MSIT | Master of Science in Information Technology MSIT 413: Wireless Technologies Week 3 Michael L....

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MSIT | Master of Science in Information Technology

MSIT 413: Wireless TechnologiesWeek 3

Michael L. HonigDepartment of EECS

Northwestern University

January 2011



Cellular Frequency Assignments

ED

F

CA

EB

GD

C

E

AB

C

DF

AG

BA

GD

C

BA

FG

CGD

AD

BC

FE

G

B

cell cluster(contains all channels) co-channel cells

2



Cellular Terminology

• Cell cluster: group of N neighboring cells which use the complete set of available frequencies.

• Cell cluster size: N

• Frequency reuse factor: 1/N

• Uplink or reverse link: Mobiles Base station

• Downlink or forward link: Base station mobiles

• Co-channel cells: cells which are assigned the same frequencies

C

DF

A

BA

FG

CGD

AD

BC

FE

G

B

cell cluster

3



Performance Measure:Signal-to-Interference-Plus-Noise Ratio (SINR)

• Expressed in dB (10 log (SINR))

• Typically, the interference power dominates (ignore noise)– SINR Signal-to-Interference Ratio (SIR or S/I)

• Total interference power is the sum over all interferers:– More co-channel users more interference

Power Noise Power ceInterferen

Power Signal Received

SINR

4



Voice Capacity• Defined as

– Example: SE = 0.1 Erlang/MHz/km2 10 MHz needed to support 1 Erlang/km2 (Note that 1 km2 may correspond to a cell.)

– To convert Erlangs to users, must estimate traffic per user, e.g., if on average, each user is active 1/10 of the time, then 1 Erlang corresponds to 10 users.

• Traffic per cell depends on:– Number of channels– Grade of Service (e.g., typically 2%)– S/I requirement (determined by cluster size N)

)(kmarea Total(MHz)] bandwidth [Total

(Erlangs) carried trafficTotal2

5



Channel Allocation

• Consider GSM: 25 MHz (simplex), 200 kHz channels 125 channels (1 is used for control signaling)

• How to allocate channels to cells?

Suburb(lightly loaded)

Train station

Shopping mall

6



Channel Allocation


• How to allocate channels to cells?– Objective: equalize blocking probability

(target is around 2%)

• Fixed channel allocation assignsfixed set of channels to each cell– Drawback?


Train station

mall

7



Channel Allocation


• How to allocate channels to cells?– Objective: equalize blocking probability

(target is around 2%)

• Fixed channel allocation assignsfixed set of channels to each cell.– Drawback: traffic is time-varying

• Dynamic channel allocation varies the number of channels per cell, depending on the load.


Train station

mall

8



Dynamic Channel Allocation

2,61,3

Channels already in use

5

1,3,4new call: search for channel

9



Dynamic Channel Allocation

• Channels assigned from complete set of available channels

• Each user searches for a channel with high SINR (low interference)

• No frequency planning!

2,61,3

Channels already in use

5

3,4new call: search for channel

4

10



802.11b/g Channels

• 14 overlapping (staggered) channels (11 in the U.S.)• Center frequencies are separated by 5 MHz• Bandwidth/interference controlled by “spectral mask”

– 30 dB attenuation 11 MHz from center frequency– 50 dB attenuation 22 MHz from center frequency

Channels: 1 6 11

Comparison table

11



Dynamic Channel Allocation: 802.11b/g

Channel 6 Channel 1Channel 11

12




Channel 6 Channel 1Channel 11

Channel 6

Add new router

interference

13




Switches to channel 1 Channel 1Channel 11

Channel 6

interference

14




channel 1 Switches to channel 6Channel 11

Channel 6

interference

15




channel 1 channel 6Channel 11

Switches to channel 1

interference

Dynamic channel assignment becomes unstable! 16



Overlapping Channel Assignment

channel 1 channel 6Channel 11

Channel 3

Interference(less than before) Interference

(less than before)power

frequencyChannels: 1 3 617



FCA vs. DCA

• Moderate/High complexity – Must monitor channel occupancy,

traffic distribution, S/I (centralized)

