Memorial for Applicant

8/9/2019 Memorial for Applicant

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THE IASLA SPACE LAW MOOT COURT COMPETITION, 2015

Team No. ____

IN THE INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE

AT THE

PEACE PALACE, THE HAGUE

Case o!e"!#!$

S#e!%#&# I!'es%#$a%#o! a!( N)*ea" Po+e" Use o! O"#%a* S-ae S%a%#o!s

PRINCIPALITOF THEMISTO

'.

REPU/LIC OF /ERGELMIR

ON SU/MISSION TO THE INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE

MEMORIAL FOR THE APPLICANT

PRINCIPALIT OF THEMISTO

TABLE OF CONTENTS



INE OF AUTHORITIES

CONVENTIONS...............................................................................................................vii

UNITED NATIONS RESOLUTIONS AND DOCUMENTS..........................................vii

TABLE OF CASES.............................................................................................................viii

• ICJ DECISIONS AND PCIJ

DECISIONS...........................................................................................................viii

• OTHER JUDGMENTS.............................................................................................x

TREATIES AND OTHER BOOKS....................................................................................xi

JOURNAL ARTICLES ......................................................................................................xii

MISCELLANEOUS..........................................................................................................'##

STATEMENT OF FACTS................................................................................................xx

3UESTIONS PRESENTE...........................................................................................xxiii

STATEMENT OF JURISICTION..............................................................................xxiv

SUMMAR OF PLEAINGS........................................................................................xxv

PLEAINGS.....................................................................................................................1

2



MERITS

[I]BERGELMIR ACTED UNLAWFULLY IN THE CONDUCT OF MILITARY RESEARCH

AND USE OF OUTER

SPACE...........................................................................................

................................... 1

4I.A /e"$e*m#" a%e( )!*a+&)**6 #! %7e o!()% o& m#*#%a"6 "esea"7 ..........................1

[I.A.1] Milit!" R#$#!%& i$ '!(&i)it#* i+ (,t#! $'%#........................................1

[I.A.-] B#!#l/i!0$ %tiviti#$ i+ $'%# ll (,t$i*# t&# /)it ( %%#'t#* %ivili+

$'%# #x'l(!ti(+.................................................................................................2

[I.A.2] B#!#l/i! i$ li)l# (! t!#t" +* %,$t(/!" i+t#!+ti(+l l3 vi(lti(+$

3it& !#!* t( /ilit!i4ti(+ ( (,t#! $'%#........................................................5

[I.B] Bergelmir is li!le "#r $%l&"$l $se #" #$'er

s()e................................................9

[I.B.1] U$# ( RHU$ i$ i+$t t&# #xi$ti+ '!i+%i'l#$ ( $'%# l3.........................6

[I.B.-] B#!#l/i! i$ !#$'(+$i)l# (! '($$i)l# '!(li#!ti(+ ( &!/,l /i%!(7

(!+i$/$ i+ (,t#! $'%#..........................................................................................11

[II] BERGELMIR ACTED UNLAWFULLY IN REFUSING ACCESS TO THE CREW OF

MIRANDA*I+ TO OBERON,

.............................................................................................................12

4II.A /e"$e*m#"8s "e&)sa* %o aess Oe"o! o!s%#%)%es '#o*a%#o! o& A"%#*e II o&

%7e OST...........................................................................................................................1-

[II.A.1] T&#/i$t( 3$ #+titl#* t( #x#!%i$# t&# !i&t ( %%#$$ t( O)#!(+.............12

[II.A.-] T&# '!i+%i'l# ( !#%i'!(%it" i$ ''li%)l# i+ t&# '!#$#+t %$#..................18

[II.A.2] T&#/i$t( &* iv#+ *v+%# +(ti%# (! t&# '!('($#* vi$it.......................18

3



4II./ /e"$e*m#" 7as o!%"a'e!e( #%s %"ea%6 o*#$a%#o!s )!(e" A"%#*e I o& %7e

O)%e" S-ae T"ea%6........................................................................................................15

[II.B.1] B#!#l/i! &$ vi(lt#* it$ ()liti(+ ,+*#! A!ti%l# I9 t( &(l* i+t#!+ti(+l

%(+$,ltti(+$ )#(!# %!!"i+ (,t it$ #x'#!i/#+t$...........................1:

[II.B.-] B#!#l/i! &$ vi(lt#* t&# ;*,# !#!*< '!i+%i'l# ( A!ti%l# I9 ( t&#

OST.......................................................................................................................1=

4II.C T7e "easo!s $#'e! 6 %7e "e+ o& Oe"o! %o "e&)se aess %o %7e "e+ o&

M#"a!(a +e"e )!+a""a!%e(.........................................................................................1>

[II.C.1] T&#!# i$ +( $%('# (! /ilit!" #x%&+# i+ O,t#! S'%#.........................1>

[II.C.-]T&# ,+t#$t#* *(%?i+ 3$ + ,+(,+*#* !#$(+......................................16

4II. /e"$e*m#" 7as '#o*a%e( %7e -"#!#-*es o& #!%e"!a%#o!a* oo-e"a%#o! )!(e" %7e

)s%oma"6 #!%e"!a%#o!a* *a+ a!( s-ae *a+............................................................-@

4III /ERGELMIR IS LIA/LE FOR FAILING TO MA9E REASONA/LE AN NECESSAR

EFFORTS TO RESCUE THE CREW OF MIRANA I: UNTIL IT WAS TOO LATE AN FOR THE

EATH OF ; MEM/ERS OF THAT

CREW............................................................................................21

4III.A /e"$e*m#" #s *#a*e as -e" %7e O)%e" S-ae T"ea%6 a!( %7e Re%)"!

A$"eeme!% ..................................................................................................................--[III.A.1] Mi!+* IV &* #+%(,+t#!#* + %%i*#+t...........................................-8[III.A.-] T&#!# 3$ $it,ti(+ ( #/#!#+%".....................................................-5[III.A.2] T&#!# 3$ *i$t!#$$................................................................................-:[III.A.8] B#!#l/i! 3$ i+ '($iti(+ t( #xt#+* $$i$t+%#.................................-:

4III./ /e"$e*m#" #s o*#$e( )!(e" %7e -"#!#-*e o& <(e'e*o- &"#e!(*6

"e*a%#o!s8......................................................................................................................-=

4I: THE CLAIMS AN ASSERTIONS MAE / /ERGELMIR ARE

UNTENA/LE......................->

4I:.A /e"$e*m#" 7as a--"oa7e( %7e Co)"% +#%7 )!*ea! 7a!(s..........................->[IV.A.1] B#!#l/i! &$ ),$#* it$ !i&t$...........................................................-6[IV.A.-] B#!#l/i! &$ %t#* %(+t!!" t( it$ *,t" t( +(t i+,!# t&# !i&t$ ( (t&#!

Stt#$.....................................................................................................................2@

[IV.A.2] B#!#l/i! &$ )!#%&#* t&# '!i+%i'l# ( G((* N#i&)(!li+#$$.............21

4



4I:./ /e"$e*m#"=s *a#ms a!( asse"%#o!s a$a#!s% T7em#s%o a"e )!%e!a*e #! %7e *#$7%

o& A"%#*e >0?2@?@ a!( >0?@ o& %7e La+ o& T"ea%#es..........................................22

4I:.C T7em#s%o a!!o% e 7e*( *#a*e )!(e" $e!e"a* #!%e"!a%#o!a* *a+...............2:

4I:.T7em#s%o a!!o% e 7e*( *#a*e )!(e" O)%e" S-ae T"ea%6 a!( L#a#*#%6

Co!'e!%#o!.................................................................................................................2=

SU/MISSIONS TO COURT...................................................................................8@

5



INDE- OF AUTHORITIES

CON:ENTIONS

• A!##/#+t G(v#!+i+ t&# A%tiviti#$ ( Stt#$ (+ t&# M((+ +* Ot&#! C#l#$til

B(*i#$ 12:2 U.N.T.S. 216=6.• A!##/#+t (+ t&# R#$%,# ( A$t!(+,t$ t&# R#t,!+ ( A$t!(+,t$ +* t&# R#t,!+ (

O)#%t$ L,+%&#* i+t( O,t#! S'%# :=- UNTS 116 16:>.• C&!t#! ( U+it#* Nti(+$ 1 UNTS 9VI 1685.

• C(+v#+ti(+ (+ I+t#!+ti(+l Li)ilit" (! D/# C,$#* )" S'%# O)#%t$ LC -8

U.S.T. -2>6 16=2.• C(+v#+ti(+ (+ R#i$t!ti(+ ( O)#%t$ L,+%&#* i+t( O,t#! S'%# 1@-2 U.N.T.S.

1516=5.• I+t#!+ti(+l C(v#++t (+ Civil +* P(liti%l Ri&t$ 666 UNTS 1=1 16=:.• T!#t" B++i+ N,%l#! #'(+ T#$t$ i+ t&# At/($'&#!# i+ O,t#! S'%# +* U+*#!

t#! M($%(3 5 A,,$t 16:2 U+it#* Nti(+$ T!#t" S#!i#$ V(l. 8>@ '. 82.•

T!#t" (+ P!i+%i'l#$ G(v#!+i+ t&# A%tiviti#$ ( Stt#$ i+ t&# Ex'l(!ti(+ +* U$# (

O,t#! S'%# I+%l,*i+ t&# M((+ +* Ot&#! B(*i#$ !t VI J+,!" -= 16:= 1>

U.S.T. -81@.• Vi#++ C(+v#+ti(+ (+ t&# L3 ( T!#ti#$ 1155 UNTS 221 16:6.

UNITE NATIONS R ESOLUTIONS AN OTHER OCUMENTS

•

R#'(!t ( t&# L#l S,)%(//itt## (+ t&# (!? ( it$ T&i!t"7Fi!$t S#$$i(+

C&i!/+$ t#xt P!i+%i'l#$ R#l#v+t t( t&# U$# ( N,%l#! P(3#! S(,!%#$ i+ O,t#!

S'%#< U.N. D(%,/#+t [email protected]> -2 J,+# 166-.• C(//#+t!i#$ t( t&# D!t A!ti%l#$ (+ R#$'(+$i)ilit" ( Stt#$ (! S## #+#!ll"

[16=5] - #!)((? ( ILC :@ U.N. D(%. ACN.8SER.A16=5A**.1 =:.V.8.• D!t A!ti%l#$ (+ R#$'(+$i)ilit" ( Stt#$ (! I+t#!+ti(+ll" !(+,l A%t$ i+ R#'(!t

( t&# I+t#!+ti(+l L3 C(//i$$i(+ (+ (!? ( it$ Fit"7T&i!* S#$$i(+ UN G#+#!l

6



A$$#/)l" Oi%il R#%(!*$ 5:t& $#$$i(+ S,''l#/#+t N( 1@ D#%#/)#! 1- -@@1 UN

D(%. A5:1@ ;ILC A!ti%l#$<.• G#+#!l A$$#/)l" R#$(l,ti(+ -665 99VII D#%#/)#! 15 16=- &tt'*%%#$$7**$7

+".,+.(!*(%RESOLUTIONGENNR@-=@-5IMGNR@-=@-5.'*O'#+El#/#+t.• P!i+%i'l#$ R#l#v+t t( t&# U$# ( N,%l#! P(3#! S(,!%#$ i+ O,t#! S'%# G.A. R#$.

8=:> U.N. GAOR 8=t& S#$$. >5t& 'l#+. /t. U.N. D(%. AR#$8=:> D#%. 18

166-.

INTERNATIONAL CASES AN AR/ITRAL ECISIONS

ICJ AN PCIJ ECISIONS

• A*/i$$i(+ C$# 168> ICJ R#'(!t$ =6 >@.• A*/i$$i(+ G#+#!l A$$#/)l" C$# 165@ ICJ R#'(!t$ 15.• A+l(7 N(!3#i+ Fi$&#!i#$ C$# ICJ R#'(!t$ 18- 1651.• A$"l,/ P#!, v. C(l(/)i 165@ ICJ R#'(!t$ -::.• C$# %(+%#!+i+ L#lit" ( T&!#t (! U$# ( N,%l#! #'(+$ 166: ICJ R#'(!t$

-6• C$# C(+%#!+i+ L#lit" ( U$# ( F(!%# ,($lvi v. B#li,/ 1666 ICJ

R#'(!t$ 1-8.• C$# C(+%#!+i+ Milit!" +* P!/ilit!" A%tiviti#$ i+ +* i+$t Ni%!,

Ni%!, v. U+it#* Stt#$ ( A/#!i% 16>: ICJ R#'(!t$ 18.• C$# C(+%#!+i+ Ri&t ( P$$# Ov#! I+*i+ T#!!it(!" P(!t,l v. I+*i 16:@

I.C.J. R#'(!t$ :.• C#!ti+ G#!/+ I+t#!#$t$ i+ P(li$& U''#! Sil#$i S#!i#$ A N(. =.• C&(!4(3 F%t(!" G#!/+" v. P(l+* 16-> PCIJ $#! A N( 1=.• C(!, C&++#l C$# U.K. v. Al)+i 1686 I.C.J.R#'(!t$ 8.

• El#%t!i%it" C(/'+" ( S(i C$# S#!i#$ AB N(. ==.

• Fi$&#!i#$ J,!i$*i%ti(+ UK v. I%#l+* ICJ R#'(!t$ 1 16=8.

• F!## (+#$ ( U''#! Sv(" +* t&# Di$t!i%t ( G#x S#!i#$ A N(.-8.• G)%i?(v(7N"/!($ P!(#%t H,+!" v. Sl(v?i 166= ICJ R#'(!t$ -.

7



• I+t#!+ti(+l C(//i$$i(+ (+ t&# Riv#! O*#! %$# PCIJ S#!i#$ A N(.-2 16-6.• Li)"Mlt C$# 16>5 ICJ R#'(!t$ 12.• N#3 #l+* v. F!+%# 16=8 ICJ R#'(!t$ 8=2 8>>.• N(!t& S# C(+ti+#+tl S&#l C$# 16:6 ICJ R#' 2.

• N,%l#! T#$t$ A,$t!li v F!+%# 16=8 ICJ R#'(!t$ -52.

• P(li$& P($tl S#!vi%# i+ D+4i A*vi$(!" O'i+i(+ P.C.I.J. $#!. B N(. 11 16-5.

• ,#$ti(+$ !#lti+ t( $#ttl#!$ ( G#!/+ O!ii+ i+ P(l+* A*vi$(!" O'i+i(+ PCIJ

S#!i#$ B. N(.: 16-2.• R#,#$t (! + Ex/i+ti(+ ( t&# Sit,ti(+ i+ A%%(!*+%# 3it& P!!'& :2 ( t&#

N,%l#! T#$t$ C$# ICJ R#'(!t$ ->> 1665.• R#$#!vti(+$ t( t&# C(+v#+ti(+ (+ t&# P!#v#+ti(+ +* P,+i$&/#+t ( t&# C!i/# (

G#+(%i*# A*vi$(!" O'i+i(+ 1651 ICJ R#'(!t$ 15.• Ri&t$ ( Nti(+l$ ( t&# USA i+ M(!(%%( 165- ICJ R#' 1=:.

• S(,t& #$t A!i% C$#$ Et&. v. S. A!. Li)#!. v. S. A!. I.C.J. 16:- 216 22:.

• T,+i$iLi)" C(+ti+#+tl S&#l C$# 16>- ICJ R#'(!t$ 1>.• U+it#* Stt#$ Di'l(/ti% +* C(+$,l! St i+ T#&!+ U+it#* Stt#$ ( A/#!i% v.

I!+ 16>@ ICJ R#'(!t$ 2.

OTHER CASES

• Ai! F!+%# v. S?$ 8=@ U.S. 26- 16>5.

• All#+ v. Fl((* [1>6>] AC 1=6.

• C!v#! v. U. S. 1: Ct. CI. 2:1.• D(+(&,# v. St#v#+$(+ 162- A.C. 5:-.• H(/# Mi$$i(+!" S(%i#t" U.S. v. U.K. : R. I+t0l A!). A3!*$ 8- 16-@.

• M$$#" C$# 16-= 8 RIAA 155.

• M(,l C(. v. M% G!#(! -2 BD 56>.

8



• Nti(+l P&(+(!'& C(. v. E*i$(+ B#ll [16@>] 1 C& 225.

• Ov#!$#$ T+?$&i' U.K. Lt*. v. Mill#! St#/$&i' C(. Pt". Lt*. 16:: 1 All E.R.

=@6.

• P#('l# v. V+ All#+ 55 N. . 21.

• ,i++ v. L#t&#/ 16@1 AC 51@.

• R()#!t$ Cli/ M#xi%(7US 16-: 8 RIAA ==.

• Slv*(! C(//#!%il C(/'+" C$# 16@- 15 RIAA 8=

• St#++#tt v. H(+(%? 1626 All ER 5=>.• T&# H#%t(! 5 U.S. 11@ 1>:@.• T&# Jv >1 U.S. 1>6 1>=1.• T,!#%/( M!iti/# I+%. v. ##?$ D!#*# N(. 51: >=- F. S,''. 1-151668.• U. S. v. M%?#+4i# 2@ F#*. C$. 11:@.• (,/+$ Cli/ US7M#xi%( 16-: 8 RIAA 11@.

• (,+ +* #)$t#! C$# 16>1 88 E,! C(,!t HR S#!. A 256.

• ,?(+ L,/)#! U.K. v. U.S. :R. I+t0l A!). A3!*$ 1= 1612.

TREATISES AN OTHER /OO9S

• BIN CHENG GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF LA AS APPLIED B I NTERNATIONAL

TRIBUNALS 1652.• BIN CHENG STUDIES I N I NTERNATIONAL SPACE LA 166=.

G. L. BENNETT J . A. SHOLTIS JR . AND B. C. R ASHKO U NITED NATIONS

DELIBERATIONS ON THE USE OF NUCLEAR POER SOURCES IN SPACE 16=> 716>=

16>6.• G. HUKOV . K OLOSOV I NTERNATIONAL SPACE LA 1@5 16>8.• GEORGE T. HACKET SPACE DEBRIS AND THE CORPUS JURIS SPATIALIS 1668.• H. LAUTERPACHT DEVELOPMENT OF I NTERNATIONAL LA B THE I NTERNATIONAL

COURT 165>.

