Name: ………………..……….

SCIENCE FACULTY

STUDY GUIDE FOR THE E.S.S.A. TEST

State-wide test date: 24th November 2009

SUGGESTIONS FOR WAYS TO USE THIS BOOKLET

This booklet contains summaries, glossaries and study questions for all of the Science topics studied in;

Year 7 Science Laboratory Animals Solar System Energy Matter Cells Blood and Bone Food to Live

Year 8

Substances Body systems Plants Forces and Fields Atmosphere Microbes Earth Structure

Use this booklet to study for the ESSA test in late November. Here are some suggestions for ways to use it. Read the summaries. Write answers for the study questions. Read articles from sources such as newspaper that have a scientific nature. Get

someone to ask you questions about the article AND the Science within the article For the words in the glossaries, write a word on one side of a card and its meaning on the other

side and learn a set number of words and meanings every day. Write memory cards with text and pictures. On one side of a small card write a heading, eg,

digestive system. On the other side write some facts (no more than 7) about the heading. Keep the information very brief.

Give the word cards and memory cards to a family member or friend. Spell the word for them or tell them everything that you know about the heading.

Select words at random and write meanings for them without looking at your prepared meanings.

Convert summarised information into labelled diagrams. Make posters with words and pictures and display them somewhere at home where you will

see them. Write poems about related words and ideas. Recite your summaries onto a tape and listen to them. Without looking at your summary book or study cards, write everything that you know about a

word or idea. Teach the science in your summary book to someone else. Select study questions at random and write answers to them without looking at your prepared

answers or notes. Give the study questions and answers to a family member or friend and ask them to quiz you.

If you use this booklet in the ways suggested above, you will enjoy success in Science this year.

L. CRANGLEHead Teacher Science

(note: teachers at various school have contributed to this booklet)

SCIENCE LAB

LABORATORY EQUIPMENT

BUNSEN BURNER

A Bunsen burner has two flames. Yellow flame is the safety flame because it is easily seen when the Bunsen burner is not being

used. Blue flame is the heating flame because it is hotter than the yellow flame and it does not leave

black soot on the glassware.

HYPOTHESISA hypothesis (pl. hypotheses) is an intelligent guess or probable answer to a question. It is based on previous experience, information gained from other sources and the results of other experiments. A scientist plans and conducts an experiment to test a hypothesis. For this reason, a hypothesis is written as a statement that can be proved or disproved by experiment. Some hypotheses are: Watering plants with soapy water stunts their growth Tall students jump higher in high jump competitions than short students.

PLANNING AND CONDUCTING A VALID, RELIABLE EXPERIMENTA valid, reliable experiment is a fair experiment. The features of the experiment are called variables and one variable is different in each group in the experiment. It is called the independent variable. all other variables are kept the same in all groups. They are called the controlled variables. one variable is measured or observed. It is called the dependent variable. The aim of the experiment is to investigate the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable.

A reliable experiment repeats the method numerous times and obtains similar results.A valid experiment is reliable plus tests the independent variable and controls all other variables.

PLANNING A METHODWhen you are planning an experiment, ask yourself these questions:-

1. Which variable will I make different?2. Which variables must I keep the same?3. What will I measure or observe? What measuring instrument will I use?4. What safety precautions must I take?5. How will I record the results?6. How many times will I repeat the experiment?7. How will I analyse the results? Will I calculate averages? Will I draw a graph?

WRITING A METHODTo write a method for an experiment, number each step and use this format:-

VERB NOUN CONDITION (when, where, how, how long?)

A simple way to write a method is to a) write the steps for ONE form of the independent variableb) write the phrase “Repeat steps 1-?” for the other forms of the independent variable

For example…1. Put 500g of sandy soil into a pot.2. Plant 20 seedlings in the pot.3. Place the pot in constant light.4. Add 100ml of water to the pot every day.5. Measure the height of the seedlings with a ruler every day for 10 days.6. Record results.7. Repeat steps 1-6 four times.8. Repeat steps 1-7 in 12 hours of light and 12 hours of darkness.9. Repeat steps 1-7 in constant darkness.

OBSERVATIONSScientists collect information from experiments by making observations using their senses and measuring instruments. There are two types of observations. 1) Qualitative observations – are descriptions in words, eg, the colour of a chemical. We use our senses to make these observations. However the senses are limited and can be unreliable.2) Quantitative observations – are measurements involving numbers, eg, the temperature of a liquid. We use measuring instruments to make these observations. Measuring instruments increase our powers of observation. Where possible, scientists make quantitative observations because they are more accurate. a thermometer is used to measure temperature a stopwatch is used to measure time a balance is used to measure mass a measuring cylinder is used to measure volume

TABLESData is presented in tables because this makes the data easy to understand, easy to see relationships and easy to make comparisons.

