The genome of P. expansum wassequenced and a de novo assemblyconstructed. Twelve putative Lysinemotif (LysM) effector genes wereidentified. And analysis of thesecretome was performed. EightLysM effectors were identifiedamong the 320 secreted proteins,and their expression in the decayedtissue verified by qPCR. The dataobtained will aid apple breeders toidentify markers that can be utilized

to develop cultivars resistant to P.expansum postharvest decay. The project also studied the role ofeffectors, produced by the said fun-gus, to actively suppress naturalfruit immunity responses, hence, tofacilitate the infection and develop-ment of postharvest decay.Elucidating the role of LysM effec-tors in pathogenicity of P. expansumon apple fruit will potentially lead tothe development of new and noveldecay management strategies.

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Research conducted by Dr. PhyllisWeintraub of the AgriculturalResearch Organization – GilatResearch Center in Israel, hasfocused on the biological control ofthe broad mite (Polyphago -tarsonemus latus), which is a plant-feeding pest. It attacks numerousplants; greenhouse vegetable cropsand citrus orchards are particularlyvulnerable. These mites, being verysmall, hide on the underside ofyoung leaves or in the newly devel-oping plant tips and therefore causegreat damage to developingseedlings. They can quickly movethroughout a greenhouse becausethey climb onto whiteflies and aretransported by phoresis.Furthermore, their generation timeis 5-7 days, so they grow to largepopulations in a short period oftime. The most effective currentcontrol method in greenhouses iswith vaporized sulfur, which maynot be permitted for use in thefuture. In an effort to reduce thechemical control of the broad mite,a number of predatory mites have

Biocontrol of broad mitebeen tested, which, due to theirsmall size, are able to easily attackthe pest. Of the mighty predatorstested, Neoseiulus cucumeris wasfound to be very effective. It has theadded advantage of being a thripspredator, although only the first andpossibly second thrips instars aresmall enough for it to handle.Neoseiulus swirskii is a more gener-alist predator, and in addition toeffectively controlling the broadmite, it can also offer some controlof thrips and whiteflies. Finally, ithas been found that Euseius scutal-is is effective too against the broadmite, but to a lesser extent than theformer two mighty predators. Withall of these mites it is important torelease them early in the season,before the pest develops large anddamaging populations. The efficacyof the predatory mites is increased ifsupplemental food such as pollen isput on the plants. An electrostaticpollen applicator is being developedto easily coat plants with an alternative food for the predatorymites.

Red imported fire ants are namedfor the fire-like burn of their sting.Now, the same venom that packssuch a painful wallop may actuallydo some good for a change.As recently reported in Seedquest,studies by U.S. Department ofAgriculture (USDA) scientists inStoneville, Miss., have shown thatcertain alkaloid compounds in thevenom – piperideines andpiperdines – can hinder the growthof the crop pathogen Pythium ulti-mum.Chemical fungicides, delayed plant-ings and crop rotation are amongmethods now used to control P. ulti-mum, which causes damping-offdiseases that decay the seed orseedling of vegetable, horticulturaland cucurbit crops. Despite suchmeasures, damping-off remains acostly problem, and new approach-es are needed, according to JianChen, an entomologist with USDA'sAgricultural Research Service (ARS).ARS is USDA's chief intramural sci-entific research agency.Chen is coinvestigating the poten-tial application of fire ant venom tomanage soilborne pathogens like P.ultimum in collaboration with ARSmicrobiologist Xixuan Jin, andShezeng Li of the Institute of PlantProtection in Baoding, China.For their studies, conducted at theARS Biological Control of PestsResearch Unit in Stoneville, theresearchers used sophisticatedextraction techniques to obtainpurified amounts of piperideine andpiperidine from the venom glandsof both red and black imported fireants, which are considered invasivepests and a dominant species onmore than 320 million acres in the

Researchers study fire ant venom as natural fungicide

South as well as in other states andPuerto Rico.In petri dish trials, the researchersexposed P. ultimum's threadlikegrowth form, called ‘mycelium,’ tovarious concentrations of the alka-loids and monitored the effect onthe pathogen's colony size. Itsspore-forming structures, calledsporangia, were similarly exposed.The results include significant reduc-tions in the growth and germinationof the pathogen's mycelium. Bothalkaloids performed equally well and

retained their activity against P. ulti-mum for up to 12 weeks when storedat room temperature. Additionally,more than 90 percent of sporangiafailed to germinate when exposed tothe alkaloids at concentrations of51.2 micrograms per milliliter.Synthetic versions of the alkaloids,called ‘analogs,’ have also inhibitedseveral cultured human fungalpathogens. Read more about this research inthe August 2013 issue ofAgricultural Research magazine.