9



• K ARL GROSSMAN THE RONG STUFF THE SPACE PROGRAMS NUCLEAR THREAT TO

OUR PLANET 166=.• LAUTERPACHT I NTERNATIONAL LA A TREATISE B L. OPPENHEIM 58@ 1665 .• NANDASIRI JASENTULIANA I NTERNATIONAL SPACE LA AND THE U NITED NATIONS

1666.• OSCAR SHACHTER I NTERNATIONAL LA I N THEOR A ND PRACTICE 58 1661.• P. VAN FENEMA THE 16=- CONVENTION ON I NTERNATIONAL LIABILIT FOR DAMAGE

CAUSED B SPACE OBJECTS 22 16=2.• T. J. LARENCE THE PRINCIPLES OF I NTERNATIONAL LA 1615.• V.P.NANDA I NTERNATIONAL E NVIRONMENTAL LA AND POLIC1665.

JOURNAL ARTICLES

• Al*( A. C(%%. ; Prospective Space Law< 1 J. SPACE L. 51 16>>.

• Bi+ C&#+ Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space

Objects, I MANUAL O N SPACE L. 12- 16=6.• C&!i$t('&#! D. illi/$ Space: !e Cluttered "rontier :@ JOURNAL OF AIR LA

COMMERCE 1126 1665.• D#/)li+ Cosmos #$% and t!e Space reaties, : J SPACE L. 12-16=>.• D((littl# &an in Space: !e 'escue and 'eturn of Downed (stronauts 6 AFJAG L.

R EV. 5 16:=.• F.K#++#t& S%&3#t# Space Law: Considerations for Space Planners 1- R UTGERS

COMPUTER TECH. L.J. -85 16>=.

• F!it$ Kl$&(v#+ )elligerent 'eprisals -8 16=1 R##!#+%i+ L(,i$ L# F,! D#$

R#'!#$il7 L#$ E+ T#/'$ D# G,#!!# 1616.

• G *us Cogens )eyond t!e +ienna Convention 16>1 H,# A%*#/" (

I+t#!+ti(+l L3 R#%,#il *#$ C(,!$ 1=-

• G#(!# S. R()i+$(+ -Proposed. reaty /overning Social Order Of Long0Duration

Or Permanent In!abitants Of 1ear (nd Deep Space, (stronauts (nd ( 2ni3ue

10



*urisprudence: ( reaty "or Space4ind = HASTINGS INTL COMP. L. REV. 8>2

16>2716>8.

• G(l*i# ( /eneral +iew of International 5nvironmental Law, ACADMIE DE DROIT

I NTERNATIONAL DE LA HAE COLLOUE :> 16=2.• G(!(v# Cosmos #$%: Issues of Law and Policy, : J. SPACE L. 18- 16=>.

• G",l GQl Some 'emar4s to /eneral Clauses of reaty Space Law PROC. 8:TH COLL.

L. OUTER SP. -@@2.

• H..A T&i!l3" 6'eciprocity in t!e *urisdiction of t!e International Court7 16>8

15 NIL 6=.

• H+''#l Some Observations on t!e Cras! of Cosmos #$%, :J. SPACE L.18=16=>.

• H+$ #&)#! Pacta Sunt Servanda 52 AMERICAN JOURNAL OF I NTERNATIONAL

LA ==5 1656 J($# L. K,+4 !e &eaning and !e 'ange of !e 1orm Pacta

Sunt Servanda 26 AMERICAN JOURNAL OF I NTERNATIONAL LA 1>@ 1685.

• H+$ #&)#! Pacta Sunt Servanda 52 AMERICAN JOURNAL OF I NTERNATIONAL

LA ==5 1656.

• H# ix&i Ni%(l$ M. Mtt# 5vironmental Implications and 'esponsibilities in t!e

2se of Outer Space 18 A NNALS OF AIR SPACE LA 816 8-> 16>6.

• H,/+ S'%# Fli&t R#,i!#/#+t$ (! C!#3 +* S'%# Fli&t P!ti%i'+t$ =1 F#*.

R#. =5:1: =5:-8 D#%. 15 -@@:.

Iv+ Vl$i% !e Space reaty: ( Preliminary 5valuation 1 CAL. L. R EV. 5@ 16:=.

• Iv+. A. Vl$i% 6Space reaty: ( Preliminary 5valuation7 CALIFORNIA LA

REVIE 55 - > 16:=.

•

J. F. M%M&(+ “ Legal (spects Of Outer Space:'ecent Developments7 16:=.

11



• J. ,l A!/$ C(+t!(l7O,t#! S'%# - J. SPACE L. := 16>2.• J.E.R#* !e rail Smelter (rbitration, 1 CANADIAN EARBOOK OF I NTERNATIONAL

LA -12 16:2.• J%() i$$, (stroregs: !e 8'ules of t!e 'oads9 in Outer Space 8: I.I.S.L.PROC.28@

281 -@@2.• J/#$ R. C!3(!* !e 5arl ( Sydner Lecture in International Law: 'esponsibility

to t!e International Community as a !ole > I ND. J. GLOBAL LEGAL STUD. 2@2

-@@1.• J" Gi+$),! !e ;ig! "rontier: ort Claims and Liability for Damages Caused by

&an0&ade Space Objects 1- SUFFOLK TRANSNATIONAL LA JOURNAL 51516>6.

• J(%&#+ P#i#! International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects 2@ GER .

J. AIR SPACE L.-15 -2@ 16>1.• J($# L. K,+4 !e &eaning and !e 'ange of !e 1orm Pacta Sunt Servanda 26

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF I NTERNATIONAL LA 1>@ 1685.• J($# L. K,+4 !e 1ature of Customary Law, 8= AMERICAN JOURNAL OF

I NTERNATIONAL LA ::- 1652.• J($#'& A. B($%( International Law 'egarding Outer Space0(n Overview 55

JOURNAL OF AIR LA COMMERCE :@6 166@.• K#l$(+ State 'esponsibility and t!e (bnormally Dangerous (ctivity 12 HARVARD

I NTERNATIONAL LA JOURNAL 16= 16=-.• L## (greement on t!e 'escue of (stronauts, t!e 'eturn of (stronauts and t!e 'eturn

of Objects Launc!ed into Outer Space, I MANUAL O N SPACE L. =- 16=6.• M(! C&!l#$ A. Ri%%i( J!. (not!er step for man4ind0 t!e agreement on t!e rescue

of astronauts and t!e return of objects launc!ed into outer space, 1- U.S.A.F. JAG L.

R EV. 18- 16=@.

Mli? Liability for Damages Caused by Space (ctivities : IJIL 28516::.• M!% S. Fi!#$t(+# Problems in t!e 'esolution of Dispute concerning Damage Caused

in Outer Space, 56 TUL. L. R EV. =8= 16>5.• N+*$i!i J$#+t,li"+ International Space Law and !e 2nited 1ations, K LUER

LA I NTERNATIONAL 16- 1666.• O. S%&%&t#! 'ecent rends in International Law0&a4ing 1- AUSTRALIAN

EARBOOK I NTERNATIONAL LA 166-.

12



• P,l G. D#/)li+ +* D+i#l M. A!(+$ !e reaty on 'escue and 'eturn of

(stronauts and Space Objects, 6 ILLIAM A ND MAR LA R EVIE :2@ 16:>.• Pi$ill(7M44#$%&i !e Due Diligence 'ule and t!e 1ature of t!e International

'esponsibility of States, 25 /erman <earboo4 of International Law -- 166-.• R. C. Hll 'escue and 'eturn of (stronauts on 5art! and in Outer Space :2

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF I NTERNATIONAL LA 16= 16:6.• R.Ki!i$ ec!nological C!allenge of t!e S!ared 5nvironment: 2S Practice, ::

A/#!i%+ J(,!+l ( I+t#!+ti(+l L3 -61 16=8.• R#)#%% M!ti+ Legal 'amifications of t!e 2ncontrolled 'eturn of Space Objects to

5art!, 85 JOURNAL OF AIR LA AND COMMERCE 8:1 16>1.

• R()#!t Ax#l!(* !e 5volution Of Cooperation 16>8.

• S%&3!t4 B#!li+ (fter t!e "all: (n (nalysis of !e Canadian Claim for Damage

Caused by Cosmos #$%, -= MCGILL L.J. =@= 16>-.• S'#!*,ti 'esponsibility of States for (ctivities of Private Law Persons, 1@ EPIL

2=216>=.• St#'&#+ G(!(v# !e 'ecovery and 'eturn of Objects Launc!ed into Outer Spac# , 8

I NTERNATIONAL LAER :>: 16=@.

" "oster, !e Convention on International Liability for Damages Caused by Space

Objects, 1@ C+*i+ #!)((? ( I+t#!+ti(+l L3 1:@ 16=-.

• "+# &it# Proposal for a &ultilateral reaty 'egarding *urisdiction and 'eal

Property 'ig!ts in Outer Space, -@@1

&tt'333.$'%#,t,!#.%(/!%&iv#'!('($l(!/,ltilt#!lt!#t"!#!*i+,

!i$*i%ti(++*!#l'!('#!t"!i&t$i+(,t#!$'%#.$&t/l l$t ,'*t#* F#)!,!"

-@@1.

• #*li$ R#x Ct&#!i+# L. *# (nti Satellite eapons and t!e Outer Space reaty

of =#>? > CAL. . INTL L. J. 85= 85> 16=>.

M#se**a!eo)s

13



• B() P!#$t(+ +* J(&+ B?#! ;S'%# C&ll#+#$< St,*" ( t&# RAND C(!'(!ti(+

18 M" -@@- (+li+# RAND &tt'333.!+*.(!',)li%ti(+$MRMRl218 t 188

[P!#$t(+ +* B?#!].

• C(//#!%il S'%# T!+$'(!tti(+ Li%#+$i+ R#,lti(+$ 52 F#*. R#. 11@@8

16>>.• D#'t ( E+#!" Oi%# ( S'%# +* D#. P(3#! S"$. 'adioisotope Power Systems,

'adioisotope ;eater 2nits, available at &tt'333.+#.*(#.(v$'%# !&,7%t.&t/l

l$t /(*ii#* J,+# : -@@8.• H(!i4(+tl L,+%&7 A V#!$til# C(+%#'t (! $$,!#* $'%# %%#$$ R#'(!t ( t&#

NASA DARPA H(!i4(+tl L,+%& St,*" NASA SP -@117-15668.• &tt'$t,!+.'l.+$.(v$'%#%!t$#t"!&,.'* .

• &tt'333.&i$t(!".+$.(v!#'(!t5>.&t/l.

• &tt'333.+$.(v,*i#+%#(!$t,*#+t$57>#t,!#$3&t7i$7(!)it7

5>.&t/l.VD:DP/S3%6.

• &tt'333.+$.(v/i$$i(+'#$$tti(+/i+(+t&#$tti(+%t$+*i,!#$.&t/l.

• &tt'333.,+.(!#+#v#+t$t#+$t(!i#$@>$'%#*#)!i$.$&t/l.

• &tt'$$(l!$"$t#/.+$.(v!'$!&,.

• I+t#!+ti(+l C(+v#+ti(+ (+ M!iti/# S#!%& +* R#$%,# A'!. -= 16=6

I+t#!+ti(+l C(+v#+ti(+ (! t&# S#t" ( Li# t S# N(v. 1 16=8 available at

&tt'333.i/(.(!.

• ISSA IDR +(. 1 R##!#+%# G,i*# M!%& -6 1665 !(/

&tt'v#$,vi,$.$%.+$.(v#!$#&t*6=@-.'* .

• NASA C&!t#! P,). L. N(. 111218 1-8 Stt. 22-> -@1@.

14

http://www.ne.doe.gov/space/

http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/spacecraft/safety/rhu.pdf


http://www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/5-8/features/what-is-orbit-%2058.html#.VD6DfPmSwc9


https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/rps/rhu

http://vesuvius.jsc.nasa.gov/er/seh/td9702.pdf




https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/rps/rhu

http://vesuvius.jsc.nasa.gov/er/seh/td9702.pdf

http://www.ne.doe.gov/space/



• NASA S'%#li+? S'%# N,%l#! P(3#! S"$t#/$ A%%i*#+t$ S#'t. 16 16>6

vil)l# t

&tt'$'%#li+?.+$.(v NASAP!(#%t$H,/+.Ex'l(!ti(+.+*.D#v#l('/#+t.(.S'

%#H,/+. S'%#. Fli&t S&,ttl#S&,ttl#.Mi$$i(+$Fli&[email protected]

28Gil#($.P(3#!.S,''l"S'%#. N,%l#!.P(3#!.S"$t#/.A%%i*#+t$ [&#!#i+t#! SNP

A%%i*#+t$].

• orbitaldebrisjscnasagov@fa3s!tml

• R*iti(+ P!(t#%ti(+ G,i*#$ +* C(+$t!i+t$ (! S'%#7Mi$$i(+ +* V#&i%l#7D#$i+

St,*i#$ I+v(lvi+ N,%l#! S"$t#/$ S'%# St,*i#$ B(!* Divi$i(+ (+ E+i+##!i++* P&"$i%l S%i#+%#$ Nti(+l A%*#/i#$ P!#$$ 157J+716=@ S%i#+%#.

• Ri%&!* R. F,!l(+ E!l J. &l,i$t 2S Space &issions 2sing 'adioisotope

Power Systems, NUCLEAR NES A'!. 1666 t -= available at

&tt'333-.+$.(!',)$/4i+#$++'*$1666787-.'* .• R(#! B(,!?# M!$ 6: Fil,!# +* At#!/t& A'!. 2@ 166= t &tt'/!$

'!(!/.'l.+$.(vMPF/!ti+%&!(+i%l#/!ti+%&!(+> /!$6:.&t/l.• S'#%il C(//itt## (+ S'%# T#%&+(l(" R#'(!t 165> Special Committee on Space

ec!nology, A'ecommendations to t!e 1(S( 'egarding ( 1ational Civil Space

Program,A October B, =#$ available in 1(S( ;istorical 'eference Collection,

;istory Office, 1(S( ;ead3uarters, as!ington

• St#v#+ At#!((* B%?!(,+* (+ S'%# N,%l#! P(3#! 1 SCI. GLOBAL

SECURIT 62 1@87@: 16>6 vil)l# t &tt'333.'!i+%#t(+.#*,7

l()$#%',)li%ti(+$'*l1l7-At#!((*.'* .• T&# NASA A%t ( 165> , P,). L. N(. >575:> =- Stt. 8-: 8- U.S.C. 16>>.

• U.S. C($t G,!* S#!%& +* R#$%,# M+,l vil)l# t &tt'333.,$%./il.

• U.S. C(+!#$$ Oi%# ( T#%&+(l(i%l A$$#$$/#+t Orbiting Debris, ( Space

5nvironmental Problem 0 )ac4ground Paper 2 $&i+t(+ D.C. U.S. G(v#!+/#+t

P!i+ti+ Oi%# 166@.

15

http://spacelink.nasa.gov/

http://www2.ans.org/pubs/magazines/nn/pdfs/1999-4-2.pdf

http://mars/

http://www.princeton.edu/-globsec/publications/pdf/l1l-2Aftergood.pdf


http://spacelink.nasa.gov/

http://www2.ans.org/pubs/magazines/nn/pdfs/1999-4-2.pdf

http://mars/





• U.S. E+vtl. P!(t. A#+%" 'adiation Protection, /amma 'ays, at

&tt'333.#'.(v!*iti(+,+*#!$t+*//.&t/ l$t /(*ii#* D#%. 2-@@- (!

#+#!l i+(!/ti(+ )(,t // !"$. www!3nasagov@office@!3library@documents@oE#=EEE .pdf .

STATEMENT OF FACTS

1. T&# P!i+%i'lit" ( T&#/i$t( i$ t#%&+(l(i%ll" *v+%#* %(,+t!" 3it& (+# ( t&# l!#$t

#%(+(/i#$ /(! /!iti/# +* viti(+ t!+$'(!t &,) t&!ivi+ %#+t!# ( i+t#!+ti(+l

),$i+#$$ +* t&# (,+*i+ /#/)#! ( t&# UN. T&# R#',)li% ( B#!#l/i! i$ (+# ( t&#

3(!l*0$ /($t '(',l(,$ %(,+t!i#$ %(+ti+#+tl $tt# 3it& %#+t!li4#* +* $tt#7*i!#%t#*

#%(+(/" +* t&# (,+*i+ /#/)#! ( t&# UN. T&#/i$t( +* B#!#l/i! (,&t (+ (''($i+

$i*#$ i+ t&# T&i!* Atl+ti% ! i+ t&# 16=@$. Si+%# t&#+ #%(+(/i% !ivl!" )#t3##+ t&#$#

Stt#$ &$ i+%!#$#*. I+ '!ti%,l! )(t& &v# )#%(/# !ivl$ i+ t&# $'%# $#%t(! %(/'#ti+ i+

i+v#$t/#+t$ i+ t&# *#v#l('/#+t ( $'%#%!t.

-. I+ -@18 T&#/i$t( %(+$t!,%t#* + (!)itl $'%# $tti(+ ;alimede, +( /(!# t&+ !#$#!%&

%ilit" 3it& - &)itti(+ /(*,l#$ 2 $%i#+tii% l)(!t(!i#$ (,! $(l! '+#l$ +

#x'#!i/#+tl $7%((l#* +,%l#! i$$i(+7!#%t(! ( (+# /#3tt +* %'%it" ( #i&t

'#('l#. M(*,l#$ 3#!# l,+%&#* )" &iranda III 5L+ ),ilt )" B,!t(+ A#!($'%# D##+$# C(.

,+*#! %(+t!%t !(/ t&# S'%# Ex'l(!ti(+ A,t&(!it" ( T&#/i$t( ;SEAT<.