LINE GRAPHSA line graph is used to show a relationship between two variables that are measured. To draw a line graph:1. draw the axes.2. label each axis with the name of the variable and a unit of measurement eg, mass (g).3. choose a suitable scale for each axis. Mark numbers at regular intervals along the axis.4. plot each point with a cross.5. join crosses with a ruled line or a freehand line.Graphs can be used to extract information, make calculations, show trends, make comparisons, recognise patterns, make conclusions and predictions.

CONCLUSIONS Making a conclusion from an experiment involves comparing experimental results with those predicted from the hypothesis. If the experimental results agree with the predicted results then the conclusion is that the hypothesis is supported. If the experimental results disagree with the predicted results then the conclusion is that the hypothesis is rejected.

GLOSSARYlaboratory, Bunsen burner, test tube, beaker, tripod, gauze, measuring instrument, thermometer, stopwatch, balance, measuring cylinder, hypothesis, valid experiment, reliable experiment, independent variable, controlled variable, dependent variable, qualitative observation, quantitative observation, procedure, table, graph, conclusion

STUDY QUESTIONS1. What must you do to a Bunsen burner to get the

a) yellow flame?b) blue flame?

2. Why is the yellow flame called the safety flame?3. When do you use the safety flame?4. Why is the blue flame on the Bunsen burner used for heating?5. What is the difference between qualitative and quantitative observations?6. Which measuring instrument would you use to measure

a) time? b) temperature? c) volume of a liquid?7. Identify the three types of variables in a valid, reliable experiment.8. What must be done to make an experiment

a) valid?b) reliable?

9. Explain how to write a procedure.

10. Using examples, explain the difference between a qualitative and a quantitative observation.11. Which type of observation is more accurate – a qualitative observation and a quantitative

observation?12. State two reasons why data is presented in tables.13. What is a line graph used for?14. How are crosses joined on a line graph?15. State two reasons why data is presented in line graphs.16. Explain how to make a conclusion from an experiment.

ANIMALSCLASSIFICATION KEYSScientists use classification keys to identify unknown objects and organisms. The most common type of key is the dichotomous key which has two choices at every point. It starts at the top with one group and slowly subdivides until no more choices are possible.

VERTEBRATESVertebrates are animals with backbones. There are five groups of vertebrates.1) Mammals

are endothermic (warm-blooded)have hair or fur over their skinhave lungs for breathing feed their young with milk from mammary glands

2) Birdsare endothermic (warm-blooded)have feathers over their skinhave lungs for breathing lay eggs

3) Reptilesare ectothermic (cold-blooded)have dry scaly skinhave lungs for breathing lay eggs

4) Amphibiansare ectothermic (cold-blooded)have smooth, moist skinhave lungs for breathing lay eggs

5) Fishare ectothermic (cold-blooded)have moist, scaly skinhave gills for breathing lay eggs

GLOSSARYmicroorganism, bacteria, classification, classify, characteristics, features, vertebrate, mammal, reptile, amphibian

STUDY QUESTIONS1. What is a unicellular organism? Give an example.2. What is a multicellular organism? Give an example.3. Draw a key to classify the following objects- pencil, red pen, blue pen, rubber, liquid paper, ruler,

protractor.4. Name the five vertebrate groups?5. Describe the features of the five vertebrate groups.

OUR SOLAR SYSTEMDAY AND NIGHTEarth has day and night because of Earth’s rotation on its axis. As it spins, one side of the Earth faces the sun and the other side does not. The side facing the sun receives sunlight and so it has day. The other side does not receive sunlight and so it has night. One rotation of the Earth takes 24 hours.

ONE YEARThe earth revolves around the sun. One revolution of the Earth around the sun takes one year.

SEASONSThe Earth has seasons because Earth is tilted on its axis. When a hemisphere is tilted towards the sun it has summer and when it is tilted away from the sun it has winter. In between, it has autumn and spring.

SOLAR SYSTEMThe solar system is one small part of the universe. The sun is at the centre and the planets orbit it.

STARSBeyond the solar system are galaxies of stars. A star is a sphere of gas, mainly hydrogen and helium, that produces its own heat and light by nuclear reactions. A galaxy is a group of millions or billions of stars held together by gravity. The galaxy we live in is called “The Milky Way.”A nebula is a cloud of gas and dust in space that eventually becomes a star.

LIGHT YEARA light year is equal to the distance travelled by light in one year. Large distances in space are measured in light years rather than kilometres.