• Better under light/moderate traffic

• Insensitive to changes in traffic

• Stable grade of service

• Low probability of outage (call termination)

• Suitable for micro-cellular systems(e.g., cordless)

• Moderate/high call setup delay

• No frequency planning

• Assignment can be centralized or distributed

• Low complexity

• Better under heavy traffic • Sensitive to changes in traffic• Variable grade of service• Higher probability of outage

• Suitable for macro-cellular systems(e.g., cellular)

• Low call setup delay• Requires careful frequency planning• Centralized assignment

DCAFCA

18



Why Study Radio Propagation?• To determine coverage

• Must determine path loss– Function of

• Frequency• Distance• Terrain (office building, urban, hilly, rural, etc.)

Need “large-scale” models

Can we use the samechannels?



Why Study Radio Propagation?



Why Study Radio Propagation?• To enable robust communications (MODEM design)

• How can we guarantee reliable communications?• What data rate can we provide?• Must determine signal statistics:

– Probability of outage– Duration of outage

Need “small-scale” models

Received Power

time

Deep fades may cause an outage



Will provide answers to…

• What are the major causes of attenuation and fading?• Why does the achievable data rate decrease with

mobility?• Why are wireless systems evolving to wider

bandwidths (spread spectrum and OFDM)?• Why does the accuracy of location tracking methods

increase with wider bandwidths?



Propagation Key Words• Large-scale effects

– Path-loss exponent

– Shadow fading

• Small-scale effects

– Rayleigh fading

– Doppler shift and Doppler spectrum

– Coherence time / fast vs slow fading

• Narrowband vs wideband signals

• Multipath delay spread and coherence bandwidth

• Frequency-selective fading and frequency diversity



Propagation Mechanisms:1. Free Space

reference distance d0=1

distance d

Reference power at reference distance d0 Path loss exponent=2

In dB: Pr = P0 (dB) – 20 log (d)

Pr (dB)

log (d)

slope = -20 dB per decade

P0

0

P0 = Gt Gr (/4)2

antenna gains wavelength



Wavelength

• Wavelength >> size of object signal penetrates object.

• Wavelength << size of object signal is absorbed and/or reflected by object.

• Large-scale effects refers to propagation over distances of many wavelengths.

Small-scale effects refers to propagation over a distances of a fraction of a wavelength.

(meters) = c (speed of light) / frequency



Dipole Antenna

cable from transmitter

wire (radiator)

802.11 dipole antenna



Radiation Pattern: Dipole Antenna

Dipole axisDipole axis

Electromagnetic wave radiates outfrom the dipole axis.

Cross-section of doughnut pattern



Antenna Gain Pattern

Dipole pattern (close to isotropic)

Red curve shows the antenna gain versusangle relative to an isotropic pattern (perfect circle) in dB.

Often referred to as dBi, dB “isotropic”.

-5 dB (factor of about 1/3) relative to isotropicpattern



Antenna Gain Pattern

Dipole pattern (vertical) 90 degree sector



Attenuation: Wireless vs. Wired

• Path loss ~ 13 dB / 100 meters or 130 dB / 1 km– Increases linearly with

distance

• Requires repeaters for long distances

• Path loss ~ 30 dB for the first meter + 20 dB / decade– 70 dB / 100 meters

(2 decades)– 90 dB / 1 km

(3 decades)– 130 dB / 100 km!– Increases as log (distance)

• Repeaters are infeasible for satellites

Short distance Wired has less path loss.Large distance Wireless has less path loss.

Unshielded Twisted Pair 1 GHz Radio (free space)



Propagation Mechanisms

2. Reflection

3. Diffraction

4. Scattering

Incident E-M wave

reflected wave

transmitted waveLength of boundary >> wavelength

Hill

Signal loss dependson geometry



Why Use > 500 MHz?



Why Use > 500 MHz?