16

http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/hqlibrary/documents/o39138383.pdf





2. I+ -@1: B#!#l/i! %(+$t!,%t#* it$ (!)itl $'%# $tti(+ Oberon !#$#!%& %ilit"

%(+$t!,%ti(+ +* $ti+ 'lt(!/ 3it& t3( l)(!t(!" t&!## &)itti(+ +* t&!## #+i+##!i+

/(*,l#$ l!# ,#l '(* 3it& %'%it" ( #i&t##+ '#('l# 3it& /i+i/,/ ( t#+. H#ti+ (

$(/# %(/'(+#+t$ i$ $,''li#* )" !*i(7i$(t('i% &#t#! ,+it$ %(+ti+i+ Pt7-2>. T&# /(*,l#$

3#!# l,+%&#* )" RLV Setebos +* 1ereid ),ilt )" B#!#l/i! S'%# A#+%" ;BSA< t&#

(v#!+/#+tl ,t&(!it" (! %ivili+ $'%# #x'l(!ti(+. T&# $'%# '!(!/ i+ B#!#l/i! 3$

l($i+ $,''(!t )(t& i+ t&# ',)li% +* l#i$lt,!#. I+ M!%& -@1> BSA i+t!(*,%#* ;R#$#!%&

(! t&# St!$< %(+t#$t i+ 3&i%& ,+iv#!$it" &* t( $,)/it '!('($l$ (! $'%#7!#lt#* !#$#!%&

+* t3( !#$#!%&#!$ %(,l* (i+ t&# %!#3 ( Oberon t( %(+*,%t t&# #x'#!i/#+t. A '!('($l t(

!#$#!%& t&# ##%t$ ( /i%!(!vit" (+ !(3t& +* !#'!(*,%ti(+ ( )%t#!i 5sc!eric!ia0coli

+* Salmonella0typ!imurium 3$ $,%%#$$,l.

8. O+ -88-@16 Setebos 3$ l,+%&#* 3it& D!. H,+t#! +* D!. R#*&(!+. T&#" )!(,&t vi*#(7

!#%(!*#!. T&#" 3#!# t(l* t&t t&# l!#$t /(*,l# ;FOM72< 3$ ( li/it$. O+l" t&!## (,t (

t#+ '#!$(++#l (+ Oberon &* %%#$$ t( FOM72 +* t&#" !#,$#* t( %(/# (+ vi*#( (! t(

%(+v#!$# 3it& D!. H,+t#! (! R#*&(!+. O+ 25-@16 D!. R#*&(!+ #+t#!#* FOM72 3it&(,t

'#!/i$$i(+ +* %'t,!#* i/#$ ( t&# $#t,' #,i'/#+t +* *(%,/#+t$. Hi$ '!#$#+%# 3$

*#t#%t#* +* C't. G#(!# A+*#!$(+ %(+i$%t#* t&# vi*#( %/#! +* t!+$#!!#* D!.R#*&(!+ t( t&# Setebos. A t!+$/itt#! $#+t t&# %'t,!#* vi*#( +* i/#$ t( D!. R#*&(!+0$

l't('. O+ t&#i! !#t,!+ R#*&(!+ )$%(+*#* t( t&# E/)$$" ( T&#/i$t( 3&i%& $#+t &i/ t(

T&#/i$t( +* !+t#* '(liti%l $"l,/ 3&#!# &# 'l%#* (+ i+t#!+#t t&# vi*#( +* i/#$

t&t $&(3#* t&t t&# FOM72 /(*,l# 3$ t#$ti+ %ilit" (! $/ll7$%l# t#$ti+ ( ?i+#ti%

i/'%t$ i+ /i%!(!vit" t( *#v#l(' /#t&(*$ (! !#*,%i+ i/'%t ( *#)!i$ i+ $'%# t( )#

i+%(!'(!t#* i+t( t&# *#$i+ ( +ti7$t#llit# 3#'(+$.

$ O+ --11-@16 t&# G!+* C&+%#ll(! ( T&#/i$t( $#+t l#tt#! t( t&# P!#$i*#+t ( B#!#l/i!

%('" ( 3&i%& 3$ $#+t t( t&# S#%!#t!"7G#+#!l ( UN +* t( /#/)#!$ ( t&# UNCOPOUS

proposing a visit by t!e crew of t!e neFt &iranda0I+ mission, in early *anuary BGBG, to

Oberon O+ -1-@-@ *" )#(!# Mi!+*7IV 3$ *,# t( l,+%& B#!#l/i! *#+i#* t&#i!

!#,#$t $"i+ t!at repairs are being carried out on0board !ence it9s not safe "urt!er, as a

majority of t!e announced crew of t!at &iranda0I+ mission are serving military personnel of

!emisto t!erefore visit to Oberon be arranged wit! a different crew, later

17



:. O+ 21-@-@ Mi!+*7IV 3&i%& 3$ l,+%&#* +* *" lt#! ''!(%&#* O)#!(+ ),t 3$

!#,$#* '#!/i$$i(+ t( *(%? (+ t&# )$i$ t&t t&# ,+t#$t#* %(,'li+ ( t&#i! !#$'#%tiv# *(%?i+

$"$t#/$ '($#* + ,+%%#'t)l# !i$? t( )(t& %!#3$. &#+ t&# %!#3 ( Mi!+*7IV (#!#* t(

#+t#! )" #xt!7v#&i%,l! ;$'%#3l?< '#!/i$$i(+ 3$ i+ !#,$#* ),t +( !#$(+ 3$ iv#+.

O+ 1:1 -@-@ t&# G!+* C&+%#ll(! ( T&#/i$t( $#+t l#tt#! ( '!(t#$t t( t&# P!#$i*#+t (

B#!#l/i! 3it& %('" t( S#%!#t!"7G#+#!l ( UN +* /#/)#!$ ( UNCOPOUS.

=. O+ 82-@-@ 3&t 3$ )#li#v#* t( )# 'i#%# ( (!)itl7*#)!i$ ( ,+?+(3+ (!ii+ !,'t,!#*

t&# $7%((l+t t+? ( t&# +,%l#! !#%t(! ( Hli/#*#. D#$'#!t# tt#/'t$ 3#!# /*# t(

!#'i! it ),t t&# l($$ i+ %((l+t 3$ t(( !#t +* #v#+t,ll" (!*#! 3$ iv#+ t( )+*(+

Hli/#*# +* #$%'# i+ Mi!+*7IV. F(,! &(,!$ lt#! t&# +,%l#! !#%t(! #x'l(*#* +*

*#)!i$ !(/ it */#* t&# !#7#+t!" &#t $&i#l* ( &iranda0I+ +* (+# ( t&# $(l! '+#l$ ( Oberon. O+# ( t&# &)itti(+ /(*,l#$ ( ;alimede )!(?# ( +* t3( 3##?$ lt#! !#7

#+t#!#* t&# t/($'&#!# +* *#$t!("#* (,!t##+ &(/#$ $ix /(t(!7v#&i%l#$ +* t&!## %t(!i#$

i+ B#!#l/i! ?illi+ +i+#t##+ '#('l# +* i+,!i+ t3#+t"7iv#.

>. U+)l# t( !#t,!+ t( E!t& t&# %!#3 ( &iranda0I+ ''!(%&#* Oberon t( $##? !#,# $i+%#

+(t&#! &iranda0I+ 3(,l*+0t )# !#*" )#(!# 62-@-@ 3&i%& 3(,l* )# )#"(+* t&# li#

$,''(!t $,''li#$ ( &iranda0I+ . D#$'it# ?+(3i+ t&# #/#!#+%" C't. A+*#!$(+ !#,$#*

'#!/i$$i(+ (! &iranda0I+ t( *(%? 3it& Oberon (! t( t!+$#! t&#/ t( O)#!(+ i+ +*

i+. T&i$ !#,$l 3$ i!/#* )" !(,+*7%(+t!(l t BSA ivi+ #x'li%it (!*#!$ +(t t(

ll(3 t&#/ i+$i*# Oberon.

6. Lt# (+ >2-@-@ 3&#+ *i$t!#$$ %ll$ %#$#* +* %ll$ !(/ Oberon went ,++$3#!#* C't.

A+*#!$(+ $(,&t '#!/i$$i(+ !(/ BSA t( !#$%,# t&# %!#3 3&i%& 3$ *#+i#*. C't. A+*#!$(+

+* /(!it" ( &i$ %!#3 *i$()#"#* t&# (!*#! +* *(%?#* Oberon 3it& &iranda0I+, ),t

*#$'it# t&#i! )#$t #(!t$ (,! (,t ( $ix *i#*. O+ !#t,!+ t( E!t& C't. A+*#!$(+ +* t&($# ( t&# %!#3 t&t (i+#* &i/ i+ !#$%,i+ t&# %!#3 ( &iranda0I+ 3#!# !!#$t#* %&!#* 3it&

%!i/#$ !+i+ !(/ *i$()#*i#+%# ( *i!#%t (!*#! t( %ti+ i+$t +ti(+l $#%,!it" +*

$tt# i+t#!#$t$ t!i#* )" %(,!t$ /!til %(+vi%t#* +* $#+t#+%#* t( i/'!i$(+/#+t !(/ t&!## t(

t#+ "#!$.

1@. At#! "#!$ ( ili+ t( !#$(lv# t&# *i$',t#$ B#!#l/i! +* T&#/i$t( &v# !##* t( !##! t&#

*i$',t# t( t&# ICJ.

18



UESTIONS PRESENTED

I. &#t&#! B#!#l/i! %t#* ,+l3,ll" i+ t&# %(+*,%t ( /ilit!" !#$#!%& +* ,$# (

(,t#! $'%#II. &#t&#! B#!#l/i! %t#* ,+l3,ll" i+ !#,$i+ %%#$$ )" t&# %!#3 ( &iranda I+ t(

Oberon i+ J+,!" -@-@III. &#t&#! B#!#l/i! i$ li)l# (! ili+ t( /?# !#$(+)l# +* +#%#$$!" #(!t$ t(

!#$%,# t&# %!#3 ( &iranda I+ ,+til it 3$ t(( lt# +* (! t&# *#t& ( (,! 8

/#/)#!$ ( t&t %!#3I+. &#t&#! t&# %li/$ +* $$#!ti(+$ /*# )" B#!#l/i! !# ,+t#+)l#

19



STATEMENT OF JURISICTION

T&# P!i+%i'lit" ( T&#/i$t( +* t&# R#',)li% ( B#!#l/i! &v# !##* t( $,)/it t&i$

*i$',t# t( t&# I+t#!+ti(+l C(,!t ( J,$ti%# ',!$,+t t( S'#%il A!##/#+t C(/'!(/i$

*t#* M" - -@-2.

T&i$ C(,!t0$ ,!i$*i%ti(+ i$ i+v(?#* ,+*#! A!ti%l# 2:1 !#* 3it& A!ti%l# 8@1 ( t&# Stt,t#

( t&# I+t#!+ti(+l C(,!t ( J,$ti%# 165@. I+ %%(!*+%# 3it& A!ti%l# 2: t&# ,!i$*i%ti(+ (

t&# C(,!t %(/'!i$#$ ll %$#$ t&t t&# '!ti#$ !##! t( it. T&# P!ti#$ $&ll %%#'t +" J,*/#+t

( t&# C(,!t $ i+l +* )i+*i+ ,'(+ t&#/ +* $&ll #x#%,t# it i+ it$ #+ti!#t" +* i+ ((*

it&.

20



SUMMAR OF PLEAINGS

I. /e"$e*m#" a%e( )!*a+&)**6 #! %7e o!()% o& m#*#%a"6 "esea"7 a!( )se o&

o)%e" s-ae.

T&# ,$# ( ASAT 3#'(+$ &$ )##+ %(+*#/+#* i+ %%(!*+%# 3it& t&# ()#%tiv#

( t&# O,t#! S'%# T!#t" OST +* UN C&!t#! i.#. '#%#,l #x'l(!ti(+ (

(,t#! $'%# )" +ti(+$. F,!t&#! t&# 3i*# $'!#* */# %,$#* )" ASAT 3#'(+$

$t+*$ i+ %l#! vi(lti(+ A!ti%l# IV ( t&# OST.

II. /e"$e*m#" a%e( )!*a+&)**6 #! "e&)s#!$ aess %o %7e "e+ o& M#"a!(aBI: %o

Oe"o!.

All $'%# i+$tllti(+$ i+ t&# (,t#! $'%# $&(,l* )# /+*t(!il" /*# %%#$$i)l# t(

(t&#! +ti(+$ i t&# !#,i$it#$ ( !#%i'!(%it" +* *v+%# +(ti%# !# $ti$i#* $ '#!

A!ti%l# 9II ( OST. I+ t&# li&t ( %(+%#!+ t&t ASAT #x'#!i/#+t$ /" %,$#

&!/,l i+t#!#!#+%# %(+$,ltti(+ 3$ !#,#$t#* $ '#! A!ti%l# I9 ( t&# OST.

21



III. /e"$e*m#" #s *#a*e &o" &a#*#!$ %o mae "easo!a*e a!( !eessa"6 e&&o"%s %o

"es)e %7e "e+ o& M#"a!(a I: )!%#* #% +as %oo *a%e a!( &o" %7e (ea%7 o& ;

meme"s o& %7a% "e+.

All t&# !#,i$it#$ ( A!ti%l# 2 +* A!ti%l# 8 ( t&# R#$%,# A!##/#+t !# $ti$i#*

i.#. $it,ti(+ ( %%i*#+t *i$t!#$$ #/#!#+%" +* !#,i$it# !#$(,!%#$ 3it& t&#

(#+*i+ $tt#. A!ti%l# I +* A!ti%l# V ( t&# OST 3ill l$( )# ''li%)l# $

$t!(+,t$ !# !#!*#* '!(t#%ti(+ $ #+v("$ ( /+?i+*.

I:. T7e *a#ms a!( asse"%#o!s ma(e 6 /e"$e*m#" a"e )!%e!a*e.

Si+%# B#!#l/i! %(+ti+,#$ )#i+ t&# !#$$(! ( t&# %l/it" (! 3&i%& it $##?$

%(/'#+$ti(+ it &$ +(t ''!(%&#* t&# C(,!t 3it& %l#+ &+*$. Al$( v!i(,$

!#,i$it#$ (! %li/i+ %(/'#+$ti(+ $ '#! Li)ilit" C(+v#+ti(+ !# +(t $ti$i#*

22



PLEAINGS

I. /e"$e*m#" a%e( )!*a+&)**6 #! %7e o!()% o& m#*#%a"6 "esea"7 a!( )se o& o)%e" s-aeD

I.A. /e"$e*m#" a%e( )!*a+&)**6 #! %7e o!()% o& m#*#%a"6 "esea"7D

T&# #x'l(!ti(+ ( (,t#! $'%# &$ )##+ &#l* t( )# l3,l (+l" (! '#%#,l ',!'($#$ 3&i%&

i$ ?+(3+ $ %ivili+ $'%# #x'l(!ti(+ i+ %(//(+ '!l+%#. Si+%# B#!#l/i! i$ ,$i+ it$

$'%# $tti(+ O)#!(+ (! *#v#l('/#+t ( t#%&+(l(" (! ASAT 3#'(+$ it i$ i+*,li+ i+

,!t&#!+%# ( /#+$ t( %(+*,%t /ilit!" )$#* tt%?$ i+ (,t#! $'%#. S,%& ,$# ( (,t#! $'%#

$&(,l* )# &i&l" %(+*#/+#* i+ li&t ( ',!'($# ( O,t#! S'%# T!#t"1 i.#. '!(!#$$ i+

#x'l(!ti(+ ( (,t#! $'%# (! '#%#,l ',!'($#$

I.A./. MILITARY RESEARCH IS PROHIBITED IN OUTER SPACE,

T&# U+it#* Nti(+$ &$ i+ it$ t!#t" )++i+ +,%l#! 3#'(+ t#$t$ i+ t&# t/($'&#!#- %l#!l"

i+*i%t#* t&# '!#v#+ti(+ ( + !/$ !%# i+ (,t#! $'%#. 2 A!ti%l# IV ( t&# OST8 '!(&i)it$

$tt#$ !(/ 'l%i+ +" ?i+* ( 3#'(+$ ( /$$ *#$t!,%ti(+ (! $tti(+i+ $,%& 3#'(+$ i+(,t#! $'%# i+ +" (t&#! /++#!.

S,%& !#%(+iti(+ ( %(+*#/+ti(+ ( /ilit!" %tiviti#$ i+ t&# (,t#! $'%# %+ )# #vi*#+%#*

i+ t&# l#*i+ $'%# #x'l(!ti(+ '!(!//#$ ( t&# 3(!l*. T&# 165> Nti(+l A#!(+,ti%$

+* S'%# A%t $'#%ii#* t&t /ilit!" $'%# %tiviti#$5 )# %(+*,%t#*: )" t&# D#'!t/#+t (

1T!#t" (+ P!i+%i'l#$ G(v#!+i+ t&# A%tiviti#$ ( Stt#$ i+ t&# Ex'l(!ti(+ +* U$# ( O,t#!S'%# I+%l,*i+ t&# M((+ +* Ot&#! B(*i#$ J+. -= 16:= 1> U.S.T. -81@.

2T!#t" B++i+ N,%l#! #'(+ T#$t$ i+ t&# At/($'&#!# i+ O,t#! S'%# +* U+*#! t#!M($%(3 5 A,. 16:2 U+it#* Nti(+$ T!#t" S#!i#$ 8>@ 82.

3OST supra +(t# 1.

4OST supra +(t# 1 !t. IV.

1



D##+$# DOD= +* %ivili+ (v#!+/#+tl $'%# '!(!/$> )" NASA.6 NASA 3$ iv#+

!#$'(+$i)ilit" (! ll #!(+,ti%l +* $'%# %tiviti#$ ( t&# U+it#* Stt#$ ;#x%#'t t&t

%tiviti#$ '#%,li! t( (! '!i/!il" $$(%it#* 3it& t&# *#v#l('/#+t ( 3#'(+$ $"$t#/$

/ilit!" ('#!ti(+$ (! t&# *##+$# ( t&# U+it#* Stt#$ 3&i%& !#/i+#* t&# !#$'(+$i)ilit" (

t&# D#'!t/#+t ( D##+$#.