GLOSSARYaxis, rotation, revolution, solar system, star, galaxy, nebula, light year

STUDY QUESTIONS1. Explain why Earth has day and night.2. What is the name given to the time taken for the earth to revolve once around the sun?3. Explain why Earth has the seasons.4. Name the nine planets in our solar system in order from the sun.5. What is a

a) galaxy?b) star?c) nebula?

6. What is a light year?

ENERGYTYPES OF ENERGYThere are several types of energy found around us. Potential energy – is stored energy to be used later. It is found in a stretched elastic band, a

wound up spring and an object raised above the ground. Kinetic energy – is found in moving objects. Light energy – is produced by the sun, artificial lights, burning chemicals and very hot objects. Heat energy – is found in hot objects such as room heaters. Sound energy – is produced by vibrating objects such as musical instruments. Electrical energy – is changed by electrical appliances into other types of energy.

ENERGY CHANGESEnergy can change from one type to another. Electrical appliances change electrical energy into different types of energy. For example, a toaster changes electrical energy into heat energy to toast the bread. Therefore energy flow can be written as:

ELECTRICAL → HEAT

LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGYThe Law of Conservation of Energy states that energy cannot be created or destroyed. It can only be changed from one type to another.

FOSSIL FUELSCoal, oil and gas are called fossil fuels because they are formed from the remains of ancient living things. They take millions of years to form and are non-renewable, which means that once they are used they cannot be replaced. They are used as fuel in vehicles. They are also used as fuels in power stations to generate electricity.

SOLAR ENERGYSolar energy comes form the sun. It is renewable which means that as it is used it can be replaced because it is continually being supplied to Earth by the sun. It is used in solar cells to produce electricity and in solar water heaters to heat water.

CONDUCTION OF HEATHeat travels through solids by conduction. At the point where the object is heated, its particles gain energy and vibrate faster, which causes them to collide with the particles next to them and pass on their energy. When the neighbouring particles receive the energy, it makes them also vibrate faster and pass the energy on to more particles. In this way, heat travels through the solid.

Metals are conductors of heat. This means that heat energy can travel though them from one place to another. For example, saucepans are made with a metal base to conduct heat from the stove into the food. Plastics are insulators of heat. This means that heat energy cannot travel though them. For example, the handle of a saucepan is made of plastic because it will not conduct heat and so you can pick up the saucepan without burning your hand.

CONVECTION OF HEATWhen liquids and gases are heated, the heat travels in a circular motion called a convection current. The diagram below shows how convection currents warm a room.

RADIATION OF HEATRadiation is the transfer of heat energy by waves called infrared radiation. It does not need a medium to travel through and so can travel through a vacuum. Heat travels by radiation from the sun to earth and it travels the same way outwards from a fire.Light coloured surfaces reflect more heat while dark coloured surfaces absorb more heat. This is why light coloured clothes and cars are cooler in summer than dark coloured ones. The absorbing panels of solar water heaters are painted black so that the copper water pipes inside them absorb heat from the sun to heat the water.

GLOSSARYkinetic, potential, fossil fuels, solar energy, renewable, conduction, convection, radiation

STUDY QUESTIONS1. Identify objects or situations in which these types of energy exist:

a) potential energy b) kinetic energy c) light energyd) heat energy e) sound energy f) electrical energy

2. Energy can change from one type into another. What energy changes occur in these electrical appliances – heater, CD player, stove, light globe, battery operated toy car, TV?

3. What does the Law of Conservation of Energy state?4. Coal and petroleum are non-renewable fossil fuels.

a) What does ‘non-renewable’ mean?b) What does ‘fossil fuels’ mean?

5. What are coal and petroleum used for?6. Solar energy is renewable. What does ’renewable’ mean?7. What is solar energy used for?8. Describe some situations in which heat is transferred by conduction.9. Metals are heat conductors. What does this mean?10. Plastics are heat insulators. What does this mean?11. Describe some situations in which heat is transferred by convection.12. Describe some situations in which heat is transferred by radiation.

MATTER

MATTER, MASS AND VOLUMEMatter is all of the substances that make up objects in the universe.Mass is the amount of matter in an object. The mass of an object is measured on a balance and is given in grams (g) and kilograms (kg).Volume is the amount of space that an object takes up. The volume of a liquid is measured with a measuring cylinder and is given in millitres (mL) and litres (L).

STATES OF MATTERAll matter is made of tiny particles that are too small to be seen. The three states of matter are solids, liquid and gases.In solids, the particles are packed closely together and they are held tightly together. They cannot move around but can only vibrate from side to side. This is why solids have a definite volume and a definite shape and they cannot be compressed into a smaller volume. An example of a solid is steel. In liquids, the particles are close together and they are held loosely together. They can roll over each other. This is why liquids have a definite volume but take the shape of their container. They cannot be compressed into a smaller volume. An example of a liquid is water.In gases, the particles are a long way apart and are free to move anywhere in the container. This is why gases have no definite volume and no definite shape and they can be compressed into a smaller volume. An example of a gas is oxygen.