• There is more spectrum available above 500 MHz.• Lower frequencies require larger antennas

– Antenna dimension is on the order of awavelength = (speed of light/frequency) = 0.6 M @ 500 MHz

• Path loss increases with frequency for the first meter– 10’s of GHz: signals are confined locally– More than 60 GHz: attenuation is too large

(oxygen absorbs signal)



700 MHz Auction• Broadcast TV channels 52-69 relocated in Feb. 2009.

– 6 MHz channels occupying 698 – 806 MHz

• Different bands were auctioned separately:– “A” and “B” bands: for exclusive use (like cellular bands)

– “C” band (11 MHz): must support open handsets, software apps

– “D” band (5 MHz): shared with public safety (has priority)

• Commenced January 24, 2008, ended in March



Why all the Hubbub?

• This band has excellent propagation characteristics for cellular types of services (“beach-front property”).

• Carriers must decide on technologies: 3G, LTE, WiMax,…• Rules for spectrum sharing can be redefined…



C Band Debate• Currently service providers in the U.S. do not allow any services,

applications, or handsets from unauthorized 3rd party vendors.

• Google asked the FCC to stipulate that whoever wins the spectrum must support open applications, open devices, open services, open networks (net neutrality for wireless).

• Verizon wants to maintain “walled-garden”.

• FCC stipulated open applications and devices, but not open services and networks: spectrum owner must allow devices or applications to connect to the network as long as they do not cause harm to the network

• Aggressive build-out requirements:– Significant coverage requirement in four years, which continues to

grow throughout the 10-year term of the license.



Sold to…

• Verizon

• Other winners: AT&T (B block), Qualcomm (B, E blocks)

• Total revenue: $19.6 B– $9.6 B from Verizon, $6.6 B from AT&T

• Implications for open access, competition?



D Band Rules

• Winner gets to use both D band and adjacent public service band (additional 12 MHz!), but service can be preempted by public safety in emergencies.

• Winner must build out public safety network:must provide service to 75% of the population in 4 years, 95% in 7 years, 99.3% in 10 years

• Minimum bid: $1.3 B; estimated cost to deploy network: $10-12 B

• Any takers? …



D Band Rules

• Winner gets to use both D band and adjacent public service band (additional 12 MHz!), but service can be preempted by public safety in emergencies.

• Winner must build out public safety network:must provide service to 75% of the population in 4 years, 95% in 7 years, 99.3% in 10 years

• Minimum bid: $1.3 B; estimated cost to deploy network: $10-12 B

• Any takers? … Nope! Highest bid was well below reserve…



Radio Channels

Troposcatter Microwave LOS

Mobile radio Indoor radio

T

T



Sinusoidal Signal

Amplitude A=1

Time delay = 12,Phase shift = 12/50 cycle = 86.4 degrees

Period= 50 sec, frequency f = 1/50 cycle/sec

Time t (seconds)

Electromagnetic wave s(t) = A sin (2 f t + )s(

t)



Two Signal Paths

s1(t)

s2(t)

Received signal r(t) = s1(t) + s2(t)

Suppose s1(t) = sin 2f t.Then s2(t) = h s1(t - ) = h sin 2f (t - )

attenuation(e.g., h could be ½)

delay(e.g., could be 1 microsec.)



Sinusoid Addition (Constructive)

+ =

s1(t)

s2(t)

r(t)

Adding two sinusoids with the same frequency gives another sinusoid with the same frequency!



Sinusoid Addition (Destructive)

+ =

Signal is faded.

s1(t)

s2(t)

r(t)



Indoor Propagation Measurements

Hypothetical large indoor environment

Ceiling

Normalized received power vs. distance



Power Attenuation

In dB: Pr = P0 (dB) – 10 n log (d)

reference distance d0=1

distance d

Reference power at reference distance d0Path loss exponent

Pr (dB)

log (d)

slope (n=2) = -20 dB per decadeP0

0

slope = -40(n=4)



Path Loss Exponents

ENVIRONMENT PATH LOSS EXPONENT, n

Free space 2

Urban cellular radio 2.7 to 3.5

Shadowed urban cellular radio 3 to 5

In building line-of-site 1.6 to 1.8

Obstructed in building 4 to 6

Obstructed in factories 2 to 3



Large-Scale Path Loss (Scatter Plot)

Ave

rag

e R

ece

ived

Pow

er (

dB

m)

Distance (meters)



Shadow Fading

• Random variations in path loss as mobile moves around buildings, trees, etc.