T&,$ $ %+ )# $##+ %l#!l" +ti(+l %ivil $'%# '!(!/ 1@ &$ t&# (ll(3i+ #+#!l

()#%tiv#$711 $%i#+tii% !#$#!%& *v+%#/#+t ( t&# t#%&+(l(" /++#* $'%# li&t

#x'l(!ti(+ ( $'%# (! &,/+ )#+#it.1-

T&#!#(!# it i$ &,/)l" $,)/itt#* t&t %ivili+ $'%# #x'l(!ti(+ $ i$ ll(3#* i+ t&# (,t#!

$'%# *(#$ +(t i+%l,*# /ilit!" %tiviti#$ i+ t&# (,t#! $'%#.

5P!#$i*#+til Di!#%tiv# (+ Nti(+l S'%# P(li%" 7 F%t S&##t T&# &it# H(,$# Oi%# ( t&#P!#$$ S#%!#t!" F#). 11 16>> '. 1 6.

6C(/'!#&#+$iv# E+vi!(+/#+tl R#$'(+$# C(/'#+$ti(+ +* Li)ilit" A%t 8- U.S.C.-851.

7 NASA C&!t#! P,). L. N(. 111218 1-8 Stt. 22-> D#%. 1> -@1@.

8T&# NASA A%t ( 165> , P,). L. N(. >575:> =- Stt. 8-: 8- U.S.C. -851 etse3 16>>.

9B() P!#$t(+ +* J(&+ B?#! Space C!allenges -Study of t!e '(1D Corporation. 188

&tt'333.!+*.(!',)li%ti(+$MRMRl218. l$t ,'*t#* M" 18 -@@-.

10C(//#!%il S'%# T!+$'(!tti(+ Li%#+$i+ R#,lti(+$ 52 F#*. R#. 11@@8 16>>.

11S'#%il C(//itt## (+ S'%# T#%&+(l(" Special Committee on Space ec!nology

'eport, 6'ecommendations to t!e 1(S( 'egarding ( 1ational Civil Space Program,7Oct

B, =#$ available in 1(S( ;istorical 'eference Collection, ;istory Office, 1(S(

;ead3uarters, as!ington, DC

12 Ibid

2



I.A.2. Bergelmir0s )'i1i'ies i% s()e "ll #$'si2e '3e m!i' #"

))e('e2 )i1ili% s()e e4(l#r'i#%D

T&# FOM72 /(*,l# i+$i*# O)#!(+ 3$ t#$ti+ %ilit" (! $/ll7$%l# t#$ti+ ( ?i+#ti%

i/'%t$ i+ /i%!(!vit" i+ (!*#! t( *#v#l(' /#t&(*$ (! !#*,%i+ i/'%t *#)!i$i+ $'%# t&t

!# t( )# i+%(!'(!t#* i+t( t&# *#$i+ ( +ti7$t#llit# 3#'(+$.12 F,!t&#!/(!# t&# *(%,/#+t$

'!(vi*#* )" D! R#*&(!+ %l#!l" $&(3#* t&t t&i$ #x'#!i/#+t 3$ t( )# i+%(!'(!t#* i+t( +

ASAT 3#'(+$.18

Fi!$tl" F(M $t+*$ (! ;#i&t#* Fi,!#$ ( M#!it< %ilit" (! $#+$itiv# +* &i&l"

!i$?" #x'#!i/#+t$ +##*i+ &i&l" '!(t#%tiv# #+vi!(+/#+t '!(vi*#* )" t&# F(M *#$i+#*

(! $,%& #x'#!i/#+t$.15 S#%(+*l" t&# t#$ti+ ( ?i+#ti% i/'%t$1: i+ /i%!(!vit"1= i+v(lv#$

+ #x'#!i/#+t t( i+* (,t t&# i/'%t 1> 3&#+ '!ti%l# i$ %(lli*#* i+$t + ()#%t i+

/i%!(!vit". T&# $i+ii%+%# ( $,%& + #+vi!(+/#+t ( /i%!(!vit" i$ t&t t&# $'##* (

+" ()#%t i$ i+%!#$#* #x'(+#+till"16 > 1- ?/$#% 3&i%& i$ t&# %$# ( $'%# *#)!i$.-@

13C(/'!(/i$ 1: Li+# =.

14 Ibid t Li+# 5.

15R#'(!t ( t&# NASA DARPA H(!i4(+tl L,+%& St,*" ;oriHontal Launc!0 ( +ersatile

Concept for assured space access NASA SP7-15668 -@11.

16GORELIK G. E. N. V. PAVLUKEVISH V. V. LEVDANSK V. G. LEITSINA G. I. R UDINPHSICAL K INETICS A ND TRANSFER PROCESSES I N PHASE TRANSITIONS BEGELL HOUSE 1665.

17 NASA Mi%!(!vit" A T#%&#!0$ G,i*# 3it& !##!#+%# t( #x'#!i/#+t$ i+ Mt&#/ti%$S%i#+%# +* T#%&+(l(" 333.&.+$.(v(i%#&li)!!"*(%,/#+t$(2612>2>2.'* l$t,'*t#* O%t. 18 -@@8.

18E.S.C. #i+#! #*it#* )" J.A. Si/'$(+ Ox(!* E+li$& Di%ti(+!" D#l,x# E*iti(+;I/'%t< Ox(!* U+iv#!$it" P!#$$ 1661.

3



A%%(!*i+l" 3&#!# O)#!(+ 3$ t#$ti+ t( *#v#l(' /#t&(*$ (! !#*,%i+ i/'%t ( *#)!i$ i+

/i%!(!vit"-1 it 3$ %(+*,%ti+ #x'#!i/#+t$ i+ 3&i%& '!ti%l# i$ $&(t (+ $&##t t(

()$#!v# it$ i/'%t +* t&#+ t&# $&##t i$ /*# !#$i$t+t t( i/'%t till t&# i/'%t ( t&# &i&7

$'##* *#)!i$ i$ !#*,%#* t( &!/l#$$ #xt#+t.--

T&# i+%(!'(!ti(+ ( $,%& t#%&+(l(" i+t( ASAT$ %+ )# *(+# i+ t3( '($$i)l# 3"$

i. Fi!$tl" t&#" %+ ),il* $'%#%!t$ 3&i%& 3(,l* )# i/'%t7i//,+#ii. S#%(+*l" t&# $#t,' (! i!i+ '!ti%l#$ %+ )# $t#lt&il" ,$#* (! tt%?i+ (t&#!

$'%#%!t$

Al$( $i+%# t&# /#t&(*$ !(/ t&# t#$ti+ %ilit" !# t( )# i+%(!'(!t#* i+ ASAT 3#'(+$ t&#

#x'#!i/#+t$ i+$i*# t&# /(*,l# 3#!# (! ,!t&#!+%# ( !/$ !%# i+ (,t#! $'%#.

It i$ &,/)l" %(+t#+*#* t&t 3&#!# t&# %tiviti#$ i+$i*# t&# F(M /(*,l# ( O)#!(+ 3#!#

(! *#v#l('i+ /#t&(*$ ( tt%? t&#" 3#!# )#"(+* t&# /)it ( %ivili+ $'%# #x'l(!ti(+.

Al$( $i+%# B#!#l/i! S'%# A#+%" BSA i$ (v#!+/#+tl ,t&(!it" #$t)li$&#* )" t&#

B#!#l/i!+ G(v#!+/#+t t( ,+*#!t?# %tiviti#$ i+ ;%ivili+ $'%# #x'l(!ti(+<-2 it$

%(+t!v#+i+ %tiviti#$ %+ )# tt!i),t#* t( t&# R#',)li% ( B#!#l/i!.-8

19 NASA O!)itl D#)!i$ P!(!/ Oi%# &tt'(!)itl*#)!i$.$%.+$.(v$.&t/l l$t,'*t#* D#%. 2 -@1-.

20HOARD A. BAKER SPACE DEBRIS LEGAL AND POLIC IMPLICATIONS :5Kl,3#! L3 I+t#!+ti(+l 16>6.

21C(/'!(/i$ 1:.

22 N+*$i!i J$#+t,li"+ 65nvironment Impact of Space (ctivities: (n International Law

Perspective,7 -= J SPACE L. 16>5.

23C(/'!(/i$ >.

4



I.A. .Bergelmir is li!le "#r 're'5 %2 )$s'#mr5 i%'er%'i#%l l&

1i#l'i#%s &i'3 regr2 '# mili'ri6'i#% #" #$'er s()e ,

T&# '!(vi$i(+$ ( t&# OST !# t&# )$i% %&!t#! (! %(+$tit,ti(+ (v#!+i+ $'%# %tiviti#$-5

l#*i+ t( t&# #$t)li$&/#+t ( ; #+#!l +(!/ ( '#%#,l ,$#$ ( (,t#! $'%#.<-: O+# ( t&#

/(! i/$ ( t&# OST i$ t( '!#v#+t-= + !/$ !%# !(/ $'!#*i+ t( (,t#! $'%#.-> H#+%#

t&# *#'l("/#+t ( t#%&+(l(" (! *#v#l('/#+t ( ASAT 3#'(+$ i+ (,t#! $'%# $t+*$ i+

vi(lti(+ ( A!ti%l# IV ( t&# OST +* %,$t(/!" i+t#!+ti(+l l3.

I.A..a. A!%#Bsa%e**#%e +ea-o!s a"e )!*a+&)* ao"(#!$ %o e#s%#!$ s-ae *a+s

N( *(,)t t&# t#$ti+ ( ASAT 3#'(+ i+ (,t#! $'%# %!#t#$ t&t #l#/#+t ( $,$'i%i(+

!#,i!#* t( *i$!,'t t&# #xi$ti+ '(3#! #,ti(+$ /(+ +ti(+$ +* $',!$ + !/$ !%# i+

$'%#.-6 It i$ t&!#t t( '#%# %(7('#!ti(+ +* *#v#l('/#+t ( !i#+*l" !#lti(+$ /(+ t&#

24Di#!#+%# R#lti+ t( I//,+it" !(/ L#l P!(%#$$ ( S'#%il R''(!t#,! 1666 ICJR#'(!t$ :- >= M$$#" C$# 16-= 8 RIAA 155 Slv*(! C(//#!%il C(/'+" C$#16@- 15 RIAA 8== (,+ +* #)$t#! C$# 16>1 88 E,! C(,!t HR S#!. A 256.

25S. H($#+)ll !e 2nited 1ations Committee on t!e Peaceful 2ses of Outer Space: Past

(ccomplis!ments and "uture C!allenges - J. SPACE L. 65 16=6.

26J. ,l (rms Control0Outer Space - J. SPACE L. := 16>2.

27Iv+ Vl$i% !e Space reaty: ( Preliminary 5valuation 1 CAL. L. REV. 5@ 16:=.

28#*li$ R#x Ct&#!i+# L. *# (nti Satellite eapons and t!e OS of =#>? > CAL. .INTL L. J. 85= 85> 16=>.

29 S+*i't B&t +* Ki!+ M(&+ V. (nti0Satellite &issile esting: ( C!allenge o (rticle I+ O" ;5 Outer Space reaty.

5



+ti(+$2@+* t&,$ vi(lt#$ t&# ',!'($# ( t&# U+it#* Nti(+$ $ #x'!#$$l" $ti',lt#* i+ t&#

C&!t#! .21

A%#o!s o& /e"$e*m#" a"e #! '#o*a%#o!s o& UNBC7a"%e"

I+ ,!t&#!+%# ( t&#i! /ilit!" !#$#!%& B#!#l/i! i$ #+#* i+ *#v#l('i+ t#%&+(l(" t&t

i$ t( )# i+%(!'(!t#* i+t( +ti7$t#llit# 3#'(+$.2- A!ti%l# -8 ( t&# UN C&!t#! '!(vi*#$ t&t

Stt#$ !# t( !#!i+ ;!(/ t&# t&!#t (! ,$# ( (!%# i+$t t&# t#!!it(!il i+t#!it" (! '(liti%l

i+*#'#+*#+%# ( +" Stt# (! i+ +" (t&#! /++#! i+%(+$i$t#+t 3it& t&# ',!'($#$ ( t&#

U+it#* Nti(+$<.22

T&i$ '!i+%i'l# &$ )##+ (,+* )" t&# I+t#!+ti(+l C(,!t ( J,$ti%# t( )# jus cogens +* )i+*i+ (+ ll $tt#$ $ %,$t(/!" +(!/. 28 T&# i+%(!'(!ti(+ ( t&# W i+t(

ASAT 3(,l* )# %(+$t+t t&!#t ( (!%# t( t&# $t#llit#$ ( (t&#! Stt#$ 3&i%& 3(,l* )#

vi(ltiv# ( A!ti%l# -8 ( t&# UN C&!t#!.

T&# *#v#l('/#+t ( ASAT 3#'(+$ 3(,l* '($# %(+$t+t t&!#t t( t&# (!)itl i+$tllti(+$

( (t&#! +ti(+$ +* t&,$ ( i+$t A!ti%l# -8 ( t&# UN C&!t#!. T&# ,$# ( $,%& 3#'(+$l#*$ t( + !/$ !%# i+ (,t#! $'%# 3&i%& i$ t&!#t t( '#%# %(7('#!ti(+ +* *#v#l('/#+t

30 A!ti%l# 1 T&# C&!t#! ( t&# U+it#* Nti(+$.

31 I*.

32 M((t P!('($iti(+

33 UN C&!t#! A!t. -8.

34 C$# C(+%#!+i+ Milit!" +* P!/ilit!" A%tiviti#$ i+ +* i+$t Ni%!,Ni%!, v. U+it#* Stt#$ ( A/#!i%M#!it$ 16>: ICJ R#'. 18.

6



( !i#+*l" !#lti(+$ /(+ t&# +ti(+$25+* t&,$ vi(lt#$ t&# ',!'($# ( t&# U+it#* Nti(+$

$ #x'!#$$l" $ti',lt#* i+ t&# C&!t#! .2:

A%#o!s o& /e"$e*m#" a"e #! '#o*a%#o!s o& OST

T&# '!(vi$i(+$ ( t&# OST !# t&# )$i% %&!t#! (! %(+$tit,ti(+ (v#!+i+ $'%# %tiviti#$ 2=

l#*i+ t( t&# #$t)li$&/#+t ( ; #+#!l +(!/ ( '#%#,l ,$#$ ( (,t#! $'%#.<2> O+# ( t&#

/(! i/$ ( t&# OST i$ t( '!#v#+t26 + !/$ !%# !(/ $'!#*i+ t( (,t#! $'%#.8@

A"%#*e I

T&# #x'l(!ti(+ +* ,$# ( (,t#! $'%# i+%l,*i+ t&# M((+ +* (t&#! %#l#$til )(*i#$ $&ll

)# %!!i#* (,t (! t&# )#+#it +* i+ t&# i+t#!#$t$ ( ll %(,+t!i#$ i!!#$'#%tiv# ( t&#i! *#!##

( #%(+(/i% (! $%i#+tii% *#v#l('/#+t +* $&ll )# t&# '!(vi+%# ( ll /+?i+*. T#$ti+ (

ASAT i$ +(t i+ t&# i+t#!#$t ( +" %(,+t!".

A"%#*e III

35 S,'! +(t# 1.

36 I*.

37 S. H($#+)ll T&# U+it#* Nti(+$ C(//itt## (+ t&# P#%#,l U$#$ ( O,t#! S'%# P$tA%%(/'li$&/#+t$ +* F,t,!# C&ll#+#$ - J. SPACE L. 65 16=6.

38 J. ,l A!/$ C(+t!(l7O,t#! S'%# - J. SPACE L. := 16>2.

39 Iv+ Vl$i% T&# S'%# T!#t" A P!#li/i+!" Evl,ti(+ 1 CAL. L. REv. 5@ 16:=.

40 #*li$ R#x Ct&#!i+# L. *# A+ti St#llit# #'(+$ +* t&# OST ( 16:= > CAL.. INTL L. J. 85= 85> 16=>.

7



It i$ vi(lt#* )#%,$# it tl?$ )(,t %!!"i+ %tiviti#$ i+ $'%# i+ %%(!*+%# 3it& t&# UN

C&!t#! 3&il# $ l!#*" '!(v#* )(v# t&# !#$'(+*#+t '!t" i$ i+ !($$ vi(lti(+ ( t&#

'!(vi$i(+ ( t&# UN C&!t#!.

A"%#*e I:

Pa"a$"a-7 1 A!ti%l# IV ( OST '!(&i)it$ *#'l("/#+t i+ $'%# ( )(t& +,%l#! 3#'(+$ +*

(t&#! 3#'(+$ ( /$$ *#$t!,%ti(+.81 M$$ *#$t!,%ti(+ 3#'(+$ i+%l,*# +" t"'# ( 3#'(+$

3&i%& %(,l* l#* t( t&# $/# t"'# ( %t$t!('&# $ +,%l#! 3#'(+8- 3&#t&#!