EXPANSION AND CONTRACTIONExpansion occurs as follows. When a substance is heated, its particles gain energy and so they move faster. This causes the particles to collide more often and push each other apart so that they take up more space. As a result, the substance expands. Railway tracks are laid with gaps between them. When they are heated, they expand and fill the gaps. Without the gaps, they would buckle.Contraction occurs as follows. When a substance is cooled, its particles lose energy and so they move slower. This causes the particles to collide less often and come closer together so that they take up less space. As a result, the substance contracts. Overhead electricity cables hang loosely between the poles. When they are cold, they contract and become shorter. If they did not hang loosely, they would snap.

CHANGE OF STATEWhen substances are heated and cooled they often change state. There are five changes of state. melting – a substance is heated and changes from solid to liquid evaporation – a substance is heated and changes from liquid to gas sublimation – a substance is heated and changes from solid to gas condensation – a substance is cooled and changes from gas to liquid freezing – a substance is cooled and changes from liquid to solid

MELTING POINT AND BOILING POINTWater melts at 0OC freezes at 0OC evaporates at 100OC condenses at 100OC0OC is the melting point of water100OC is the boiling point of waterThe melting point of a substance is the temperature at which it changes from solid to liquid or liquid to solid.The boiling point of a substance is the temperature at which it changes from liquid to gas or gas to liquid.

GLOSSARYbalance, measuring cylinder, matter, mass, volume, solid, liquid, gas, particle, compressibility, expansion, contraction, evaporation, condensation, melting, freezing,

STUDY QUESTIONS1. What is matter?2. What is the meaning of the word “mass”?3. Which piece of equipment is used to measure the mass of an object?4. What is the meaning of the word “volume”?5. Which piece of equipment is used to measure the volume of an object?6. Name the three states of matter.7. Describe the movement of particles in solids, liquids and gases.8. Using the particle model, describe and give reasons for the volume, shape and compressibility of

a) solidsb) liquidsc) gases

9. Using the particle model of matter, explain why a metal expands when it is heated and contracts when it is cooled.

10. Describe an example of a situation in which a substance a) expandsb) contracts

11. Which change of state occurs when a substance freezes?12. Which change of state occurs when a substance melts?

13. Which change of state occurs when a substance evaporates?14. Which change of state occurs when a substance condenses?15. At what temperature does water boil?16. At what temperature does water vapour condense?17. At what temperature does ice melt?18. At what temperature does water freeze?19. Complete this table of changes of state to show whether particles gain or lose energy

and move faster or slower.Change of State Energy Move

Gain Lose Faster Slowermeltingevaporationcondensationfreezing

CELLS

CELLSAll living things are made of cells. The parts of a cell are nucleus – controls everything that happens inside the cell cell membrane – protects the cell and gives it its shape. It has tiny holes that allow materials to

enter and leave the cell cytoplasm – a jelly-like substance that fills the cell. Most cell functions occur here. cell wall – in plant cells only. It is located on the outside of the cell membrane gives the plant its

shape and stiffness chloroplasts – in plant cells only. They contain chlorophyll for making food for the plant.

UNICELLULAR AND MULTICELLULAR ORGANISMSA unicellular organism is made of one cell only. Bacteria are unicellular organisms. Unicellular organisms reproduce by cell division. This means that their cells divide in half to produce two new cells.

A multicellular organism is made of more than one cell. Most organisms are multicellular.

CELLS TO ORGAN SYSTEMSCells are the smallest unit of living things. Tissues are made of the same types of cells. Muscle tissue is made of muscle cells.Organs are made of different types of tissues. The stomach is an organ made of glandular tissue that produces chemicals to digest the food, muscle tissue to churn the food and connective tissue to hold the other tissues together.Organ systems are made of different types of organs. The digestive system is made of several organs including the mouth, oesophagus, stomach and intestine.

Multicellular organisms require specialised organs and systems because the cells in the organism are specialised for a particular role and so must work together with other specialised cells for the survival of the organism.

GLOSSARYCell, nucleus, cell membrane, cell wall, cytoplasm, chloroplasts, microscope, magnification, unicellular, multicellular, tissue, organ.