• Modeled as an additional random variable:

Pr = P0 – 10 n log d + X

“log-normal” random variablestandard deviation

received power in dB

“normal” (Gaussian)probability distribution

For cellular: is about 8 dB



Large-Scale Path Loss (Scatter Plot)

Most points are less thandB from the mean



Empirical Path Loss Models• Propagation studies must take into account:

– Environment (rural, suburban, urban)– Building characteristics (high-rise, houses, shopping malls)– Vegetation density– Terrain (mountainous, hilly, flat)

• Okumura’s model (based on measurements in and around Tokyo)– Median path loss =

free-space loss + urban loss + antenna gains + corrections– Obtained from graphs– Additional corrections for street orientation, irregular terrain

• Numerous indoor propagation studies for 802.11



SINR Measurements: 1xEV-DO

drive test plots



Link Budget How much power is required to achieve target S/I?

• dBs add:

Target S/I (dB) + path loss (dB) + other losses (components) (dB) - antenna gains (dB)

Total Power needed at transmitter (dB)

• Actual power depends on noise level.– Given 1 microwatt noise power, if the transmit power is 60 dB above the noise

level then the transmit power is 1 Watt.



Example

• Recall that dBm measures the signal power relative to 1 mW (milliwatt) = 0.001 Watt. To convert from S Watts to dBm, use S (dBm) = 10 log (S / 0.001)

• Transmitted power (dBm) = -30 + 40 = 10 dBm = 10 mW

• What if the received signal-to-noise ratio must be 5 dB, and the noise power is -45 dBm?

Transmitter Receiverwireless channel

40 dB attenuationReceived powermust be > -30 dBm

What is the requiredTransmit power?



Urban Multipath

• No direct Line of Sight between mobile and base• Radio wave scatters off of buildings, cars, etc.• Severe multipath



Narrowband vs. Wideband

• Narrowband means that the bandwidth of the transmitted signal is small (e.g., < 100 kHz for cellular). It therefore looks “almost” like a sinusoid.– Multipath changes the amplitude and phase.

• Wideband means that the transmitted signal has a large bandwidth (e.g., > 1 MHz for cellular).– Multipath causes “self-interference”.



Narrowband FadingReceived signal r(t) = h1 s(t - 1 ) + h2 s(t - 2) + h3 s(t - 3 ) + …

attenuationfor path 1 (random) delay for path 1 (random)

If the transmitted signal is sinusoidal (narrowband), s(t) = sin 2f t,

then the received signal is also sinusoidal, but with a different(random) amplitude and (random) phase:

r(t) = A sin (2f t + )

A, depend on environment, location of transmitter/receiver

Transmitted s(t) Received r(t)



Rayleigh FadingCan show:

A has a “Rayleigh” distribution has a “uniform” distribution

(all phase shifts are equally likely)

Probability (A < a) = 1 – e-a2/P0

where P0 is the average received power (averaged over different locations)

Ex: P0 =1, a=1: Pr(A<1) = 1 – e-1 = 0.63 (probability that signal is faded)

P0 = 1, a=0.1: Pr(A<0.1) = 1 – e-1/100 ≈ 0.01 (prob that signal is severely faded)

a

Prob(A < a)

1

1-e-a2/P0



Small-Scale Fading

a = 0.1



Small-Scale Fading

Fade rate depends on• Mobile speed• Speed of surrounding objects• Frequency



Short- vs. Long-Term Fading

Long-term (large-scale) fading:

• Distance attenuation

• Shadowing (blocked Line of Sight (LOS))

• Variations of signal strength over distances on the order of a wavelength

Time (t)

Sig

nal

Str

engt

h (d

B)

T T

Short-term fading

Long-term fading



Combined Fading and Attenuation

Time (mobile is moving away from base)