)%t#!i(l(i%l %&#/i%l (! +" (t&#! .82

A $,%%#$$,l ASAT t#$t i+$t + (!)iti+ $t#llit#3ill !#$,lt i+ t&# *#$t!,%ti(+ ( t&# t!#t#* $t#llit# +* t&# %!#ti(+ ( *+#!(,$ $t7

/(vi+ $'%# *#)!i$ 3&i%& 3ill %!#t# &!/,l i+t#!#!#+%# t&t &$ t&# '(t#+til t( */#

(! *#$t!(" (t&#! ()#%t$ i+ (,t#! $'%# i+ '!ti%,l! ()#%t$ ('#!ti+ i+ $i/il! (!

i+t#!$#%ti+ (!)it$ +* %(+$#,#+t */# (+ t&# #!t&.88 S,%& i+%i*#+t$ &v# )##+

3it+#$$#* i+ t&# '$t '!ti%,l!l" i+ t&# %$# ( U+it#* Stt#$0 S&,ttl# C&ll#+#!.85

Pa"a$"a-7 2 ( A!ti%l# IV $$#!t$ t&t t&# /((+ +* (t&#! %#l#$til )(*i#$ $&ll )# ,$#*

#x%l,$iv#l" (! '#%#,l ',!'($#$ +* it '!(&i)it$ Xt&# t#$ti+ ( +" t"'# ( 3#'(+$X (+

X%#l#$til )(*i#$X. S'#%ii%ll" +* '(i+t#*l" t&# '!!'& *(#$ +(t !##! t( (,t#! $'%# $

41 OST A!t. IV P! 1

42 O,t#! S'%# H#!i+$ t -2 A/)$$*(! G(l*)#!

43 R#x J. #*li$. Ct&#!i+# L. *# (nti0 satellite weapons and t!e OS, =#>? > Cl. .I+tl L.J. 858 16=>

44Mi%&#l C. Mi+#i!( F71C +* USA7162 I+t#!%#'t$ A+ A$$#$$/#+t ( L#l O)liti(+$U+*#! A!ti%l# I9 ( t&# OST.

45 N. J$(+ T,li"+ ;E+vi!(+/#+tl I/'%t ( S'%# A%tiviti#$ A+ I+t#!+ti(+l L3P#!$'#%tiv#< P!(%##*i+$ -=t& C(ll(,i,/ L3 ( O,t#! S'%# 16>5 '. 26@.

8



$,%& t&t i$ t&# $'%# )#t3##+ t&# %#l#$til )(*i#$8: 3&i%& (#$ %(+t!!" t( t&# (l$

#+vi$#* )" t&# *!t#!$ 3&i%& !# 3#ll #vi*#+t i+ t&# P!#/)l# t( t&# T!#t" $i+%# A!ti%l#

III A!ti%l# I9 +* A!ti%l# 9III ( t&# T!#t" ,$#$ (,t#! $'%# i+ /,%& )!(*#! $#+$#

i+%l,*i+ t&# M((+ +* (t&#! %#l#$til )(*i#$ i+ it$ /)it.8= S( %(+$i*#!i+ t&# $'i!it ( t&#

T!#t" +* t&# i+t#+ti(+ ( t&# *!t#!$ it $&(,l* )# $$,/#* t&t t&# (,t#! $'%# i$ +(t

#x%l,*#* !(/ t&# ',!vi#3 ( '!!'& - ( A!ti%l# IV +* it $&(,l* )# ,$#* #x%l,$iv#l" (!

'#%#,l ',!'($#$.8>

TREATY ON THE PRE+ENTION OF THE DEPLOYMENT OF WEAPONS IN OUTER

SPACE 78

I+ t&i$ *!t t!#t" A!ti%l# I% *#i+#$ S'%# #'(+$ $ ;+" *#vi%# 'l%#* i+ (,t#! $'%#

)$#* (+ +" '&"$i%l '!i+%i'l# 3&i%& &$ )##+ $'#%ill" '!(*,%#* (! %(+v#!t#* t( *#$t!("

*/# (! *i$!,'t t&# +(!/l ,+%ti(+i+ ( ()#%t$ i+ (,t#! $'%# (+ t&# E!t& (! i+ t&#

E!t&0$ t/($'&#!#< +* A!ti%l# II '!(&i)it$ Stt#$ !(/ 'l%i+ i+ (!)it !(,+* t&# E!t&

+" ()#%t$ %!!"i+ +" ?i+* ( 3#'(+$ (! t( i+$tll $,%& 3#'(+$ (+ %#l#$til )(*i#$ +*

t( $tti(+ $,%& 3#'(+$ i+ (,t#! $'%# i+ +" (t&#! /++#! t( !#$(!t t( t&# t&!#t (! ,$# (

(!%# i+$t (,t#! $'%# ()#%t$ t( $$i$t (! #+%(,!# (t&#! $tt#$ !(,'$ ( $tt#$ (!

i+t#!+ti(+l (!+i4ti(+$X !(/ %!!"i+ (,t '!(&i)it#* %tiviti#$.

Le$a* 'a*)e o& a ("a&% %"ea%6

46 BIN CHENG STUDIES IN INTERNATIONAL SPACE LA 51> 166=

47 D+ J/#$ !e Legality of (ntisatellites, 2 B. C. INTL C(3. L. Rv. 8:= 16=67>@.

48 A!ti%l# 21 Vi#++ C(+v#+ti(+ ( t&# L3 ( T!#ti#$.

49 C(+#!#+%# (+ Di$!//#+t CD i+ F#)!,!" -@@> *!t XT!#t" (+ t&# P!#v#+ti(+ (#'(+$ i+ O,t#! S'%# +* t&# T&!#t ( F(!%# Ai+$t O,t#! S'%# O)#%t$X PPT

9



I+ '!%ti%# t&# *!ti+ ( t!#t" +(!/$ &#l'$ t( (%,$ 3(!l* l#l ('i+i(+ +* &$ +

,+*#+i)l# i+l,#+%# (+ t&# $,)$#,#+t )#&vi(! +* l#l %(+vi%ti(+ ( Stt#$. T&i$ !#lit"

3$ !#%(+i4#* )" t&# I+t#!+ti(+l C(,!t ( J,$ti%# i+ t&# Continental S!elf case:

6It is of course aFiomatic t!at t!e material of customary international law is to be loo4ed for

primarily in t!e actual practice and opinio juris of States, even t!oug! multilateral

conventions may !ave an important role to play in recording and defining rules deriving from

custom, or indeed in developing t!em$G Opinio juris, is t!e Aconviction of a State t!at it is

following a certain practice as a matter of law and t!at, were it to depart from t!e practice,

some form of sanction would, or oug!t to, fall on itA $=

T&# 3i*#$'!#* $tt# '!%ti%# ( CIL *(#$ +(t *#/+* )$(l,t# ,++i/it" (! '#!#%t

%(+$i$t#+%" i+ t&# #/#!i+ %,$t(/ ),t t&# /(!# Stt#$ '!ti%i't# t&# )#tt#!.5-

I.B . Bergelmir is li!le "#r $%l&"$l $se #" #$'er s()e,

I./.1. Use o& RHUs #s a$a#!s% %7e e#s%#!$ -"#!#-*es o& s-ae *a+D

U$# ( +,%l#! '(3#! $(,!%#$ i+ (,t#! $'%# $&(,l* (%,$ (+ t&($# ''li%ti(+$ 3&i%& t?#

*v+t# ( t&# '!ti%,l! '!('#!ti#$ ( +,%l#! '(3#! $(,!%#$.52 F,!t&#! t&# ,$# ( +,%l#!

'(3#! $(,!%#$ i+ (,t#! $'%# $&(,l* )# )$#* (+ t&(!(,& $#t" $$#$$/#+t i+%l,*i+

50 ICJ Continental S!elf case -Libyan (rab *ama!iriya v &alta. J,*/#+t 2 J,+#16>5 IC* 'eports 16>5 ''. -62@ -=.

51 MARK E. VILLIGER CUSTOMAR INTERNATIONAL LA AN TREATIES 816>5. S## !e Pa3uete ;abana, t&# U.S. S,'!#/# C(,!t i+ 16@@

52 1icaragua vs 2nited States %$# i+ 1>, 1ort! Sea Continental S!elf Cases1>

53P!i+%i'l#$ R#l#v+t t( t&# U$# ( N,%l#! P(3#! S(,!%#$ i+ O,t#! S'%# D#%. 18 166-G.A. R#$. 8=:> U.N. GAOR 8=t& S#$$. >5t& 'l#+. /t. U.N. D(%. AR#$8=:>.$.

10



'!())ili$ti% !i$? +l"$i$ 3it& '!ti%,l! #/'&$i$ (+ !#*,%i+ t&# !i$? ( %%i*#+tl

#x'($,!# ( t&# ',)li% t( &!/,l !*iti(+ (! !*i(%tiv# /t#!il.58

I+ (!*#! t( /i+i/i4# t&# ,+tit" ( !*i(%tiv# /t#!il i+ $'%# +* t&# !i$?$ i+v(lv#* t&#

,$# ( +,%l#! '(3#! $(,!%#$ i+ (,t#! $'%# $&(,l* )# !#$t!i%t#* t( t&($# $'%# /i$$i(+$

3&i%& %++(t )# ('#!t#* )" +(+7+,%l#! #+#!" $(,!%#$ i+ !#$(+)l# 3".55

A!ti%l# VI ( t&# OST #+til$ i+t#!+ti(+l !#$'(+$i)ilit" ( t&# Stt#$ (! +ti(+l %tiviti#$ i+

(,t#! $'%#. A%%(!*i+l" Stt#$ $&ll )#! !#$'(+$i)ilit" (! +ti(+l %tiviti#$ i+v(lvi+ t&#

,$# ( +,%l#! '(3#! $(,!%#$ i+ (,t#! $'%# +* (! $$,!i+ t&t $,%& +ti(+l %tiviti#$ !#%!!i#* (,t i+ %(+(!/it"5: 3it& t&# t!#t" +* t&# !#%(//#+*ti(+$ %(+ti+#* i+ '!ti%,l!l"

!#lt#* P!i+%i'l#$ R#l#v+t t( t&# U$# ( N,%l#! P(3#! S(,!%#$ i+ O,t#! S'%#.5=

I+ t&# '!#$#+t %$# B#!#l/i! i$ ,$i+ RHU$ (+ O)#!(+. RHU$ !# $/ll *#vi%#$ t&t ,$# t&#

*#%" ( 'l,t(+i,/7-2> t( '!(vi*# &#t t( ?##' $'%#%!t %(/'(+#+t$ +* $"$t#/$ 3!/ $(

t&t t&# #,i'/#+t %+ $,!viv# l(+ #+(,& i+ t&# %(l* $'%# #+vi!(+/#+t t( %(/'l#t# it$

/i$$i(+. R*i(7i$(t('i% H#t#! U+it$ !# ,$#* (! /i$$i(+$ ! 3" t( t&# *!?#$t %(l*#$t

+* &!$&#$t l(%ti(+$ i+ t&# $(l! $"$t#/$.5>

54 supra +(t# -.

55R#'(!t ( t&# L#l S,)%(//itt## (+ t&# (!? ( it$ T&i!t"7Fi!$t S#$$i(+ C&i!/+$

t#xt P!i+%i'l#$ R#l#v+t t( t&# U$# ( N,%l#! P(3#! S(,!%#$ i+ O,t#! S'%# U.N. D(%. [email protected]> -2 J,+# 166-. J SPACE L. V(l. -@ N(.- '. -117-15.

56Milit!" +* P!/ilit!" A%tiviti#$ Ni%!, v. U.S. 16>: I.C.J. R EPORTS 18.

57G. L. BENNETT J. A. SHOLTIS JR. AND B. C. R ASHKO U NITED NATIONS DELIBERATIONS O N THE USE OF NUCLEAR POER SOURCES I N SPACE 8575=16>6.

58R()#!t M. N#l$(+ D#++i$ L. Mt$(+ Perspective on Space 5Fploration Cassini Can2nveil Saturns Secrets, L.A. TIMES O%t. 2 166= t 6.

11



I+ t&# '!#$#+t %$# O)#!(+ )#i+ + (!)itl $'%# $tti(+56 it 3$ (!)iti+ i+ l(3 #!t& (!)it

LOE t *i$t+%# ( 1@@ t( -@@ /il#$.:@ Si+%# LOE !#%#iv#$ $,i%i#+t $,+li&t !(,+* t&#

%l(%? O)#!(+ l!#*" &* *#,t# '(3#! $,''l" t&!(,& it$ $(l! '+#l$. T&,$ t&#!# i$ +(

+##* (! O)#!(+ t( )# ,$i+ RHU$ (+ )(!*.

It i$ &,/)l" %(+t#+*#* i+ t&# li&t ( )(v#/#+ti(+#* !,/#+t$ t&t 3&#!# O)#!(+ i$

'($i+ ,+3!!+t#* !i$? i+ t&# (,t#! $'%# B#!#l/i! $&(,l* )# &#l* !#$'(+$i)l# (! it

',!$,+t t( A!ti%l# VI ( OST.

I./.2. /e"$e*m#" #s "es-o!s#*e &o" -oss#*e -"o*#&e"a%#o! o& 7a"m&)* m#"oBo"$a!#sms #!

o)%e" s-aeD

O)#!(+ 3$ )#i+ ,$#* t( !#$#!%& t&# %(/'!tiv# ##%t$ ( /i%!(!vit" (+ !(3t& +*

!#'!(*,%ti(+ ( t&# )%t#!i 5sc!eric!ia coli +* Salmonella typ!imurium. T&#$# )%t#!i:1

!# ?+(3+ t( %,$# )l((*" *i!!&# +,$# v(/iti+ )*(/i+l i+#%ti(+$ +* i+ %#!ti+

%$#$ #v#+ *#t&.:-

T&#!#(!# $,%& !#$#!%& %+ '($# *+#! t( (t&#! $t!(+,t$ +* $'%#()#%t$ i+ (!)it +* ,!t&#! l#* t( #xt!t#!!#$t!il %(+t/i+ti(+:2 (+ t&#i! !#t,!+ t( #!t&.:8

II. /e"$e*m#" a%e( )!*a+&)**6 #! "e&)s#!$ aess %o %7e "e+ o& M#"a!(aBI: %o Oe"o!D

59C(/'!(/i$ =.

60 Ibid . t -.

61C(/'!(/i$ 11 Li+# 5 15 Li+# =.

62#)MD 5Coli Infection from "ood or ater &tt'333.3#)/*.%(/7t(747,i*#$#7%(li7i+#%ti(+7t('i%7(v#!vi#3 l$t ,'*t#* M" -6 -@1-.&tt'333.$l/(+#ll.(!i+(.&t/l l$t ,'*t#* J,+# 2@ -@12.

63JOSEPH A. A NGELO LIFE I N THE U NIVERSE I+()$# P,)li$&i+ J+. 1 -@@6.

64JOSEPH A. A NGELO SPACE TECHNOLOG G!##+3((* P,)li$&i+ G!(,' J+. 1 -@@2.

12



II.A. /e"$e*m#"8s "e&)sa* %o aess Oe"o! o!s%#%)%es '#o*a%#o! o& A"%#*e II o& %7e

OSTD

A!ti%l# 9II ( t&# OST:5 '!(vi*#$ t&t ll $tti(+$ $&ll )# ('#+ t( !#'!#$#+ttiv#$ ( (t&#!

Stt#$ P!ti#$ t( t&# T!#t" (+ t&# )$i$ ( !#%i'!(%it". I+ t&# Polis! Postal Services Case, t&#

P#!/+#+t C(,!t ( J,$ti%# [P.C.I.J.] $tt#* t&t 3(!*$ &v# t( )# i+t#!'!#t#* i+ t&# $#+$# t&t

t&#" 3(,l* +(!/ll" &v# i+ t&#i! %(+t#xt ,+l#$$ $,%& i+t#!'!#tti(+ 3(,l* l#* t( $(/#t&i+

,+!#$(+)l# (! )$,!*<.:: I+t#!'!#ti+ t&# A!ti%l# li)#!ll" t&#!# #xi$t t&!## '!#7!#,i$it#$ (!

ll(3i+ $,%& vi$it

E+titl#/#+t t( #x#!%i$# $,%& !i&t) P!i+%i'l# ( R#%i'!(%it"% R#$(+)l# *v+%# +(ti%#

II.A.1.T7em#s%o +as e!%#%*e( %o ee"#se %7e "#$7% o& aess %o Oe"o!D

A!ti%l# II ( t&# t!#t" '!(vi*#$ t&t $'%# &)itt$ $&ll +(t )# $,)#%t t( %li/$ ( +ti(+l

$(v#!#i+t" (! %iti4#+$&i' *#!ivi+ !(/ (! #x#!%i$#* )" +ti(+ $tt#$ (! !#i(+l ,!i$*i%ti(+$

l(%t#* (! (!ii+ti+ (+ E!t&.:= A!ti%l# VIII '!(vi*#$ t&t ll $'%# &)itt$ ( l(+7

*,!ti(+ (! '#!/+#+t +t,!# $&ll )# ('#+ (! %,lt,!l #x/i+ti(+$ +* /ilit!"

65 OST supra +(t# 1 !t. 9II

66 Polis! Postal Service in DanHig, (dvisory Opinion, P.C.I.J. $#!. B N(. 11 16-5 t 26.Sout! est (frica Cases -5t! v S (fr Liber v S (fr. 16:- I.C.J. R#'(!t$ 216 22:.

67G#(!# S. R()i+$(+ -Proposed. reaty /overning Social Order Of Long0Duration Or

Permanent In!abitants Of 1ear (nd Deep Space, (stronauts (nd ( 2ni3ue *urisprudence: (reaty "or Space4ind = HASTINGS I NTL COMP. L. R EV. 8>2 16>2716>8

13



i+v#$titi(+ )" !#'!#$#+ttiv#$ ( (t&#! Stt# P!ti#$ t( t&i$ T!#t" (+ t&# )$i$ ( !#%i'!(%it"

(! !#$(+)l# *v+%# +(ti%#.:>

It %+ )# $##+ %(/)i+#*l" t&t 3&#!# $'%# &)itt$ !# !#$ %(//,+i$ T&#/i$t( 3$ #+titl#*

t( #x#!%i$# t&# !i&t ( %%#$$ t( O)#!(+.

II.A.2.T7e -"#!#-*e o& "e#-"o#%6 #s a--*#a*e #! %7e -"ese!% aseD

R#%i'!(%it" li#$ t t&# !((t ( ll i+t#!+ti(+l l3.:6 I+ R()#!t Ax#l!(*0$ t#!/i+(l("

!#%i'!(%it" i$ tit7(!7tt $t!t#".=@ T&i$ '!i+%i'l# ( !#%i'!(%it"=1 /#+$ t&t Stt# %++(t

)#+#it !(/ t&# ('ti(+l %l,$# 3it&(,t %%#'ti+ it$ %(!!#$'(+*i+ ()liti(+$.=-

A/)$$*(! G(l*)#! $tt#* t&t t&# ;)$i$ ( !#%i'!(%it"< /#+$ ;t&t 3&i%& %(//(+

$#+$# 3(,l* *i%tt#< +* ,!t&#! $tt#$ t&t t&i$ i$ t( )# %%#$$#* ;!#!*l#$$ ( 3&#t&#! t&#

$#%(+* $tt# &$ #v#! %li/#* (! &$ #v#! #x#!%i$#* !i&t ( %%#$$ it$#l<.=2

68OST supra +(t# 1 !t. VIII.

