Moral Moral DevelopmentDevelopment

KohlbergKohlberg

GilliganGilligan

HE 551 Unit 7 Seminar

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How are things going?How are things going?

KOHLBERG'S THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENTKOHLBERG'S THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT Kohlberg believed much of Piaget's theory but thought it should be Kohlberg believed much of Piaget's theory but thought it should be

extended into adolescence and adulthood. extended into adolescence and adulthood.

MORAL DILEMMAS. Each dilemma presented required the MORAL DILEMMAS. Each dilemma presented required the individual to choose between: (A) obeying a rule, law, or authority individual to choose between: (A) obeying a rule, law, or authority figure, or (B) taking some action which conflicts with these rules or figure, or (B) taking some action which conflicts with these rules or commands while serving the welfare of others.commands while serving the welfare of others.

Kohlberg was less interested in what the subject's decision was (e.g. Kohlberg was less interested in what the subject's decision was (e.g. what Heinz should do), than in the underlying rationale. What is what Heinz should do), than in the underlying rationale. What is important is HOW they EXPLAINED their judgments.important is HOW they EXPLAINED their judgments.

1) Like Piaget, Kohlberg developed stages of Moral 1) Like Piaget, Kohlberg developed stages of Moral development which follow some invariant sequence. development which follow some invariant sequence.

2) Because each successive stage is built upon the foundation 2) Because each successive stage is built upon the foundation of an earlier one, each stage must be followed in a particular order. of an earlier one, each stage must be followed in a particular order.

3) Again, according to Kohlberg, each stage represents a 3) Again, according to Kohlberg, each stage represents a METHOD OF THINKING about a moral dilemma rather than a METHOD OF THINKING about a moral dilemma rather than a particular TYPE of moral decision. particular TYPE of moral decision.

Heinz dilemmaHeinz dilemma In Europe, a woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. There was In Europe, a woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. There was

one drug that doctors thought might save her. It was a form of radium that a one drug that doctors thought might save her. It was a form of radium that a druggist in the same town had recently discovered. The drug was expensive to druggist in the same town had recently discovered. The drug was expensive to make, but the druggist was charging $2000, or 10 times the cost of the drug, make, but the druggist was charging $2000, or 10 times the cost of the drug, for a small (possibly life-saving dose). Heinz, the sick woman's husband, for a small (possibly life-saving dose). Heinz, the sick woman's husband, borrowed all the money he could, about $1000, or half of what he needed. He borrowed all the money he could, about $1000, or half of what he needed. He told the druggist that his wife was dying and asked him to sell the drug told the druggist that his wife was dying and asked him to sell the drug cheaper, or to let him pay later. The druggist replied “No, I discovered the cheaper, or to let him pay later. The druggist replied “No, I discovered the drug, and I'm going to make money from it”. Heinz then became desperate drug, and I'm going to make money from it”. Heinz then became desperate and broke into the store to steal the drug for his wife.and broke into the store to steal the drug for his wife.

Should Heinz have done that?Should Heinz have done that?

Kohlberg proposed 3 stages of moral development, with each Kohlberg proposed 3 stages of moral development, with each stage consisting of 2 distinct substages.stage consisting of 2 distinct substages.

LEVEL 1: PRECONVENTION MORALITYLEVEL 1: PRECONVENTION MORALITY

at this level children conform to rules imposed by authority figures in order to at this level children conform to rules imposed by authority figures in order to obtain rewards and avoid punishment. Moral decisions are based on obtain rewards and avoid punishment. Moral decisions are based on CONSEQUENCES of an act, not intentionalityCONSEQUENCES of an act, not intentionality

Stage 1: punishment and obedience orientationStage 1: punishment and obedience orientation

a) goodness or badness of an act are based on its consequences.a) goodness or badness of an act are based on its consequences.

b) child will defer to authority figure and obey their commands b) child will defer to authority figure and obey their commands in order to avoid punishment (BUT there is no true conception of rules--> in order to avoid punishment (BUT there is no true conception of rules--> it is only bad if you get caught).it is only bad if you get caught).

Stage 2: instrumental orientationStage 2: instrumental orientation

a) person conforms to rules in order to gain rewards or to satisfy a) person conforms to rules in order to gain rewards or to satisfy personal needs,personal needs,

b) doing things for others is “right” if the actor will benefit in b) doing things for others is “right” if the actor will benefit in the long runthe long run

LEVEL 2: CONVENTIONAL MORALITYLEVEL 2: CONVENTIONAL MORALITY -- at this level, the individual strives to obey the rules set forth by others in -- at this level, the individual strives to obey the rules set forth by others in

order to win praise and recognition or to maintain social order.order to win praise and recognition or to maintain social order.