Bayer CropScience to open integrated R&D site in West Sacramento, CaliforniaBayer CropScience plans to consoli-date and expand its U.S.-based R&Doperations for vegetable seeds andbiological crop protection productsin a new site in West Sacramento,California. The integrated site, withan existing office and laboratorybuilding on ten acres of land, hasthe capacity to employ approxi-mately 300 people. The vegetableseeds research, as well as the com-pany’s Biologics business manage-ment, both located in Davis,California, will move about tenmiles to West Sacramento inQ1/2014. The site will also include apilot plant, and additionally BayerCropScience has identified nearbyland for greenhouse and test plotpurposes in West Sacramento."We are focused on better leverag-ing our full research and develop-ment capabilities by both consoli-dating and expanding our globalR&D organization," said Dr. DavidNicholson, Bayer CropScience’sHead of Research & Development."Our new facilities in WestSacramento will enable us to deliv-er integrated crop solutions morerapidly by intensifying the researchlinks between our vegetable seedsand Biologics experts and thusstrengthening our innovativepower."Johan Peleman, Head of VegetableSeeds R&D, added: "The new loca-tion offers top-notch equipmentand allows for a stimulatingexchange across disciplines. At thesame time, we can further strength-en our bonds with the University ofCalifornia at Davis, one of theworld’s top plant science insti-tutes."Bayer CropScience will use the newsite to expand and accelerate thedevelopment of innovative productswhich will be marketed worldwideas part of integrated crop solutionsthrough its global network of fieldsales and technical resources."Integrated crop solutions, with

biologics and vegetable seeds askey components, will give growersworldwide new tools to manage the

diverse demands of the food chainwhile maximizing the yield andquality of their crops" added Mike

Miille, Head of BusinessManagement Biologics at BayerCropScience.

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ADVANCES IN PESTICIDEDOSE ADJUSTMENTTree crops represent 4.4%of the cropland in the 27European Union countries,but they represent 14% of the total pesticide consumption. New regulations areincreasingly restricting theexcessive use of pesticidesand appropiate applicationmethods are crucial to fulfill the European pesticide reduction goals.During the EuropeanPrecision AgricultureCongress (ECPA), held inLleida, Catalonia, Spain,many new prototypes ofspraying machines thatadjust the application dosedepending on the treecanopy were highlighted.

THE LOCAL TEAM THATORGANISED ECPA belongs tothe Research Group on AgroITC &Precision Agriculture, founded in2004 bringing togetherresearchers from four institutions(University of Lleida, PolytechnicUniversity of Catalonia,Polytechnic University of Valenciaand the Centre of AgriculturalMechanization of the Generalitatof Catalonia). Most of this group`sresearch activities are directlylinked to plant protection: elec-tronic canopy characterization andweed detection; dose adjustmentof plant protection products &decision support systems and vari-able-rate application of plant pro-tection products in tree crops. Itconstitutes the reference group in

spray application techniques inSpain, with 11 patents and utilitymodels in this area.