69F!it$ Kl$&(v#+ )elligerent 'eprisals -8 16=1 R##!#+%i+ L(,i$ L# F,! D#$R#'!#$il7 L#$ E+ T#/'$ D# G,#!!# 1616.

70 R()#!t Ax#l!(* THE EVOLUTION OF COOPERATION 16>8.

71 Vi#++ C(+v#+ti(+ (+ t&# L3 ( T!#ti#$ !t$. 11 -: M" -2 16:6 1155 U.N.T.S. 221

72H..A T&i!l3" 6'eciprocity in t!e *urisdiction of t!e International Court7 16>8 15 NIL 6=

73C(//itt## I ( t3#+t"7i!$t G#+#!l A$$#/)l" $#$$i(+ Stt#/#+t /*# (+ D#%. 1= 16::i+. 5: D#'t Stt# B,ll. => >@ 16:= P!#$$ R#l#$# N(. 5@28 D#%#/)#! 1= 16::.

14



A%%(!*i+l" (3+#!$ $&ll +(t &v# t&# !i&t t( #x%l,*# !(/ t&# $'%# %ilit" +* it$ !#lt#*

$#t" 4(+# +t,!l '#!$(+$ 3&( %(/# t( i+$'#%t t&# $'%# %ilit" (+ t&# )$i$ ( !#%i'!(%it"

',!$,+t t( A!ti%l# 9II.=8

It i$ &,/)l" $,)/itt#* t&t 3&#!# B#!#l/i! i$ '!t" t( OST +* i$ vili+ t&# !i&t$

'!(vi*#* t&#!#i+ it i$ ()lit#* t( '!(vi*# %%#$$ t( O)#!(+ ,+*#! A!ti%l# 9II ( OST.

II.A..T7em#s%o 7a( $#'e! a('a!e !o%#e &o" %7e -"o-ose( '#s#%D

T&# G!+* C&+%#ll(! ( T&#/i$t( &* $#+t l#tt#! /(+t& +* &l i+ *v+%# ( t&#

'!('($#* vi$it t( t&# P!#$i*#+t ( B#!#l/i! %('" ( 3&i%& 3$ l$( $#+t t( t&# S#%!#t!"7

G#+#!l ( t&# U+it#* Nti(+$ +* %i!%,lt#* t( ll /#/)#!$ ( t&# U.N. C(//itt## (+ t&#

P#%#,l U$#$ ( O,t#! S'%#.=5

T&#/i$t( !#li4#* t&# !#,i!#/#+t ( *v+%# +(ti%# +* (t&#! +#%#$$!" %(!!#$'(+*#+%#

)#(!# i+$'#%ti(+=: +* '!(vi*#* t&# (#+*i+ $tt# 3it& t&# (''(!t,+it" t( $,i%i#+tl"

'!#'!# t&#/$#lv#$ (! t&# vi$it.==

H#+%#(!t& $ i$ #vi*#+t )(t& t&# '!#7!#,i$it#$ 3#!# $ti$i#* (! ll(3i+ t&# %!#3 (

Mi!+*7IV i+$i*# O)#!(+ $ '#! t&#i! !i&t !i$i+ !(/ A!ti%l# 9II ( t&# OST +* +

74"+# &it# Proposal for a &ultilateral reaty 'egarding *urisdiction and 'eal

Property 'ig!ts in Outer Space, -@@1&tt'333.$'%#,t,!#.%(/!%&iv#'!('($l(!/,ltilt#!lt!#t"!#!*i+,!i$*i%ti(++*!#l'!('#!t"!i&t$i+(,t#!$'%#.$&t/l l$t ,'*t#* F#)!,!" -@@1.

75C(/'!(/i$ 16.

76Iv+. A. Vl$i% Space reaty: ( Preliminary 5valuation CALIFORNIA LA R EVIE 55 -> 16:=

77J. F. M%M&(+ LEGAL ASPECTS OF OUTER SPACER ECENT DEVELOPMENTS 16:=.

15



i+t#!#!#+%# 3it& t&# !i&t$ ( (t&#!$ 3it&(,t $,i%i#+t ,$tii%ti(+ i$ 3!(+ !#%(+i4#*

)" l3.=>

II././e"$e*m#" 7as o!%"a'e!e( #%s %"ea%6 o*#$a%#o!s )!(e" A"%#*e I o& %7e O)%e"

S-ae T"ea%6D

A!ti%l# I9=6 '!(vi*#$ t&t Stt# P!t" t( t&# T!#t" 3&i%& &$ !#$(+ t( )#li#v# t&t +

%tivit" (! #x'#!i/#+t 'l++#* )" +(t&#! Stt# P!t" i+ (,t#! $'%# 3(,l* %,$# '(t#+till"

&!/,l i+t#!#!#+%# 3it& %tiviti#$ i+ t&# '#%#,l #x'l(!ti(+ +* ,$# ( (,t#! $'%# /"

!#,#$t %(+$,ltti(+ %(+%#!+i+ t&# %tivit" (! #x'#!i/#+t. T&#/i$t(0$ vi$it t( O)#!(+ 3$ )$#* (+ t&# )(v#/#+ti(+#* %(+%#!+$.

II./.1./e"$e*m#" 7as '#o*a%e( #%s o*#$a%#o! )!(e" A"%#*e I %o 7o*( #!%e"!a%#o!a*

o!s)*%a%#o!s e&o"e a""6#!$ o)% #%s e-e"#me!%sD

A!ti%l# I9 ( OST i$ t&# /($t i/'(!t+t '!(vi$i(+ 3it& !#!* t( t&# v(i*+%# (

i+t#!#!#+%# 3it& t&# %tiviti#$ ( (t&#! $tt#$ i+ (,t#! $'%#.>@ It )i+*$ Stt# P!ti#$ ;t(

,+*#!t?# ''!('!it# i+t#!+ti(+l %(+$,ltti(+$< )#(!# '!(%##*i+ 3it& +" ;%tivit" (!

#x'#!i/#+t 'l++#* )" it i+ (,t#! $'%#< t&t t&# Stt# P!t" ;&$ !#$(+ t( )#li#v#W3(,l*

%,$# '(t#+till" &!/,l i+t#!#!#+%#.<>1

78,i++ v. L#t&#/ 16@1 AC 51@ All#+ v. Fl((* 1>6> AC 1=6 M(,l C(. v. M%

G!#(! -2 BD 56> Nti(+l P&(+(!'& C(. v. E*i$(+ B#ll 16@> 1 C& 225 DANIEL GREENBERG A ND ALE9ENDRIA MILLBROOK STROUD0S JUDICIAL DICTIONAR OF ORDS PHRASES 1221 :t& #*. -@@@.

79 OST supra +(t# 1 !t. I9

80H# ix&i Ni%(l$ M. Mtt# 5vironmental Implications and 'esponsibilities in t!e 2se of

Outer Space 18 A NNALS OF AIR SPACE LA 816 8-> 16>6.

81 OST $upra +(t# 1 !t. I9.

16



A St# $&(,l* &v# !#$(+ t( )#li#v# t&t 'l++#* %tivit" (! #x'#!i/#+t 3(,l* %,$#

'(t#+till" &!/,l i+t#!#!#+%# i+ (!*#! t( &(l* $,%& %(+$,ltti(+. ;R#$(+ t( )#li#v#< i$ +(t

$"+(+"/(,$ 3it& %#!ti+t". ;T( )#li#v#< i+ t&i$ %(+t#xt i$ !#lt#* t( + ('i+i(+ (! t&(,&t.

F,!t&#! ;H!/,l< i$ *#i+#* $ ;( ?i+* li?#l" t( )# i+,!i(,$<. >- ;I+t#!#!#+%#< (!*i+!il"

/#+$ + ()$t!,%ti(+ (! &i+*!+%#.>2

T&# *,t" ( '!i(! %(+$,ltti(+ &$ '!#%#*#+t i+ t&# #$t F(!* '!(#%t %!!i#* (,t )" t&#

U+it#* Stt#$ i+ 16:-. T&i$ #x'#!i/#+t 3&i%& i+v(lv#* t&# l,+%&i+ ( )#lt ( %(''#!

+##*l#$ i+t( (!)it '!(/'t#* COSPAR t( %(+v#+# /##ti+ i+ (!*#! t( $$#$$ t&# '(t#+til

#+vi!(+/#+tl */# !i$i+ !(/ t&i$ %tivit".>8

I+ t&# #xi$ti+ %i!%,/$t+%#$ 3&#!# !#,#$t (! %(+$,ltti(+ 3$ $#+t i+ t&# li&t (

#x'#!i/#+t$ )#i+ %(+*,%t#* (! *#v#l('/#+t ( ASAT 3#'(+$ t&#!# 3$ %(+$i*#!)l#

!#$(+ t( )# ''!#&#+$iv# )(,t 'l,$i)l# &!/,l i+t#!#!#+%#. B#!#l/i! s!ould &v#

#+t#!#* i+t( i+t#!+ti(+l %(+$,ltti(+$ 3it& T&#/i$t( (! +" (t&#! #x'#!i#+%#* Stt# i+ t&i$

!#!*. O! t t&# v#!" l#$t ll(3#* t&# '!('($#* %(+$,ltti(+ !(/ T&#/i$t( )" l#tti+ t&#

%!#3 ( Mi!+*7IV %%#$$ t( O)#!(+.

II./.2./e"$e*m#" 7as '#o*a%e( %7e ()e "e$a"( -"#!#-*e o& A"%#*e I o& %7e OSTD

B#!#l/i! &$ vi(lt#* it$ *,t" t( %(+*,%t ll (,t#! $'%# %tiviti#$ 3it& Y*,# !#!*0 t( t&#

%(!!#$'(+*i+ i+t#!#$t$ ( ll (t&#! '!ti#$ t( t&# t!#t" ',!$,+t t( A!ti%l# I9 OST.

>5

T&i$ i$ 82 Ibid

83 Ibid

84I+t#!+ti(+l L3 A$$(%iti(+ 'eport of t!e International Space Law Committee !$3C(+#!#+%# :@ 16>> S.M. illi/$ 5nvironmental 'is4s and Space (ctivities PROC.COLL. SP. L. 1>2 16>=.

85OST supra +(t# 1 !t.I9.

17



3#ll #$t)li$&#* #+#!l '!i+%i'l# ( i+t#!+ti(+l l3 3&#!#i+ Stt# &$ t( t?# i+t(

%(+$i*#!ti(+ l#iti/t# i+t#!#$t$ ( (t&#! Stt#$ 3&#+ it #x#!%i$#$ it$ !##*(/ ( %ti(+.>:

B#i+ '!t" t( t&# O,t#! S'%# T!#t">=

B#!#l/i! /,$t (ll(3 t&# ()liti(+$ (

i+t#!+ti(+l %(('#!ti(+ +* +(+7i+t#!#!#+%#. I+ t&# i+$t+t %$# B#!#l/i! &$ +(t (+l" +(t

!#$(!t#* t( i+t#!+ti(+l %(+$,ltti(+$ $ /+*t#* ,+*#! OST ),t )lt+tl" !#,$#* t( &v#

+" $,%& %(+$,ltti(+ #v#+ 3&#+ '!('($#* )" t&# (t&#! '!t".

II.C.T7e "easo!s $#'e! 6 %7e "e+ o& Oe"o! %o "e&)se aess %o %7e "e+ o& M#"a!(a

+e"e )!+a""a!%e(D

B#!#l/i! *i*+0t !#$'(+* t( t&# C(+$,ltti(+ +* Vi$itti(+ '!('($l>> ( T&#/i$t( (! 5@

*"$ +* !#,$#* '#!/i$$i(+ ,$t *" )#(!# Mi!+*7IV0$ l,+%&. T&# !#$(+ (! !#,$l

3$ t&t T&#/i$t(0$ %!#3 &* $#!vi+ /ilit!" '#!$(++#l 3&#!#$ i+ I+t#!+ti(+l S'%# l3

ll $t!(+,t$ !# ;#+v("$ ( /+?i+*<.>6 S,)$#,#+tl" 3&#+ Mi!+*7IV !#%&#* O)#!(+

+* !#,#$t#* %%#$$ t&#" !#,$#* %iti+ t&# ,+t#$t#* %(,'li+ ( Mi!+*7IV 3&i%& /i&t%!#t# !i$?" $it,ti(+ i+ *(%?i+ O)#!(+ 3it& Mi!+*7IV. L$tl" 3&#+ t&# Mi!+*7IV

%!#3 (#!#* t( #+t#! ,$i+ #xt!7v#&i%,l! $'%#3l? t&#" 3#!# !#,$#* +* +( ,!t&#!

!#$(+$ 3#!# %it#* (! !#,$l.

II.C.1. T7e"e #s !o so-e &o" m#*#%a"6 e7a!$e #! O)%e" S-aeD

86Fi$&#!i#$ J,!i$*i%ti(+ UK v. I%#l+* ICJ R#'(!t$ 1 16=8.

87C(/'!(/i$ , -=.

88 C(/'!(/i$ 16.

89OST supra +(t# 1 !t. V.

18



A!ti%l# V ( t&# O,t#! S'%# T!#t"6@ '!(vi*#$ t&t Stt# P!ti#$ t( t&# T!#t" $&ll !#!*

$t!(+,t$ $ envoys of mankind i+ (,t#! $'%# +* A!ti%l# IV $tt#$ t&t t&# ,$# ( /ilit!"

'#!$(++#l (! $%i#+tii% !#$#!%& (! (! +" (t&#! '#%#,l ',!'($#$ $&ll +(t )# '!(&i)it#*.

T&# i+t#!+ti(+l %(//,+it" &$ l(+ !#!*#* $t!(+,t$ $ /#/)#!$ ( ,+i,# +*

$'#%il %l$$.61 A+ #+v(" !+?$ ,$t )#l(3 + /)$$*(! +* l3"$ i$ + #+t

/#$$#+#!.6- T&#!#(!# t&#!# i$ +( %%#'t#* *i#!#+titi(+ )#t3##+ t&# %!#3 ( $'%#

v#&i%l#$ i+*,l#* i+ %ivili+ $'%# #x'l(!ti(+ +* &#+%# t&# !#$(+ (! *#/+*i+

*i#!#+t %!#3 t&+ #x'#%t#* $ 3$ iv#+ )" t&# %!#3 ( O)#!(+ i$ )$,!*.

A"$)e!(o C(+$i*#!i+ ),t +(t %(+%#*i+ #v#+ i t&# !#$(+ iv#+ )" t&# %!#3 ( O)#!(+

3#!# vli* (+# it 3$ ,+%%#'t)l# $i+%# t&# %!#3 ( O)#!(+ l$( &* $#!vi+ /ilit!"

'#!$(++#l (+ )(!*62 3&i%& i$ 3&" t&#" 3#!# $,)#%t t( Y%(,!t /!til0.68

II.C.2.T7e )!%es%e( (o#!$ +as a! )!&o)!(e( "easo!D

90 Ibid

91H,/+ S'%# Fli&t R#,i!#/#+t$ (! C!#3 +* S'%# Fli&t P!ti%i'+t$ =1 F#*. R#.=5:1: =5:-8 D#%. 15 -@@:.

92 Al*( A. C(%%. Prospective Space Law 1 J. SPACE L. 51 16>>.

93C(/'!(/i$ 25.

94 P#('l# v. V+ All#+ 55 N. . 21 C!v#! v. U. S. 1: Ct. CI. 2:1 U. S. v. M%?#+4i# 2@F#*. C$. 11:@.

19



T&# %!#3 ( &iranda0I+ 3$ !#,$#* '#!/i$$i(+ t( *(%? 3it& Oberon (+ t&# )$i$ t&t t&#

,+t#$t#* %(,'li+ ( t&#i! !#$'#%tiv# *(%?i+65 $"$t#/$ '($#* + ,+%%#'t)l# !i$? t( )(t&

%!#3$.6:

D(%?i+ /#%&+i$/ i+v(lv#$ (+# $'%#%!t %tiv#l" /+#,v#!i+ ,+*#! it$ (3+ '!(',l$i(+

t( %(++#%t t( +(t&#! $'%#%!t.6= It 3(!?$ i+ /++#! t&t *i#!#+t +ti(+$ &v# *i#!#+t

3"$ ( *(%?i+ (t&#! v#&i%l#$ (! $'%# $&,ttl#$ 3it& t&#i!$ +* /?# it %(/'ti)l# 3it& t&#i!

$'%# $tti(+$ 6> I+ t&# '!#$#+t %$# Y,+t#$t#*0 /#+$ t&t t&# O)#!(+ 3$ +(t &vi+ t&#

'!#!#,i$it#$ t( *(%? t&# l,+%& v#&i%l# ( T&#/i$t(. H(3#v#! t&# %t t&t C'ti+ (

O)#!(+ *(%?#* Mi!+*7IV 3it& O)#!(+66 3it&(,t +" $,%& %(+$i*#!ti(+$ %l#!l" +#t#$

t&# '($$i)ilit" ( +" !i$?$ i+v(lv#* i+ *(%?i+.

II../e"$e*m#" 7as '#o*a%e( %7e -"#!#-*es o& #!%e"!a%#o!a* oo-e"a%#o! )!(e" %7e

)s%oma"6 #!%e"!a%#o!a* *a+ a!( s-ae *a+D

T&# UN C&!t#! #x'!#$$l" '!(vi*#$ (! t&# +##* t( ;*#v#l(' !i#+*l" !#lti(+$< )#t3##+$tt#$1@@+* ;%!!" (,t ll t&# ()liti(+$ i+ ((* it&<. 1@1 T&#$# '!(vi$i(+$ !#l#%t t&#

95 NASA International Doc4ing StandardiHation 15 M!. 1= -@@6.

96C(/'!(/i$ -1.