Received powerPr (dB)

distance attenuation





shadowing

Received powerPr (dB) distance attenuation





shadowing

Received powerPr (dB)

distance attenuation

Rayleigh fading



Example Diagnostic Measurements: 1XEV-DO

drive test measurements

drive path



Time Variations: Doppler Shift

Audio clip (train station)



Time Variations: Doppler Shift

Propagation delay = distance d / speed of light c = vt/c

Received signal r(t) = sin 2f (t- vt/c) = sin 2(f – fv/c) t

velocity v

distance d = v t

transmittedsignal s(t)

receivedsignal r(t)

propagationdelay

received frequency

Doppler shift fd = -fv/c

delay increases



Doppler Shift (Ex)

Mobile moving away from base v > 0, Doppler shift < 0Mobile moving towards base v < 0, Doppler shift > 0

Carrier frequency f = 900 MHz, v = 60 miles/hour = 26.82 meters/sec

Mobile Base: fd = fv/c = (900 × 106) × 26.82 / (3 × 108) ≈ 80 Hzmeters/sec



Doppler (Frequency) Shift

Frequency= 1/50 Frequency= 1/45

in phase out of phase

½ Doppler “cycle”



Doppler Shift (Ex)

Mobile moving away from base v > 0, Doppler shift < 0Mobile moving towards base v < 0, Doppler shift > 0

Carrier frequency f = 900 MHz, v = 60 miles/hour = 26.82 meters/sec

Mobile Base: fd = fv/c = (900 × 106) × 26.82 / (3 × 108) ≈ 80 Hz

Suppose the data rate is 9600 bits/sec, 80 Hz Doppler shift phase inversion every (9600/80)/2 = 60 bits!

As the data rate increases, Doppler shift becomes less significant, i.e., channel is stable over more transmitted bits.

IS-136 data rate: 48.6 kbps GSM data rate 270 kbps



Application of Doppler Shift: Astronomy

Doppler shift determinesrelative velocity ofdistant objects(e.g., stars, galaxies…)

“red shift”: objectis moving away

“blue shift” objectis moving closer

sun light spectrum spectrum of galaxy supercluster

Observed “spectral lines”(radiation is emittedat discrete frequencies)



Application of Doppler Shift: Police Radar

Doppler shift can be used to compute relative speed.



Scattering: Doppler Spectrum

distance d = v t


• Received signal is the sum of all scattered waves

• Doppler shift for each path depends on angle (vf cos c )

• Typically assume that the received energy is the same from all directions (uniform scattering)

receivedsignal ??

freq.

power

frequency of s(t)




distance d = v t


frequency

power

frequency of s(t)frequency

power

frequency of s(t) + Doppler shift fd

Doppler shift fd

2fd

Doppler Spectrum(shows relative strengths of Doppler shifts)




distance d = v t


frequency

power

frequency of s(t)

power

frequency of s(t) + Doppler shift fd

Doppler spectrum

2fd



Rayleigh Fading

phase shiftdeep fade

Received waveform Amplitude (dB)



Channel Coherence Time

Coherence Time: Amplitude and phase are nearly constant.

• Rate of time variations depends on Doppler shift: (velocity X carrier frequency)/(speed of light)

• Coherence Time varies as 1/(Doppler shift).



Fast vs. Slow Fading

Fast fading: channel changes every few symbols. Coherence timeis less than roughly 100 symbols.

Slow fading: Coherence timelasts more than a few 100 symbols.

timetime

rece

ived

am

plitu

de

transmitted bits



Fade Rate (Ex)

• fc = 900 MHz, v = 60 miles/hour Doppler shift ≈ 80 Hz.Coherence time is roughly 1/80, or 10 msec

• Data rate (voice): 10 kbps or 0.1 msec/bit 100 bits within a coherence time (fast fading)

• GSM data rate: 270 kbps about 3000 bits within a coherence time (slow fading)



Channel Characterizations:Time vs. Frequency

• Frequency-domain description

• Time-domain description

Multipathchannel

input s(t) is a sinusoid“narrowband” signal

Amplitude attenuation,Delay (phase shift)

Multipathchannel

input s(t) is an impulse (very short pulse)“wideband” signal(Note: an impulse has zero duration and infinite bandwidth!)

time t

s(t)

time t

r(t)

multipath components



Pulse Width vs. Bandwidth

frequency

Powerbandwidth = 1/T

frequency


time

signal pulse

time

signal pulse

T

T

Narrowband

Wideband



Power-Delay Profile

delay spread

Received power vs. time in response to a transmitted short pulse.