ELECTRONIC CANOPY CHARACTERIZATIONOne of the most promising tech-nologies for the geometric charac-terization of the canopies in theagricultural sphere is based on theuse of LIDAR (Light Detection andRanging) sensors. The use of thistype of sensor is based on themeasurement of the distance froma laser emitter to an object or sur-face. Its principal characteristicsinclude, most notably, a fast meas-

uring speed and a high degree ofaccuracy. LIDAR systems can gen-erate 3D digitalized models ofcrops with sufficient accuracy formost agricultural applications. Avast amount of information can beobtained from these modelsincluding height, width, volume,Leaf Area Index (LAI) and leaf areadensity.“We have created a prototypebased on these sensors mountedon a special vehicle that we usefor research and teaching purpos-es. With this information we havebeen working along three lines.One is the development of a vari-

able rate application sprayer thatturns nozzles on and off depend-ing on the canopy`s characteristics.It is mounted with a GPS, LIDARand special electrovalves. We havealso used this knowledge to createan online tool that helps farmersto determine the optimal dose ofplant protection products. That isthe DOSAFRUT project where wehave incorporated our LAI estima-tions from this technology and wehave also provided pictograms ofreferencial types of orchards, sofarmers can determine which aresimilar to their own condition,without using a sensor in their

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fields. And now we are using thistechnology to find any differencewithing fields that deserve futureobservations, such as changes invigour”, says Dr Alex Escolá(University of Lleida), the convenerof ECPA.

DOSAFRUT: ADVANCES IN PESTICIDE DOSE ADJUSTEMENT IN TREE CROPS In Europe tree crops receive morethan three times the averagequantity of pesticides used forarable crops. The lack of a univer-sal method for determining suit-able pesticide doses in realorchard situations is one of themost important constraints affect-ing the sustainability of pesticideuse in tree crops, says SantiagoPlanas (Universitat de Lleida,Spain). In addition to the tradition-al pesticide dosing method, whichis based on the pesticide concen-tration in the tank (g/100 l), othermethods for determining recom-mended pesticide doses haveappeared in the last two decades.These methods take into accountstructural parameters of orchards.They include the PesticideAdjustment to the CropEnvironment (PACE) method forfruit orchards (Walklate and Cross,2005), the Canopy Height methodand the Tree Row Volume (TRV)method, which was adapted tovineyards in Switzerland by Viretand Höhn (2008). More recently,the Leaf Wall Area (LWA) methodhas been proposed by the chemi-cal industry (Wohlhauser, 2009).

However, LWA, which was evalu-ated by Walklate and Cross (2012)in narrow canopy orchards, is diffi-cult to adopt successfully inregions where wide-canopy train-ing systems are used (e.g.Southern Europe). This is becauseleafiness is a critical factor to beconsidered when determiningdose recommendations. The Lleidagroup developed a method forestimating the Leaf Area Index.This methodology was then imple-mented in a decision support sys-tem (DOSAFRUT) and validatedover four seasons, 2009-2012.DOSAFRUT is an online tool whereusers can adjust the volume appli-cation rate according to severalfactors: the specific dimensionsand leaf density of the trees, thesprayer to be used, the type ofproduct being applied, the pest ordisease to be controlled and theweather conditions expected dur-ing the application period. The system is specially designedfor apples and pears and a version

for stone fruits is being pro-grammed. Based on the canopycharacterization created with theLIDAR technology the system offerfarmers different pictograms ofcanopy sizes and trellising sys-tems, so farmers can choose theone which is closest to their reali-ty.During 2009-2011 the DOSAFRUTMethod was validated throughstudies of pesticide deposits ontargeted leaves and the biologicalefficacy of the applied pesticidesfor controlling Psylla piri (psylla),Tetranichus urticae (res spidermite), and Frankiniella occidentalis(trips) in comercial pear, apple andpeach orchards. The orchard wasdivided into three blocks: untreat-ed trees (control), tree sprayedusing the standard spray volumenand tree sprayed using therecomended volumen determinedusing DOSAFRUT. The tank mixconcentration remained constantfor all the applications.DOSAFRUT provided adjusted

treatment doses, enabling savingsof between 14% and 53% (vol-ume reduction) as compared tothe doses typically adopted byfarmers and technical advisors(standard dose).