97Supra +(t# 21.

98E,!('#+ S'%# A#+%" H,/+ S'%# Fli&t +* Ex'l(!ti(+&tt'333.#$.i+tO,!A%tiviti#$H,/+S'%#li&tO+#*(%?i+!i+t(!,l#t&#/lll$t ,'*t#* J,+. 2 -@18.

99C(/'!(/i$ 28.

100C&!t#! ( t&# U+it#* Nti(+$ !t. 1 !t. 55 1685.

101H+$ #&)#! Pacta Sunt Servanda 52 AMERICAN JOURNAL OF I NTERNATIONAL LA ==5 1656 J($# L. K,+4 !e &eaning and !e 'ange of !e 1orm Pacta Sunt Servanda

20



%,$t(/!" i+t#!+ti(+l l3 +* %+ )# !#!*#* $ jus cogens.1@- T&# '!i+%i'l# (

i+t#!+ti(+l %(('#!ti(+ &$ )##+ i!/#* t( )" t&# ICJ i+ t&# %$# ( /abci4ovo0

1agymaros Project =GE. A!ti%l# I III I9 +* 9I ( t&# OST +* A!ti%l#$ II IV 9I ( t&# M((+

T!#t" l$( '!(vi*# (! i+t#!+ti(+l /,t,l %(('#!ti(+ (! #x'l(!ti(+ +* i$ )i+*i+ ,+*#!

'!#$#+t i+t#!+ti(+l l31@8

I+ t&# '!#$#+t %$# 3&#!# B#!#l/i! &* *#+i#* %%#$$ t( T&#/i$t( (! vi$iti+ O)#!(+ it

&$ %t#* i+ vi(lti(+ ( %,$t(/!" i+t#!+ti(+l l3 +* '!(vi$i(+$ ( i+t#!+ti(+l

%(('#!ti(+ ( OST.

III. /e"$e*m#" #s *#a*e &o" &a#*#!$ %o mae "easo!a*e a!( !eessa"6 e&&o"%s %o "es)e

%7e "e+ o& M#"a!(a I: )!%#* #% +as %oo *a%e a!( &o" %7e (ea%7 o& ; meme"s o&

%7a% "e+D

26 AMERICAN JOURNAL OF I NTERNATIONAL LA 1>@ 1685.

102 N,%l#! T#$t C$#$ N#3 #l+* v. F!+%# 16=8 ICJ R#'(!t$ 8=2 8>> J($# L.K,+4 !e 1ature of Customary Law 8= AMERICAN JOURNAL OF I NTERNATIONAL LA ::-1652 G *us Cogens )eyond t!e +ienna Convention 16>1 H,# A%*#/" (I+t#!+ti(+l L3 R#%,#il *#$ C(,!$ 1=- R#l Ni#t(7Nvi International Peremptory

1orms -*us Cogens. (nd International ;umanitarian Law in MANS I NHUMANIT TO MANESSAS O N I NTERNATIONAL LA I N HONOUR OF A NTONIO CASSESE :1: -@@2.

103G)%i?(v(7N"/!($ P!(#%t C$# ICJ R#'(!t$ = 166=.

104G",l GQl Some 'emar4s to /eneral Clauses of reaty Space Law PROC. 8:

TH

COLL. L.OUTER SP. -@@2.

21



T&# (!#/($t1@5 i+t#!+ti(+l l3 ()liti(+ (! t!#t" ()liti(+ (! $$i$t+%# (! !#$%,# (

$t!(+,t$ i$ (v#!+#* '!i/!il" )" t3( i+t#!+ti(+l t!#ti#$ *!t#* +* '!(/,lt#* )" t&#

U+it#* Nti(+$ t&# O,t#! S'%# T!#t"1@: +* t&# R#$%,# A!##/#+t1@=. Si+%# t&# R#',)li%

( B#!#l/i! i$ t&# (,+*i+ /#/)#! ( t&# U+it#* Nti(+$ 1@>it i$ l$( )(,+*1@6 t( %!!" (,t

ll ()liti(+$ t&t !i$# $ '#! t&# C&!t#! ( t&# U+it#* Nti(+$ +* D#%l!ti(+ (+

P!i+%i'l#$ ( I+t#!+ti(+l L3 %(+%#!+i+ F!i#+*l" R#lti(+$ +* C(7('#!ti(+ /(+

Stt#$ i+ %%(!*+%# 3it& t&# C&!t#! ( t&# U+it#* Nti(+$.

III.A. /e"$e*m#" #s *#a*e as -e" %7e O)%e" S-ae T"ea%6 a!( %7e Re%)"! A$"eeme!%D

T&# #+ti!# ,!i$'!,*#+%#11@ )#&i+* t&# O,t#! S'%# T!#t" +* t&# R#$%,# A!##/#+t i/$ t

t&# $# +* '!(/'t !#t,!+ ( $t!(+,t$. 111 F,!t&#! t&#" $&(,l* )# t!#t#* $ #+v("$ (

105Stt,t# ( t&# I+t#!+ti(+l C(,!t J,$ti%# !t 2> 1 T. J. LARENCE THEPRINCIPLES OF INTERNATIONAL LA =t& #* 1615 K#l$(+ State 'esponsibility and

t!e (bnormally Dangerous (ctivity 12 HARVARD INTERNATIONAL LA JOURNAL16= 16=- O. S%&%&t#! 'ecent rends in International Law0&a4ing 1- AUSTRALIANEARBOOK INTERNATIONAL LA 166- N(!t& S# C(+ti+#+tl S&#l C$# [16:6]

ICJ R#' 2.

106 Ibid .

107A!##/#+t (+ t&# R#$%,# ( A$t!(+,t$ t&# R#t,!+ ( A$t!(+,t$ +* t&# R#t,!+ (O)#%t$ L,+%&#* i+t( O,t#! S'%# :=- UNTS 116 A'!. -- 16:> ;R#$%,# A!##/#+t<.

108C(/'!(/i$ -.

109H+$ #&)#! Pacta Sunt Servanda 52 AMERICAN JOURNAL OFINTERNATIONAL LA ==5 1656 J($# L. K,+4 !e &eaning and !e 'ange of !e

1orm Pacta Sunt Servanda 26 AMERICAN JOURNAL OF INTERNATIONAL LA 1>@1685.

110Vi#++ C(+v#+ti(+ (+ t&# l3 ( T!#ti#$ D(+# t Vi#++ (+ -2 M" 16:6 U.N. D(%.AC(+. 26-= 1155 UNTS 221 !t 211 J+. -= 16>@ YVCLT0.

111R. C. Hll 'escue and 'eturn of (stronauts on 5art! and in Outer Space :2AMERICAN JOURNAL OF INTERNATIONAL LA 16= 16:6.

22



/+?i+*.11- C(+%l,$iv#l"112 it %+ )# $i* t&# #+ti!# ()#%tiv#118 i$ t&# )#+#it ( t&#

$t!(+,t$.115

A!ti%l# I ( t&# O,t#! S'%# T!#t" %ll$ ,'(+ Stt#$ t( %(('#!t# 3it& #%& (t&#! i+ t&#i!

$'%# %tiviti#$.11:A!ti%l# V ( t&# O,t#! S'%# T!#t" %ll$ ,'(+ +ti(+$ t( !#!* $t!(+,t$

$ ;#+v("$ ( /+?i+*< +* '!(vi*#$ (! li/it#* ()liti(+ t( !#+*#! ;ll '($$i)l#

$$i$t+%# ;i+ t&# #v#+t ( %%i*#+t (! *i$t!#$$.< F,!t&#! $,%& $$i$t+%# &$ )##+ %l#!l"

()lit#* t( #xt#+* t( t&# (,t#! $'%# i+ t&# A!ti%l# it$#l. 11=

A!ti%l# 2 ( t&# R#$%,# A!##/#+t l$( %ll$ ,'(+ $$i$t+%#11>

( $i+t(!" $tt#$ i+ %$# ( *i$t!#$$ #/#!#+%" %%i*#+t.116A!ti%l# 8 ( t&# R#$%,# A!##/#+t l$( '!(vi*#$ (!

112OST supra +(t# 1 !t. V.

113A$"l,/ C$# P#!, v. C(l,/)i [165@] ICJ R#' --: -=5 ->- Ri&t$ ( Nti(+l$ (t&# USA i+ M(!(%%( [165-] ICJ R#' 1=: 16:.

114R#$#!vti(+$ t( t&# C(+v#+ti(+ (+ t&# P!#v#+ti(+ +* P,+i$&/#+t ( t&# C!i/# (G#+(%i*# A*vi$(!" O'i+i(+ [1651] ICJ R#' 15 -27-8 US Di'l(/ti% +* C(+$,l! Sti+ T#&!+ USA v. I!+ [16>@] ICJ R#' 2.

115 supra +(t# 1@2.

116OST supra +(t# 1 !t. I.

117E*it(! N+*$i!i J$#+t,li"+ C(+t!i),t(!$ U+it#* Nti(+$ U+iv#!$it" I+t#!+ti(+lI+$tit,t# ( S'%# L3 &aintaining Outer Space for Peaceful 2ses: Proceedings of a

Symposium ;eld in t!e ;ague 6> U+it#* Nti(+$ U+iv#!$it" P!#$$ M!. 16>8.

118!e 'escue and 'eturn of (stronauts on 5art! and in Outer Space THE AMERICANJOURNAL OF INTERNATIONAL LA -@: II :2 A'!. 16:6.

119 supra +(t# 1@2.

23



()liti(+ (+ t&# !#$%,i+ $tt#$ t( !#t,!+ t&# $t!(+,t$.1-@ It ,$#$ t&# 3(!*$ $&ll t&,$

'!(/'tl" i/'l"i+ $t!(+ +* )$(l,ti$t ()liti(+.1-1

T&#!#(!# &!/(+i(,$ !#*i+1--

( t&# O,t#! S'%# T!#t" +* t&# R#$%,# A!##/#+t #+til$

(,! %(+*iti(+$ t( ()li# Stt# t( '!(vi*# $$i$t+%# (! !#$%,#.1-2 T&# $ti$%ti(+ ( +" (+#

( t&# %(+*iti(+$ %!#t#$ t&# ()liti(+.1-8 I+ t&# i+$t+t %$# t&!## %(+*iti(+$1-5 $t+* %l#!l"

$ti$i#* i!$tl" %%i*#+t1-: $#%(+*l" #/#!#+%"1-= +* t&i!*l" *i$t!#$$1->.

III.A.1. M#"a!(a I: 7a( e!o)!%e"e( a! a#(e!%D

120 N+*$i!i J$#+t,li"+ reaty Law and Outer Space: Can t!e 2nited 1ations Play an

5ffective 'oleJ 11 A++l$ Ai! S'%# L3 -16 --2 16>:.

121H#i*i K### &a4ing t!e "inal "rontier "easible: ( Critical Loo4 at t!e Current )ody of

Outer Space Law, SANTA CLARA COMPUTER HIGH TECHNOLOG LAJOURNAL 285 28> 1665.

122St#'&#+ G(!(v# Legal Problems of t!e 'escue and 'eturn of (stronauts 16t& C(+!#$$

( t&# I+t#!+ti(+l A$t!(+,ti%l F#*#!ti(+ (+ O%t()#! 1= 16:> i+ N#3 (!? Cit".

123 N+*$i!i J$#+t,li"+ International Space Law and !e 2nited 1ations KLUERLA INTERNATIONAL 1666 16- M(! C&!l#$ A. Ri%%i( J!. (not!er Step "or

&an4ind0 !e (greement On !e 'escue Of (stronauts (nd !e 'eturn Of Objects

Launc!ed Into Outer Space 1- U.S.A.F. JAG L. R#v. 18- 16=@ 18=.

124 supra +(t# 1@2 !t. 8 R#)#%% M!ti+ Legal 'amifications of t!e 2ncontrolled 'eturn

of Space Objects to 5art! 85 JOURNAL OF AIR LA AND COMMERCE 8:1 16>1.

125 supra +(t# 1@6 Ri&t$ ( Nti(+l ( T&#USA i+ M(!(%%( [165-] ICJ R#'. 1=: 16:.

126P,l G. D#/)li+ D+i#l M. A!(+$ !e reaty on 'escue and 'eturn of (stronauts and

Space Objects ILLIAM AND MAR LA REVIE 6 :2@7::2 16:>.

127See [16=5] - #!)((? ( ILC :@ U.N. D(%. ACN.8SER.A16=5A**.1 =:.V.8C(//#+t!i#$ t( t&# D!t A!ti%l#$ (+ R#$'(+$i)ilit" ( Stt#$.

128See C&i%( C(+v#+ti(+ (+ Civil Aviti(+ !t. -5 1688.

24



A%%i*#+t &$ )##+ ,+*#!$t((* t( )# (+# 3&#!# t&#!# i$ + ,+#x'#%t#* (! ,+,$,l #v#+t (!

&''#+i+ t&t i$ #xt#!+l t( t&# '$$#+#!$ (3+ i+t#!+l !#%ti(+ t( t&# ,$,l +(!/l +*

#x'#%t#* ('#!ti(+ ( t&# i!%!t 3&i%& %,$#$ i+,!".1-6 O+ t&# )$i$ ( /'l# '!#%#*#+t$ i+

$it,ti(+$ i+v(lvi+ i!%!t /l,+%ti(+ ( $'%#%!t (! it$ %(lli$i(+ 3it& +(t&#! ()#%t

%+ )# i+t#!'!#t#* t( )# i+%l,*#* 3it&i+ t&# t#!/ %%i*#+t.12@

I+ t&# i+$t+t %$# t#! &vi+ #+%(,+t#!#* + %%i*#+t (+%# 3&#+ i+ Hli/#*# it$

'#!$(++#l i+ #+%(,+t#!#* $i/il! #v#+t i+ Mi!+* IV.121 T&# */# ( it$ !#7#+t!"

$&i#l* *i* +(t ll i+t( it$ ,$,l %(,!$# ( ('#!ti(+ +(! 3$ it !#$,lt ( +" ( it$ ('#!ti(+

i+ it$ ,$,l %(,!$#. It i$ %(+$'i%,(,$ %$# ( %%i*#+t 3&#!#i+ 'i#%# ( *#)!i$

,+#x'#%t#*l" %(lli*#* 3it& it$ $&i#l* t v#!" &i& $'##*.

III.A.2. T7e"e +as a s#%)a%#o! o& eme"$e!6D

E/#!#+%" &$ )##+ *#i+#* $ YA $#!i(,$ ,+#x'#%t#* +* '(t#+till" *+#!(,$ $it,ti(+

!#,i!i+ i//#*it# %ti(+0.12-

A+ #/#!#+%" $it,ti(+ !i$#$ 3&#+ t&#!# !# ,+(!#$##)l#t#%&+i%l *#v#l('/#+t$ (%%,!!i+ i+ t&# $'%# %tivit".122 T&#!#)" it i$ #$$#+till" ,#$ti(+

( %t 3&i%& /,$t )# +$3#!#* )" #vi*#+%#.128

129Ai! F!+%# v. S?$ 8=@ U.S. 26- 16>5.

130 supra +(t# 1--.

131C(/'!(/i$ ->.

132Ct&#!i+# S(+#$ #*. T&# C(/'%t Ox(!* R##!#+%# Di%ti(+!" -:> -@@1.

133il!#* J#+?$ Space Law 16:5 St#'&#+ G(!(v# !e 'ecovery and 'eturn of Objects

Launc!ed into Outer Space 8 I+t#!+ti(+l L3"#! :>: 16=@.

134J($#'& A. B($%( International Law 'egarding Outer Space0(n Overview 55 JOURNAL

OF AIR LA COMMERCE :@6 :-- 166@ C&!i$t('&#! D. illi/$ Space: !eCluttered "rontier :@ JOURNAL OF AIR LA COMMERCE 1126 1185 1665.

25



I+ t&# i+$t+t %$# $ &$ l!#*" )##+ %(+t#+*#* i+ iii 1 t&t Mi!+* IV &*

#+%(,+t#!#* + %%i*#+t. F,!t&#!/(!# i+ t&# li&t ( )$#+%# ( +" $$i$t+%# (! li#

$,''(!t $,''li#$ !(/ Hli/#*# +* Mi!+*0$ (3+ li/it#* $,''li#$125 %(,'l#* 3it& it$

i+%')ilit" t( !#7#+t#! E!t&0$ t/($'&#!#12: &* ',t t&# li# ( t&# '#!$(++#l ( t&#

$'%#%!t i+ + #xt!#/#l" *+#!(,$ $it,ti(+.

III.A.. T7e"e +as (#s%"essD

I+ Ri+)(3 !!i(! A!)it!ti(+ t&# $it,ti(+ ( *i$t!#$$ 3$ +l"4#*. 12= It '!(vi*#* t&t

$it,ti(+ ( ,!#+%" /,$t #xi$t. I+ t&i$ !#$'#%t *i$t!#$$ +##*$ t( )# ,+*#!$t((* $ $tt# (

*+#! (! *i!# +#%#$$it" t( t&# $t!(+,t +* t&# '#!$(++#l ( t&# S'%# ()#%t.12>

I+ t&# i+$t+t %$# t&#!# '!#vil#* *+#!(,$ $it,ti(+ $ &$ l!#*" )##+ %(+t#+*#* i+

iii 1 ). T&i$ %(,'l#* 3it& SEAT0$ i+)ilit" t( '!#'!# +(t&#! Mi!+* IV )#(!# 6 t&

M!%& i.#. )#"(+* t&# li/it ( t&# li# $,''(!t $,''li#$ +* %')iliti#$ ( t&# (!ii+l

Mi!+* IV126 &* %!#t#* $it,ti(+ ( *i!# +#%#$$it" t( $##? !#,# !(/ O)#!(+ )#t3##+

:t&7=t& M!%&.