STUDY QUESTIONS

1. Draw a labelled diagram of a plant cell showing the nucleus, cytoplasm, cell membrane, cell wall and chloroplasts.2. Describe the function of the following cell structures:

a) nucleus b) cytoplasmc) cell membraned) cell wall

3. What is the difference between a plant and an animal cell?4. How do unicellular organisms reproduce?5. Define the following terms:

a) cellb)tissuec) organd) organ system

6. Explain why multicellular organisms require specialised organs and systems.

BLOOD AND BONE

THE SKELETAL SYSTEMThe skeletal system is composed of 206 bones. It has several roles in the body. It allows the body to stand upright and support its weight It protects vital organs such as the heart and lungs It allows movement It makes red and white blood cellsThe skeletal system also contains Ligaments – which join bones together Cartilage – which prevents bones from grinding against each other Tendons – which join muscles to bones Muscles – which move the bones

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

The circulatory system transports blood around the body. It is made of several parts. Heart – pumps blood out into the blood vessels. It has four chambers – the left atrium, left

ventricle, right atrium and right ventricle. The diagram below shows the four chambers and the direction of blood flow through them.

Blood vessels – carry blood to all parts of the body and then back to the heart. Arteries carry blood away from the heart and veins carry blood back to the heart. Capillaries connect arteries to veins. They deliver food and oxygen to cells and take away carbon dioxide and other wastes. Blood travels to the lungs to drop off carbon dioxide and pick up oxygen. It then travels to all parts of the body to deliver the oxygen and collect carbon dioxide.

Blood – is made of red blood cells that carry oxygen, white blood cells that fight infection and platelets that help blood to clot.

GLOSSARYspecialised cell, tissue, organ, circulatory, artery, vein, capillary, skeleton.

STUDY QUESTIONS

1. Describe the role of the following organs in the digestive system:a) mouth b) oesophagus c) stomach d) small intestinee) large intestine f) rectum g) anus

2. Draw a simple labelled diagram of the heart showing the four chambers, the valves, arteries and veins and use arrows to show the direction that blood flows through it.

3. Describe the structure and function of arteries, veins and capillaries.4. What is blood made of? What does each part do?5. Describe the roles of the skeleton.

FOOD TO LIVEPRODUCERS, CONSUMERS AND DECOMPOSERSPlants make their own food in photosynthesis. Animals obtain their food by eating plants and/or other animals. Plants are called producers because they make their own food.Animals are called consumers because they obtain their food by eating plants and other animals. There are three types of consumers. Herbivores – eat plants only Carnivores – east animals only Omnivores – eat both plants and animalsSome organisms, such as bacteria, are decomposers. They feed on the wastes and dead remains of plants and animals. They break down the wastes and remains into carbon dioxide, water and minerals which then go back into the air and soil to be reused by plants.

PHOTOSYNTHESISThis is the process by which plants manufacture their own food. The process takes place in the leaves of plants.

CO2 + H2O → C6H12O6 + O2

FOOD CHAINS AND FOOD WEBSA food chain shows how energy is passed on from one organism to another (arrows point in the direction of energy flow). Each organism in the chain obtains food by eating the organism before it. The first organism is a producer, such as a plant, because it makes its own food. The other organisms are consumers. The first consumer is a herbivore and then the others following it are either carnivores or omnivores. A food chain is shown below.

In any place there are numerous food chains. They can be combined into a food web to show the complete picture of feeding relationships in that place. A food web is shown below.

The removal or reduction in a population of organism (through human activities such as land clearing, pollution, over hunting etc) from an ecosystem will lead to a disruption of the food web and decreased biodiversity. e.g. if the trees a honey eater live in are cut down, the honeyeater population will decrease. Therefore the wasp population will increase (as nothing to eat them), the leaf-miner and leaf-blister

caterpillar population will decrease as too many wasps eating them, the number of praying mantis’ will decrease as they have less to eat etc.

Q Can you think of other changes that may occur?

GLOSSARYphotosynthesis, ecosystem, producer, consumer, herbivore, carnivore, omnivore.

STUDY QUESTIONS1. In which part of the plant does photosynthesis occur?2. Which materials are needed by plants for photosynthesis?3. Which materials are produced by plants for photosynthesis?4. Name one Australian ecosystem.5. Using an example of a food web, describe how the producers, consumers and decomposers are related.6. Discuss some effects on Australian ecosystems of:

a) bushfiresb) droughtc) flood

SUBSTANCES

ELEMENTSAll matter is composed of elements. There are more than 110 known different types of elements and their names are shown in the Periodic Table. Elements cannot be broken down into simpler substances. YOU MUST KNOW THE SYMBOLS OF COMMON ELEMENTSe.g. H, He, C, N, O, F, Na, Mg, K, Ca, S, Cl, Fe, Ni, Pb, Cu, Zn etc.