For cellular systems (outdoors), the delay spread is typically afew microseconds.



Two-Ray Impulse Response

direct path (path 1)

reflection (path 2)

time t

s(t)

time t

r(t) reflection is attenuated



Two-Ray Impulse Response


reflection (path 2)

= [(length of path 2) – (length of path 1)]/c

time t

s(t)

time t

r(t) reflection is attenuated



Urban Multipath

time t time t

s(t)r(t)

time t

r(t)different locationfor receiver

Spacing and attenuation of multipath components depend onlocation and environment.



Delay Spread and Intersymbol Interference

Multipathchanneltime t

s(t)

time t

r(t)

Multipathchannel

r(t)

Time between pulses is >> delay spread, therefore the receivedpulses do not interfere.

Time between pulses is < delay spread, which causesintersymbol interference. The rate at which symbols can betransmitted without intersymbol interference is 1 / delay spread.

s(t)time t



Coherence Bandwidth

frequency

channelgain

The channel gain is approximately constant within a coherence bandwidth Bc. Frequencies f1 and f2 fade independently if |f1 – f2 | >> Bc.

coherence bandwidth Bc

f1 f2

Frequencies far outside the coherencebandwidth are affected differently by multipath.

88



Coherence Bandwidth and Delay Spread

delay spread

frequency

channelgain


Coherence bandwidth is inversely proportional to delay spread:Bc ≈ 1/

frequency

channelgain


delay spread

89



Narrowband Signal

frequency

channelgain

• The signal power is confined within a coherence band.• Flat fading: all signal frequencies are affected the same way.


f1 f2


signal power(narrowband)

90



Wideband Signals

frequency

channelgain

• A wideband signal spans many coherence bands.

• Frequency-selective fading: different parts of the signal (in frequency) are affected differently by the channel.


f1 f2


signal power(wideband)

91



Frequency Diversity

frequency

channelgain

Wideband signals exploit frequency diversity. Spreading power across many coherence bands reduces the chances of severe fading.

Wideband signals are distorted by the channel fading (distortion causes intersymbol interference).


f1 f2



92



Coherence Bandwidth for Cellular

frequency

channelgain

For the cellular band, Bc is around 100 to 300 kHz.How does this compare with the bandwidth of cellular systems?


f1 f2



93



Fading Experienced by Wireless Systems

Standard Bandwidth Fade rate

AMPS 30 kHz (NB) FastIS-136 30 kHz FastGSM 200 kHz SlowIS-95 (CDMA) 1.25 MHz (WB) Fast3G 1.25-5 MHz Slow to Fast

(depends on rate)

LTE up to 20 MHz Slow802.11 > 20 MHz SlowBluetooth > 5 MHz (?) Slow

94



Pulse Width vs. Bandwidth

frequency


frequency


time

signal pulse

time

signal pulse

T

T

Narrowband

Wideband



Bandwidth and Multipath Resolution


reflection (path 2)

signal pulse

Narrow bandwidth low resolutionReceiver cannot distinguish the two paths.

signal pulse

Wide bandwidth high resolutionReceiver can clearly distinguish two paths.

multipath components are resolvable

(delay spread)

T

T < T >



Bandwidth and Multipath Resolution


reflection (path 2)

signal pulse



The receiver can easily distinguish the two paths provided that they are separated by much morethan the pulse width . Since the signal bandwidthB ≈ 1/, this implies B >> 1/or B >> Bc ..



Multipath Resolution and Diversity


reflection (path 2)

signal pulse



Each path may undergo independent fading (i.e., due to Doppler). If one path is faded, the receiver may be able to detect the other path.