Stage 3: “Good-boy / good-girl” orientationStage 3: “Good-boy / good-girl” orientation

a) moral behavior is that which pleases, helps, or is approved by others.a) moral behavior is that which pleases, helps, or is approved by others.

b) actions are evaluated on the basis of intentb) actions are evaluated on the basis of intent

c) one objective is to be thought of as a “nice” personc) one objective is to be thought of as a “nice” person

Stage 4: Authority and social-order-maintaining moralityStage 4: Authority and social-order-maintaining morality

a) accepts and conforms to social rules and conventions because of a belief that a) accepts and conforms to social rules and conventions because of a belief that rules and laws maintain an order which is judged good or moral.rules and laws maintain an order which is judged good or moral.

LAW AND ORDER MENTALITYLAW AND ORDER MENTALITY

LEVEL 3: POST-CONVENTIONAL MORALITYLEVEL 3: POST-CONVENTIONAL MORALITY --moral standards are internalized and become the person's own. --moral standards are internalized and become the person's own.

Stage 5: Social contract morality.Stage 5: Social contract morality. a) flexibility begins in moral reasoninga) flexibility begins in moral reasoning

b) moral actions are those that express the will of the majority of individuals b) moral actions are those that express the will of the majority of individuals

c) a sense of having to live up to the law, but an understanding that laws can be c) a sense of having to live up to the law, but an understanding that laws can be wrong. wrong.

Stage 6: Universal ethical principlesStage 6: Universal ethical principles a) “highest” stage of moral reasoninga) “highest” stage of moral reasoning

b) right and wrong defined on a personal belief or self-chosen ethicsb) right and wrong defined on a personal belief or self-chosen ethics

c) belief in abstract principles which override all others (life, liberty, equality)c) belief in abstract principles which override all others (life, liberty, equality)

d) risk jail or social ostracism rather than violate personal ethicsd) risk jail or social ostracism rather than violate personal ethics

This last stage is often considered to be a This last stage is often considered to be a HYPOTHETICAL CONSTRUCT because very few people ever HYPOTHETICAL CONSTRUCT because very few people ever demonstrate this level of “saintliness”.demonstrate this level of “saintliness”.

CRITICISMS:CRITICISMS: scoring disagreements ( ~25% of time).scoring disagreements ( ~25% of time).

rankings may reflect verbal abilities more so than moral level attained rankings may reflect verbal abilities more so than moral level attained (young kids cannot express themselves)(young kids cannot express themselves)

Reflect a number of Biases:Reflect a number of Biases: political bias-- liberals tend to rank higher in this hierarchy (5 & 6) political bias-- liberals tend to rank higher in this hierarchy (5 & 6)

conservatives --> who believe in law and order are left in stage 4conservatives --> who believe in law and order are left in stage 4

historical/generational biashistorical/generational bias

Validity questions: Questions which are asked are hypothetical and Validity questions: Questions which are asked are hypothetical and somewhat artificial. The dilemmas are not REAL to the subjects.somewhat artificial. The dilemmas are not REAL to the subjects.

Moral talk vs. actionMoral talk vs. action gender bias:gender bias:

Kohlberg only tested malesKohlberg only tested males

Adult females are at stage 3, whereas adult males are at stage 4Adult females are at stage 3, whereas adult males are at stage 4

Are women less moral?Are women less moral? YES -- Kohlberg (1971)-- suggests that women define the YES -- Kohlberg (1971)-- suggests that women define the

good as “what pleases or helps others” and is approved by good as “what pleases or helps others” and is approved by them --Stage 3 them --Stage 3

YES -- Freud (1925)-- Women show less sense of justice YES -- Freud (1925)-- Women show less sense of justice than men, that they are less ready to submit to the great than men, that they are less ready to submit to the great urgency of life, that they are more often influenced in their urgency of life, that they are more often influenced in their judgments by feelings of affection or hostility.judgments by feelings of affection or hostility.

YES -- Piaget (1965)-- the legal sense if far less developed YES -- Piaget (1965)-- the legal sense if far less developed in girls than in boysin girls than in boys

Carol GilliganCarol Gilligan Argues that the alleged inferiority of women has more to do with the Argues that the alleged inferiority of women has more to do with the

standard by which moral development is measured rather than the standard by which moral development is measured rather than the quality of female's thinking. quality of female's thinking.

In terms of development, girls are taught and trained to be more In terms of development, girls are taught and trained to be more nurturing, empathetic, etc than males.nurturing, empathetic, etc than males.