AUTOMATIC SELECTION OF VERTICAL SPRAY PATTERNA group from the University ofTorino (Italy), led by M.Tomagnone, presented an auto-matic system to easily adapt thevertical spray profile fromorchard/vineyard sprayers to plantcanopy characteristics (height andsize). “ Typically, the sprayer isadjusted to guarantee an adecu-ate spray coverage on the mostdense canopies present in thefarm, but this setting is thenexcessive for other small or lessdense plants”, says Mr.Tomagnone. The prototype wasdeveloped in collaboration withNobili spa and Arag srl companies.Activation of every single nozzleand feeding of each nozzle wasmade independent and it wasmanaged through Arag Seletron®devices which allow spraying ofevery single nozzle to be stoppedand are connected on a CAN-busline. A conventional sprayerequipped with this innovative sys-tem was used successfully in 2012in a 30 ha orchard farm in NorthWestern Italy. The system devel-oped allowed management of thevertical spray profile from an air-assisted sprayer in an easy way,adapting it to the vegetation char-acteristics. This system, if integrat-ed with a GPS, could provide afully automatic management ofthe spray application on the farm;the sprayer would automaticallyselect the correct nozzle configu-ration depending on its positionand therefore on the characteris-tics of the target plants.

CORNELL UNIVERSITY: VARIABLE SPRAYING MACHINEA group from Cornell University,led by Jordi Llorens has developeda prototype of a variable rate

Figure 1: Digital apply orchard model obtained using a LIDAR sensor (left) and the related diagram usedto estimate the proportion of gaps in the canopy. This image represents gaps totalling 39% of tghe rowsurface (right).

Figure 2: Correlation between orchard structure (obtained with theLIDAR sensor) and leaf area index for four tree crops.

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spraying machine. The systemmakes one adjustment of liquidflow for an apple tree sprayer andone adjustment of air flow for avineyard sprayer using the louvresystem. In both cases the adjust-ment is made using the informa-tion provided by one sensing sys-tem for scanning the vegetationcomposed of a multiple array ofultrasonic sensors. Two air assited sprayers wereused. One for fruit crop with oneLechler VarioSelect® system forproportional liquid application.The second sprayer is designed forvineyards and equipped with thelouvre system for adjusting theoutlet of air from the axial-fan.For vegetation detection the sens-ing system proposed is based inon array of ultrasonic sensors thatare capable of adapting to theboth kinds of vegetation, in thiscase trees and grapevines. To adjust the liquid flow rate infruit spraying, the system uses acoefficient of application of0.1275 L/m3. With this coefficientthe system can calculate the totalflow rate instantaneous that willapply the different nozzle configu-ration. For the adjustment of theair flow, the system is able toadjust the position of one electricactuator and in consequence theposition of the louvre systemdesigned by Cornell University. Thepreliminary results show that inboth cases, air and liquid, the

application rate appropriate foreach development stage of thecrop can be correctly estimated,though it will be necessary to con-trast the deposition results nextseason with field tests.

A NOVEL SPRAYING ROBOT: RHEAA group from the University ofFlorence, Italy, led by Mr. D. Sarripresented the Rhea Project (Robotfleets Highly for EffectiveAgriculture and forestry manage-ment – www.rhea-project.eu), anew automatic generation ofrobotic systems to perform fieldoperations. The prototype is aground mobile unit (GMI): 4x4wheel drive. The researchers pre-sented a trial in olive trees, wheredifferent solutions about pesticidespraying and air vector devicesmanagement were investigated.After checking many configura-

tions, the selected one for woodyperennial crops was a double sideair blast sprayer (based on NobiliOktopus air blast sprayer) witheight separate spraying moduleson four vertical bands of thecanopy. The prototype has a detec-tion system composed of eightultrasonic sensors, to detect dataon canopy width in four verticalbands. To control flow rate, twosolutions were developed: the firstone consists of an intermittentspray nozzle driven by frequencyand duty cycle electronically man-aged. The second one involves theuse of double nozzles on eachmodule with 70% and 30% ofneeded flow rate on each band,which are simultaneously openwith full canopy. To manage the airblast flow rate, butterfly valves(step motor controlled) located onthe main inlet manifold and in thefan calotte collector weredesigned. The expected pesticidedosage saving is about 50% of theconventional application ratemaintaining, at the same time, thequality of the foliage deposition. n

Figure 3: Detail of air outlets and nozzles of the air-assisted sprayerNobili Geo 9DS UT.