In the frequency domain, this corresponds to independent fading in different coherence bands.



Fading Experienced by Wireless Systems

Standard Flat/Freq.-Sel. Fast/Slow

AMPS Flat FastIS-136 Flat FastGSM F-S SlowIS-95 (CDMA) F-S Fast3G/4G F-S Slow to Fast

(depends on rate)

802.11 F-S SlowBluetooth F-S Slow



Radar Pulse Bandwidth

time t

r(t)

s(t)

delay = 2 x distance/c

reflection

time t

r(t)

s(t)

delay

Narrow bandwidth pulseHigh bandwidth pulse



Bandwidth and Resolution

time t

r(t)

s(t)

delay = 2 x distance/c

The resolution of the delay measurement is roughly the width of the pulse.

Low bandwidth wide pulse low resolutionHigh bandwidth narrow pulse high resolution

If the delay measurement changes by 1 microsec, the distance erroris c x 10-6/2 = 150 meters!

reflection



Propagation and Handoff

ReceivedSignal Strength (RSS)

from left BST

from right BST

unacceptable(call is dropped)

time





from left BST

from right BST


time

with handoffhandoff threshold





from left BST

from right BST


time

with handoffhandoff threshold

time needed for handoff

RSS margin





from left BST

from right BST


time

handoff threshold


RSS margin



Handoff Threshold


from left BST

from right BST


time

handoff threshold


RSS margin

• Handoff threshold too high too many handoffs (ping pong)• Handoff threshold too low dropped calls are likely• Threshold should depend on slope on vehicle speed (Doppler).



Handoff Measurements (3G)

• Mobile maintains a list of neighbor cells to monitor.• Mobile periodically measures signal strength from BST pilot

signals.• Mobile sends measurements to network to request handoff.• Handoff decision is made by network.

B

A

D

C






B

A

D

CPilot signals(transmittedcontinuously)






B

A

D

C

active link request handoff






B

A

D

C

link is broken

network activates link



Handoff Decision

• Depends on RSS, time to execute handoff, hysteresis, and dwell (duration of RSS)– Proprietary methods– Handoff may also be initiated for balancing traffic.

• 1G (AMPS): Network Controlled Handoff (NCHO)– Handoff is based on measurements at BS, supervised by MSC.

• 2G, GPRS: Mobile Assisted Handoff (MAHO)– Handoff relies on measurements at mobile– Enables faster handoff

• Mobile data, WLANs (802.11): Mobile Controlled Handoff (MCHO)– Handoff controlled by mobile



Soft Handoff (CDMA) ”Make before break”

MSC

BSC BSC

MSC

BSC BSC

MSC

BSC BSC

Hard Handoff (TDMA)

MSC

BSC BSC

MSC

BSC BSC

MSC

BSC BSC

BEFORE DURING AFTER



Types of Small-Scale Fading

Small-Scale FadingBased on multipath time delay spread

Flat Fading1. BW of signal < BW of channel2. Delay spread < Symbol period

Frequency Selective Fading1. BW of signal > BW of channel2. Delay spread > Symbol period

Small-Scale FadingBased on Doppler spread

Fast Fading1. High Doppler spread2. Coherence time < Symbol period3. Channel variations faster than base- band signal variations

Slow Fading1. Low Doppler spread2. Coherence time > Symbol period3. Channel variations slower than base- band signal variations



Types of Small-Scale Signal Fading as a Function ofSymbol Period and Signal Bandwidth

Ts

delay spread

Tc (coherence time)

Ts

Flat Fast Fading

Flat SlowFading

Frequency-Selective Slow Fading

Frequency-Selective Fast Fading

Symbol PeriodRelative to delay spread

BsBd = fd (Doppler shift)

Bs

Flat Fast Fading

Flat SlowFading

Frequency Selective Slow Fading

Frequency Selective Fast Fading

Bc

Symbol Period relative to coherence time.

Signal BWrelative to channel BW

coherence BW

Signal bandwidth relative to Doppler shift

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