According to Kohlberg's model, the highest stages of moral According to Kohlberg's model, the highest stages of moral development are defined in terms of traditional MASCULINE values: development are defined in terms of traditional MASCULINE values: individuality, rationality, detachment, impersonality individuality, rationality, detachment, impersonality

The traditionally FEMININE values of caring, responsibility, welfare The traditionally FEMININE values of caring, responsibility, welfare of others automatically force them to stay at level 3 and 4 because the of others automatically force them to stay at level 3 and 4 because the dilemmas that are presented.dilemmas that are presented.

Gilligan suggests that women are trained to be more interpersonal-bound whereas Gilligan suggests that women are trained to be more interpersonal-bound whereas men are raised to be more rule-bound.men are raised to be more rule-bound.

MAN: world held together by a system of rules and consensusMAN: world held together by a system of rules and consensus

WOMAN: world held together by human relationships and caringWOMAN: world held together by human relationships and caring

In the Heinz dilemma Men would view it as a problem of competing rights. In the Heinz dilemma Men would view it as a problem of competing rights. LIFE VS. PROPERTYLIFE VS. PROPERTY HEINZ VS. DRUGGIST HEINZ VS. DRUGGIST

can be resolved through LOGIC.can be resolved through LOGIC.

Women would view this dilemma as a fracture in human relationships that should Women would view this dilemma as a fracture in human relationships that should be resolved through communication. be resolved through communication.

Rather than treat the problem in an abstract fashion, she focuses on the CONTEXT of Rather than treat the problem in an abstract fashion, she focuses on the CONTEXT of the problem. the problem.

A woman would consider Heinz's relationship with his wife, her need for him, and the A woman would consider Heinz's relationship with his wife, her need for him, and the needs of the druggist.needs of the druggist.

Kohlberg’s scoring system does not take any of this into account.Kohlberg’s scoring system does not take any of this into account.

Gilligan concludes that women follow a different moral pathway than men. Gilligan concludes that women follow a different moral pathway than men.

Responsibility and concern for others precedes and overrides concern for individual Responsibility and concern for others precedes and overrides concern for individual rights. rights.

WOMEN ARE NOT MORE OR LESS MORAL THAN MEN, THEY ARE MORAL WOMEN ARE NOT MORE OR LESS MORAL THAN MEN, THEY ARE MORAL IN A DIFFERENT WAY THAN MEN.IN A DIFFERENT WAY THAN MEN.

Gilligan’s research also provided “hypothetical but realistic” dilemmas to reason about Gilligan’s research also provided “hypothetical but realistic” dilemmas to reason about (pregnant women-- keep baby or abortion). (pregnant women-- keep baby or abortion).

Came up with 3 levels of moral development.Came up with 3 levels of moral development.

LEVEL 1: Orientation to individual survivalLEVEL 1: Orientation to individual survival

at this stage the woman's thoughts on abortion centers on her own needs and desires. Want at this stage the woman's thoughts on abortion centers on her own needs and desires. Want an abortion so she can finish last year of high schoolan abortion so she can finish last year of high school

TRANSITION 1: selfishness to responsibilityTRANSITION 1: selfishness to responsibility

conflict arises between their own wants and what is ”right” Transitional conflict between conflict arises between their own wants and what is ”right” Transitional conflict between selfishness and responsibility necessary to move on.selfishness and responsibility necessary to move on.

Level 2: Goodness as self-sacrificeLevel 2: Goodness as self-sacrifice

women have adopted traditional feminine values and evaluate themselves in women have adopted traditional feminine values and evaluate themselves in terms of interpersonal relationships. Orientation to please others, even if it terms of interpersonal relationships. Orientation to please others, even if it causes a personal sacrifice.causes a personal sacrifice.

TRANSITION 2: goodness to truthTRANSITION 2: goodness to truth

question logic of self sacrifice. In spite of consequences, it is not always right question logic of self sacrifice. In spite of consequences, it is not always right to hurt oneself in the name of moralityto hurt oneself in the name of morality

Level 3: Morality of non-violenceLevel 3: Morality of non-violence

an injunction against hurting becomes the basic premise underlying all moral an injunction against hurting becomes the basic premise underlying all moral judgments. Looking after the welfare of people is now self-chosen and judgments. Looking after the welfare of people is now self-chosen and UNIVERSAL obligation. Personal and interpersonal obligations are noted.UNIVERSAL obligation. Personal and interpersonal obligations are noted.

Criticisms:Criticisms:

Are women and men really different??Are women and men really different??

Aren’t her dilemma just as biased (albeit in the other direction) as Kohlberg?Aren’t her dilemma just as biased (albeit in the other direction) as Kohlberg?

Final Final questions?questions?