METALS AND NON-METALSThere are two main groups of elements – metals and non-metals – and they have specific properties. Metals have a shiny, metallic lustre have high melting point and boiling point are solids at room temperature, except mercury which is a liquid conduct heat and electricity are malleable, which means that they can be easily bent and formed into thin sheetsNon-metals have a dull lustre have either low melting point and boiling point or very high melting point and boiling point do not conduct heat and electricity, except for carbon are brittle, which means that they break easily

COMPOUNDSA compound is made of two or more elements joined together Compounds have properties that are different to the elements that they are made of. The names of the elements come from the elements that are in them. For example, the elements called sodium and chlorine make the compound called sodium chloride.There many different compounds on Earth with many different uses. sodium chloride is table salt water is essential for the survival of all living things methane is found in natural gas and is used for cooking sucrose, also called sugar, is used in cooking octane is found in petrol and is used as a fuel in cars

COMPOUNDS AND MIXTURES

A compound contains elements joined together. The amount of each element in the compound is always the same. For example, water is always H2O and carbon dioxide is always CO2. A mixture contains elements and/or compounds mixed together but not joined together. The amounts of each substance in the mixture are not always the same. Air is a mixture of gases and sea water is a mixture of water an dissolved salts.

CHEMICAL REACTIONSA chemical reaction occurs when elements and/or compounds join together to form different elements and/or compounds. There are several observable signs that a chemical reaction has occurred. the temperature of the mixture increases or decreases a gas is produced a colour change occurs a solid is formed

GLOSSARYelement, melting point, boiling point, density, compound, chemical reaction, temperature

STUDY QUESTIONS

1. What is an element?2. Complete this table for the properties of metals and non-metals.

Property Metals Non-metalsLustre

Heat conduction

Electricity conduction

Malleability

3. In the Periodic Table, what are the symbols fora) hydrogenb) magnesiumc) oxygend) zinc

4. What is a compound?5. Name two common compounds and describe one use for each one.6. What is the difference between a compound and a mixture?7. Name two mixtures.8. Describe three changes that commonly take place during a chemical reaction.

BODY SYSTEMS

DIGESTIVE SYSTEMThe digestive system digests food for the body. It is made of several parts. Mouth – chews, moistens and swallows the food. Oesophagus – transfers the food from the mouth to the stomach Stomach – digestion of the food continues here Small Intestine – digestion of the food finishes and then the digested food is absorbed into the

bloodstream to be taken to al parts of the body Large Intestine – excess water is reabsorbed into bloodstream and undigested food is formed

into faeces Rectum – the faeces are stored here until they are removed through the anus.

THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEMThe respiratory system delivers oxygen to the blood and collects carbon dioxide from it. It is made of several parts. Trachea – also called the windpipe, takes in air from the mouth and nose. Bronchi – the trachea branches into two tubes called the bronchi that enter the lungs. There

they branch into smaller and smaller tubes.

Alveoli – also called the air sacs, are at the end of the small tubes. They are surrounded by capillaries which deliver carbon dioxide to the air sacs and collect oxygen from them.

THE EXCRETORY SYSTEMThe excretory system removes wastes from the body. Excretion is carried out by the Lungs – which remove carbon dioxide and water vapour when we breathe out Skin – which removes salts and water in sweat Kidney system – which removes urine. It is made of several parts.

o Kidneys – filter urea and excess salts from the blood and mix them with water to form urine.

o Ureters – are two tubes take the urine from the kidneys to the bladder.o Bladder – stores urine until it is removed.o Urethra – is a tube that removes urine from the bladder.

GLOSSARYrespiratory, trachea, bronchi, alveoli, excretory, urea, kidney, ureter, bladder, urethra.

STUDY QUESTIONS1. Describe the role of the following parts of the respiratory system:

a)tracheab) bronchic) alveoli

2. Which gas or gases do wea) breathe in b) breathe out?

3. Name the excretory organs of the body.4. Describe the role of the following parts of the excretory system:

a) kidneysb) uretersc) bladder d) urethra

5. Draw a labelled diagram showing the arrangement of the kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra.

PLANTS

WATER TRANSPORT IN PLANTSThe roots of a plant take in water.The stem of a plant transports water from the roots to the leaves through tubes called xylem.The leaves of a plant have tiny holes called stomata that release excess water into the air in a process called transpiration.

Many Australian plants have adaptations that allow them to live in high temperature, low water environments. These include Leaves rolled into spikes to reduce the number of stomata Leaves that hang vertically to keep the leaf cool by reducing the amount of sunlight striking the

surface of the leaf Leaves that have a shiny, waxy covering that keeps the leaf cool by reflecting sunlight

PHOTOSYNTHESISPhotosynthesis is the process in which plants make their own food. They combine water and carbon dioxide in a series of chemical reactions driven by energy absorbed from sunlight by the chlorophyll in the leaves. The products of photosynthesis are glucose and oxygen. The glucose is used as food for the plant and the oxygen is released into air to be used by plants and animals.

RESPIRATION

Respiration is the process in plants and animals that uses glucose and oxygen to produce energy. The energy is used for growth, repair and reproduction.Respiration is closely linked to photosynthesis because photosynthesis in plants provides the glucose to be used in respiration in plants and animals.

GLOSSARYxylem, stomata, transpiration, photosynthesis, respiration, adaptations.

STUDY QUESTIONS1. Describe the role of roots in water absorption.2. Describe the role of the stem in water movement.3. What are xylem?4. Describe the role of the leaves in transpiration.5. What are stomata?6. Why is photosynthesis important?7. Why is respiration important for all living things?

FORCES AND FIELDS

FORCESA force is something that changes motion. This means that a force can get something to stop go faster go slower change direction change shape

A force can be a push, a pull or a twist. Contact forces touch the object they are acting on. Some contact forces are friction, air resistance and buoyancy.Non-contact forces do not touch the object. Some non-contact forces are gravity, magnetic forces and electric forces.Force is measured on a spring balance in units called Newtons (N).

FRICTIONFriction is a force between two rolling or sliding objects. It is caused by the roughness of surfaces and it acts to slow the objects down. Friction always acts in the opposite direction to the object’s movement. Rough surfaces have more friction than smooth surfaces. Friction causes surfaces to wear away. Rubber wheels on skateboards and bikes become thinner as they rub against the road. Friction also produces heat. A car engine becomes hot as the pistons move up and down in the cylinders.

ELECTROSTATIC FORCES

Electrostatic forces occur on objects that have become electrically charged after being rubbed. Some objects become positively charged and others become negatively charged. When electrostatically charged objects are brought near to each other

two positively charged objects will repel each other two negatively charged objects will repel each other a positively charged object and a negatively charged object will attract each other

Electrostatic forces can be useful. They are used to produce images in photocopiers in paint spray guns to make paint stick to surfaces to remove solid particles from smoke in chimneys

Electrostatic forces can be a nuisance. They cause lightning cause electric shocks when we touch door handles and cars cause sparks that lead to explosions

An electric field is the area around an electric charge.

MAGNETIC FORCESMagnetic forces are produced by magnets. These forces attract metals containing iron, steel, nickel and cobalt. The ends of a magnet are called poles – the north pole and the south pole. When two unlike (different) poles – north and south – are brought together, they attract each other.When two like (same) poles – north and north or south and south – are brought together, they repel each other.

A magnetic field is the area around a magnet.

Magnets are used to keep refrigerator doors closed to hold notes on the refrigerator door in speakers

An electromagnet contains an iron core surrounded by electric wires. It is a temporary magnet because the iron core is magnetic only when electricity runs through the wires.

Electromagnets are used in scrap-yard cranes to lift cars in hospitals to remove a piece of steel from a patient’s eye in the mouthpiece of a telephone in metal detectors at airports

GLOSSARYforce, spring balance, Newton, friction, electrostatic, field, magnetic, pole, electromagnet

STUDY QUESTIONS1. Describe one example of a force that is causing a change in;

a) shape b) direction c) speed2. Which instrument is used to measure force in Newtons?3. What is friction?4. Describe two examples of friction occurring in everyday situations.5. What must you do to an object to give it an electrostatic charge?6. What happens when the following types of electrostatic charges are brought togethera) two positive chargesb) two negative chargesc) one positive charge and one negative charge7. Describe two everyday situations in which electrostatic forces are

a) useful b) a nuisance8. What is the meaning of the term “magnetic substance”?9. Name two magnetic substances.10. What happens when the following types of magnetic poles are brought together

a) two north polesb) two south poles

c) one north pole and one south pole11. Describe two everyday situations in which magnets are used.12. Describe two everyday situations in which electromagnets are used.

MICROBES

MICROORGANISMSMicroorganisms or Microbes are living things which are so small they can only be seen clearly using a microscope. They are a large and varied group that exist as single cells or a collection of cells.Microbes are found everywhere.Some microbes are useful and others are harmful.There are 4 groups of microbes: Viruses, bacteria, fungi and protists.Microbes move in three main ways: with a flagella, with cilia or using a pseudopod. Some microbes are unable to move and are said to be immotile and rely on others for transport.Pathogens are microbes which cause disease.

Bacteria can be either helpful of harmful.Helpful bacteria are used to break down human faeces in sewage treat industrial waste decompose dead plants and animals make yoghurt and cheese produce drugs for treating diseasesHarmful bacteria cause diseases.

Reproduction in unicellular organisms takes place by cell division called mitosis.

Louis Pasteur discovered that most infectious diseases are caused by microbes. His famous broth experiment showed that microbes do not appear from nowhere, but exist everywhere even though we can’t always see them.

Pasteur pioneered the technique of pasteurisation.

FERMENTATIONThis is the breakdown of complex sugars into simple sugars. Fermentation is caused by enzymes called ferments such as mould, bacteria and yeast.

Sugar + water →(heat and enzyme present)→ alcohol + carbon-dioxide

GLOSSARYVirus, bacteria, fungi, protest, pathogen, mitosis, fermentation, pasteurise.

STUDY QUESTIONS1. Define microorganism.2. Outline some features common to all microbes.3. Describe how microbes move.4. List examples and effects of harmful microbes including how food poisoning occurs.5. Outline Pasteur’s broth experiment.6. How do unicellular organisms reproduce?

OUR ATMOSPHERE

THE ATMOSPHEREThe atmosphere is a mixture of gases surrounding the Earth. It is made of several layers – the troposphere, stratosphere, ionosphere and exosphere. About 78% of the atmosphere is nitrogen and 21% is oxygen. The remaining 1% is a mixture of numerous gases including carbon dioxide, neon, helium, methane, hydrogen and ozone.The carbon dioxide in the atmosphere traps heat from the sun to keep the Earth warm but if the amount of carbon dioxide increases too much, the Earth will heat up. This called the greenhouse effect.The layer of ozone in the atmosphere blocks out more than 95% of the sun’s UV rays. If the ozone layer is damaged so that it has holes in it, then too much UV light will reach the Earth’s surface causing sunburn and skin cancer.

GLOSSARYAtmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, troposphere, stratosphere, ionosphere, exosphere, gases, air pressure.

STUDY QUESTIONS1. Which two gases make up most of the atmosphere? What is the percentage of each one in the

air?2. What is ozone needed for?3. What is carbon-dioxide needed for?4. How does air pressure affect life on Earth?

EARTH STRUCTURE

STRUCTURE OF THE EARTHThe Earth is a huge ball of rock. It is made of four layers. – crust – made of solid rock mantle – mostly made of solid rock with some molten rock in a layer called the asthenosphere outer core – made of molten iron and nickel inner core – made of solid iron and nickel

The lithosphere is the name given to the layer of solid rock in the crust and upper mantle.

MINERALSA mineral is a chemical compound that is found in the Earth’s crust, either on its own or with other minerals in rock. Therefore every rock is made of two or more minerals.

TYPES OF ROCKSThere are three types of rocks.1) igneous rocks – are formed when magma and lava cool2) sedimentary rocks – are formed when sediments are compacted or cemented together3) metamorphic rocks – are formed when igneous rocks and sedimentary rocks are put under

intense heat or pressure

WEATHERING AND EROSIONWeathering is the breaking down of rocks into small fragments called sediments. Two types of weathering are physical weathering – rocks are broken down into small fragments by physical factors in the

environment such as extreme temperature changes

chemical weathering – rocks are changed into new substances by chemical factors in the

environment such as acid rain

Erosion is the process of moving fragments of weathered rock to other places. This is done by agents of erosion such as wind, rivers, waves and glaciers.

WATER CYCLEThe water cycle continually supplies Earth with fresh water. It is called a cycle because it has no beginning and no end and so it never stops. The three stages of the water cycle are evaporation – water on Earth’s surface changes from liquid to vapour and rises into the

atmosphere condensation – water vapour in the atmosphere changes from vapour to liquid and forms

clouds precipitation – liquid water in the atmosphere falls to the Earth’s surface as rain, snow or hail.

TIDESTides are caused by the gravitational pull of the moon and the sun on the Earth. Because the moon is much closer to the earth, it has a greater pull.High tide occurs at a place when the sea is facing the moon. At the same time, there is a high tide on the opposite side of the Earth.

Very high tides occur once every two weeks when both the moon and the sun are in line and pull on the Earth together.

GLOSSARYcore, mantle, crust, hydrosphere, lithosphere, mineral, weathering, erosion, deposition, sedimentary, igneous, metamorphic, evaporation, condensation, precipitation.

STUDY QUESTIONS1. Draw a labelled diagram showing the core, mantle, crust and lithosphere.2. What are minerals?3. Explain how these rocks form:

a) igneous

b) sedimentaryc) metamorphic

4. Rocks are weathered by physical change and chemical change. Explain one example of each.5. Draw a labelled diagram of the water cycle showing where evaporation, condensation and

precipitation occur.6. In the water cycle, what happens in

a) evaporationb) condensationc) precipitation?

7. Explain why Earth has tides.