III.A.;. /e"$e*m#" +as #! a -os#%#o! %o e%e!( ass#s%a!eD

135C(/'!(/i$ 2-.

136C(/'!(/i$ 21.

137>- I+t#!+ti(+l L3 R#'(!t$ 866 555.

138D((littl# &an in Space: !e rescue and return of Downed (stronauts 6 AFJAG L. R#v.5 16:=.

139C(/'!(/i$ 2-.

26



A C(+t!%ti+ P!t" 3(,l* +(t )# !#,i!#* t( #+*+#! t&# liv#$ ( t&# '$$#+#!$ +* %!#3

( (+# ( it$ $&i'$ i $,%& 3(,l* )# t&# !#$,lt ( it$ #+i+ i+ !#$%,# #(!t. 18@ T&#!#(!#

$ '!%ti%l /tt#! t&# /#$,!# ( $$i$t+%# t( )# !#+*#!#* 3ill *#'#+* (+ t&# vil)l#

/#+$ t t&# *i$'($l ( t&# '!t" '!(vi*i+ $$i$t+%#.181

I+ t&# i+$t+t %$# B#!#l/i! &* #+(,& !#$(,!%#$ t( '!(vi*# !#,# t( t&# %!#3 ( Mi!+*

IV %(+$i$t#+t 3it& it$ +##* t( /i+ti+ it$ '!iv%".

At t&# ti/# ( %%i*#+t O)#!(+ &* %!#3 ( 1@ (+ )(!*18- $ (''($#* t( %')ilit" (

%!!"i+ ,'t( 1> '#('l#.182

O)#!(+ &* t&# ('ti(+ ( '!(vi*i+ !#,# t( t&# %!#3 ( Mi!+*IV i+ +" ( t&# 2188 &)itti(+ /(*,l#$185 (! t&# l,+%&i+ v#&i%l# *(%?#* 3it& it 18: )#i+

%(+$i$t#+t 3it& it$ +##* ( /i+ti+i+ %(+i*#+tilit". T&# %t t&t O)#!(+ &* t&#

%')ilit" t( %(/'ti)l" *(%? Mi!+* IV %+ l$( )# $%#!ti+#* !(/ t&# %ti(+$ ( C't.

A+*#!$(+ (+ >t& M!%&.18=

III./. /e"$e*m#" #s o*#$e( )!(e" %7e -"#!#-*e o& <(e'e*o- &"#e!(*6 "e*a%#o!s8D

140 supra +(t# 1-2.

141 Id .

142C(/'!(/i$ -=.

143C(/'!(/i$ =.

144C(/'!(/i$ =.

145C(/'!(/i$ 25.

146C(/'!(/i$ 15.

147C(/'!(/i$ 28.

27



T&# C&!t#! ( t&# U+it#* Nti(+$ #x'!#$$l" '!(vi*#$ (! t&# +##* t( *#v#l(' !i#+*l"

!#lti(+$ )#t3##+ t&# Stt#$.18> T&# ()liti(+$ $&(,l* )# %!!i#* (,t i+ ((* it&. 186 T&#

'!(vi$i(+$ ( t&# UN C&!t#! %+ +"3"$ )# /($t %(/(!t)l" %l$$ii#* $ %,$t(/!"

i+t#!+ti(+l l3 l$(.15@ T&# i+$t+t '!i+%i'l# %+ )# !#!*#* $ J,$ C(#+$151 $i+%#

'#%#,l +* !i#+*l" %(7#xi$t#+%# )#t3##+ +ti(+ $tt#$ i$ (+# ( t&# /($t i/'(!t+t

'&il($('&i#$ )#&i+* t&# U+it#* Nti(+$ it$#l.15-

It i$ &,/)l" %(+t#+*#* t&t )#i+ '!t" t( t&# C&!t#! B#!#l/i! i$ )(,+* t( %!!" (,t ll

()liti(+$ t&t !i$# +* $&(,l* &v# #xt#+*#* $$i$t+%# t( T&#/i$t( i+ %%(!*+%# 3it&

t&# $/#.152

I:. T7e *a#ms a!( asse"%#o!s ma(e 6 /e"$e*m#" a"e )!%e!a*eD

It i$ &,/)l" 'l#*#* t&t B#!#l/i! $ %li/$ i+$t T&#/i$t( )# %(+$i*#!#* i+ t&# li&t (

*(%t!i+# ( %l#+ &+*$ +* A!ti%l# :@ ( t&# Vi#++ C(+v#+ti(+ (+ T&# L3 ( T!#ti#$.

T&#/i$t( %++(t )# &#l* li)l# $ '#! t&# '!(vi$i(+$ ( t&# Li)ilit" C(+v#+ti(+158

OST155

(! CIL.

148C&!t#! ( t&# U+it#* Nti(+$ !t. 1 !t. 55.

149 supra +(t# 188 !t. --.

150J($# L. K,+4 !e 1ature of Customary Law 8= AMERICAN JOURNAL OFINTERNATIONAL LA0 ::- 1652.

151G J,$ C(#+$ B#"(+* t&# Vi#++ C(+v#+ti(+ 16>1 H,# A%*#/" (I+t#!+ti(+l L3 R#%,#il *#$ C(,!$ 1=-.

152 supra +(t# 188 P!#/)l#.

153 supra +(t# 1@5.

154C(+v#+ti(+ (+ I+t#!+ti(+l Li)ilit" (! D/# C,$#* )" S'%# O)#%t$ -8 U.S.T.-2>6 16=2.

28



I:.A. /e"$e*m#" 7as a--"oa7e( %7e Co)"% +#%7 )!*ea! 7a!(sD

T&# *(%t!i+# ( %l#+ &+*$ i$ '!i+%i'l# ( #,it" +* ,*i%il '!(%#*,!# !#%(+i4#* i+ ll

l#l $"$t#/$15:

)" 3&i%& &# 3&( $##?$ t&# $$i$t+%# ( %(,!t /,$t %(/# 3it& %l#+

&+*$.15= I+ Milit!" +* P!/ilit!" A%tiviti#$ i+ +* i+$t Ni%!, %$# it 3$ &#l*

t&t )#i+ t&# ;!#$$(!< Ni%!, *i* +(t &v# %l#+ &+*$ t( ''!(%& t&# C(,!t.15>

I+ t&# '!#$#+t %$# 3&#!# B#!#l/i! i$ i+*,li+ &#vil" i+ /ilit!" 3#'(+i4ti(+ i+ t&#

(,t#! $'%#156 i+ vi(lti(+ ( A!ti%l# IV +* A!ti%l# VI ( t&# OST it %(+ti+,#$ )#i+ t&#

!#$$(! ( $i/il! %l/iti#$ (! 3&i%& it $##?$ %(/'#+$ti(+. It i$ &,/)l" %(+t#+*#* t&tit$ %li/$ )# %(+$i*#!#* i+ t&# li&t ( $,%& %tiviti#$.

B" i+*,li+ i+ $,%& %tiviti#$ B#!#l/i! &$ ),$#* it !i&t ( #x'l(!ti(+ ( t&# (,t#! $'%#

t( t&# *i$*v+t# ( it$ +#i&)(,!i+ +ti(+$ #$'#%ill" T&#/i$t(. T&#!#)" it &$ %t#*

%(+t!!" t( it$ *,t" t( +(t i+,!# t&# !i&t$ ( (t&#! $tt#$ +* *(%t!i+# ( ((*

+#i&)(,!li+#$$.

I:.A.1. /e"$e*m#" 7as a)se( #%s "#$7%sD

T&#!# #xi$t$ !#$t!i+t (+ t&# !##*(/ ( %ti(+ 3&i%& Stt# #+("$ )" vi!t,# ( it$

i+*#'#+*#+%# +* t#!!it(!il +* '#!$(+l $,'!#/%" 3&i%& i$ t( )# (,+* i+ t&# '!(&i)iti(+

155OST supra +(t# 1.

156Case Concerning &ilitary and Paramilitary (ctivities in and against 1icaragua Ni%!, v. U+it#* Stt#$ ( A/#!i% 16>: ICJ R#'(!t$ 18 -=1 =-.

157Case Concerning Legality of 2se of "orce ,($lvi v. B#li,/ 1666 ICJ R#'(!t$1-8.

158 supra +(t# 15-.

159C(/'!(/i$ 1:.

29



( t&# ),$# )" $tt# ( !i&t #+("#* )" vi!t,# ( i+t#!+ti(+l l3. 1:@ A),$#1:1 ( !i&t$

(%%,!$ 3&#+ $tt# vil$ it$ !i&t i+ + !)it!!" /++#! $( $ t( i+li%t ,'(+ +(t&#! $tt#

+ i+,!" 3&i%& %++(t )# ,$tii#* )" l#iti/t# %(+$i*#!ti(+ ( it$ (3+ *v+t#.1:-

I+ t&# '!#$#+t %$# 3&#!# B#!#l/i! i$ i+*,li+ i+ $,%& %tiviti#$ ( /ilit!" 3#'(+i4ti(+

$ i$ /?i+ (t&#! $tt#$ $,$%#'ti)l# t( t&# *+#! ( %(lli$i(+ 3it& $'%# *#)!i$1:2 i+

*i$!#!* ( A!ti%l# A!ti%l# IV +* A!ti%l# VI ( t&# O,t#! S'%# T!#t" it i$ ),$i+ it$

!i&t$. It l$( $##?$ %(/'#+$ti(+ (! %l/it" %,$#* )" $i/il! *+#! 3&#!#i+ it

%(+ti+,#$ )#i+ t&# !#$$(! ( t&# $/#.

It i$ &,/)l" %(+t#+*#* t&t it$ %li/$ )# %(+$i*#!#* i+ t&# li&t ( $,%& %tiviti#$.

I:.A.2. /e"$e*m#" 7as a%e( o!%"a"6 %o #%s ()%6 %o !o% #!)"e %7e "#$7%s o& o%7e" S%a%esD

160ARTHUR ATTS OPPENHEIMS I NTERNATIONAL LA 8@- 166-. CHENG GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF LA AS APPLIED B I NTERNATIONAL TRIBUNALS 1-172: 1652 H.

LAUTERPACHT DEVELOPMENT OF I NTERNATIONAL LA B THE I NTERNATIONAL COURT 1:-75165>.

161 "ree Kones of 2pper Savoy and t!e District of /eF S#!i#$ A N(.-8 '.1- +* S#!i#$AB N(. 8: '.1:= Certain /erman Interests in Polis! 2pper Silesia S#!i#$ A N(. = '. 2@

(nglo0 1orwegian "is!eries %$# ICJ R#'(!t$ 18- 1651.

162ATTS , $,'! +(t# 15:.

163 'efer C(+t#+ti(+ I.

30

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T&# )$i%1:8 *,t" ,'(+ Stt#$ i$ +(t t( %t $( $ t( i+,!# t&# !i&t$ ( (t&#! $tt#$ 1:5 t#!!it(!"

( (t&#! $tt#$ (! t&# '!('#!ti#$ t&#!#i+1::+* t( %t i+ ((* it&1:= +* $,%& *,t" i$ +(3 '!t

( i+t#!+ti(+l l3.1:>

It i$ &,/)l" %(+t#+*#* t&t 3&#!# B#!#l/i! i$ ,!t&#!i+ ,$# ( O)#!(+ (! $,%& %tiviti#$

$ 3(,l* /?# (t&#! $'%#%!t$ $,$%#'ti)l# t( %%i*#+t$ i+ t&# (,t#! $'%# it i$ %ti+ i+

&i& *i$!#!* ( t&i$ *,t".

I:.A.. /e"$e*m#" 7as "ea7e( %7e -"#!#-*e o& Goo( Ne#$7o"*#!essD

Donog!ue v Stevenson li* *(3+ t&# *(%t!i+# ( /ood 1eig!borliness.1:6 T&i$ '!i+%i'l# &$

l$( (,+* #x'!#$$i(+ i+ t&# UN C&!t#!.1=@ T&# UN C(+#!#+%# (+ H,/+ E+vi!(+/#+t1=1

164Corfu C!annel Case 1686 ICJ R#'(!t$ 8 Di$$#+ti+ O'i+i(+ ( J,*# *# C$t!( i+ t&# 1uclear ests Case ICJ R#'(!t$ -52 2>> 16=8 Lac LanouF Case -8 ILR 1@1.

165T&# *(%t!i+# #x'!#$$#* )" J,*$(+ H!/(+ Att(!+#" G#+#!l ( t&# U+it#* Stt#$ i+1>65 -1 Op (tt9y /en -=8 ->2 1>65 International Commission on t!e 'iver Oder %$#PCIJ S#!i#$ A N(.-2 16-6 Case concerning t!e (uditing of (ccounts between t!e

1et!erlands and "rance !)it!l 3!* ( 1- M!%& -@@8 '!. 6=.

166rail Smelter Case 25 AJIL 1>- :>8 1681 J.E.R#* !e rail Smelter (rbitration, 1CANADIAN EARBOOK OF I NTERNATIONAL LA -12 16:2 R.Ki!i$ ec!nological

C!allenge of t!e S!ared 5nvironment: 2S Practice, :: AJIL -6116=8 G(l*i# ( /eneral

+iew of International 5nvironmental Law, 16=2 (cadmie de Droit International de La

;aye C(ll(,# -: ::76 16=2.

167S## t&# J(i+t Di$$#+ti+ O'i+i(+ i+ t&# (dmission Case, ICJ R#' =6 >@ 168> J,*#Alv!#4 i+ t&# A*/i$$i(+ /eneral (ssembly Case ICJ R#' 15 165@. S## l$( J,*#A+4il(tti i+ t&# 5lectricity Company of Sofia Case S#!i#$ AB N(. == '. >>.

168A*vi$(!" O'i+i(+ t( t&# UN G#+#!l A$$#/)l" i+ t&# Legality of !reat or 2se of

1uclear eapons, ICJ R#'(!t$ --: 166: /abci4ovo01agymaros Project H,+!" v.Sl(v?i 166= ICJ R#'(!t$ : := 166= Island of Palmas Case, 16-> - RIAA >-6 >26

'e3uest for an 5Famination of t!e Situation in (ccordance wit! Paragrap! >E of t!e 1uclear

ests Case =#?% %$# i+ 1665 ICJ R#'(!t$ ->> 2@: 1665.

169D(+(&,# v. St#v#+$(+ [162-] A.C. 5:- 5>@ St#++#tt v. H(+(%? [1626] All ER 5=>.

31



&(l*$ t&t t&# '!i+%i'l#1=- ()lit#$ $tt#$ #+t#!'!i$#$ +* i+*ivi*,l$ t( !#$'#%t t&# !i&t (

(t&#!$ t( '!ti%i't# i+ t&# #+("/#+t ( %(//,+it" !i&t$ +* i+ t&# $(%il '!(%#$$. 1=2 T&#

()liti(+ ( Stt#$ t( )$ti+ !(/ ill7t!#ti+ +(t&#! Stt# *i!#%tl" (! t&!(,& t&#i! #+t$

(!#i+ +ti(+l$ i$ + #$t)li$&#* '!i+%i'l# ( %,$t(/!" i+t#!+ti(+l l3.1=8 T&# %,$t(/!"

%&!%t#! 1=5 ( t&i$ !,l# i$ !#%(+i#* i+ v!i(,$ i+$t!,/#+t$1=: +* i+t#!+ti(+l *#%i$i(+$.1==

It i$ &,/)l" %(+t#+*#* t&t 3&#!# B#!#l/i! &$ ll(3#* t&# ,$# ( O)#!(+ (! %tiviti#$ t(

t&# '!#,*i%# ( #+("/#+t ( !i&t ( #x'l(!ti(+ ( t&# (,t#! $'%# ( (t&#! Stt#$ it &$

)!#%&#* t&# '!i+%i'l# ( /ood 1eig!borliness.

170 supra +(t# 188 , !t. =8.

171UN C(+#!#+%# (+ t&# H,/+ E+vi!(+/#+t P!i+%i'l# -1 16=-.

172G(l*i# supra +(t# 1:- '. :>.

173 Ibid

174S'#!*,ti 'esponsibility of States for (ctivities of Private Law Persons 1@ EPIL 2=275@16>=.

175Pi$ill(7M44#$%&i !e Due Diligence 'ule and t!e 1ature of t!e International

'esponsibility of States 166- 25 GERMAN EARBOOK OF I NTERNATIONAL LA --.

176U+iv#!$l D#%l!ti(+ ( H,/+ Ri&t$ !t. 2 !t. 1=1 168> A/#!i%+ D#%l!ti(+( t&# Ri&t +* D,ti#$ ( M+ !t. I !t. 99III 16:5 I+t#!+ti(+l C(v#++t (+ Civil+* P(liti%l Ri&t$ !t. 1 666 UNTS 1=1 16=: E,!('#+ C(+v#+ti(+ (+ H,/+ Ri&t$S#'t. 1652 !t. - ACHR J,l" 1> 16=> A!t.81 +* -1 AFHR O%t. 16>: !t. 8 18 -6.

177 'oberts Claim -&eFico02S. 16-: 8 RIAA == <oumans Claim -2S0&eFico. 8 RIAA11@ 11@711: 16-:.

32



I:./. /e"$e*m#"=s *a#ms a!( asse"%#o!s a $a#!s% T 7em#s%o a"e )!%e!a*e #! %7e *# $ 7% o&

A"%#*e >0?2@?@ a!( >0?@ o& %7e La+ o& T"ea%#esD

J,$ti%# !#,i!#$ t&t %(+t!%ti+ '!t" %++(t %(+ti+,# t( *#/+* %(+t!%t,l i*#lit" !(/

t&# (t&#! '+i#$ 3&#+ it *#,lt$ (+ it$ (3+ ()liti(+$ +* t&,$ ,'$#t$ t&# $"+ll/

!#%i'!(%it" ( '#!(!/+%# +* !#t,!+ *( ,t *#$. S,%& +#tiv# !#%i'!(%it" i$ 3#ll7?+(3+

!(/ t&# +ti(+l %(+t!%t l3 '!i+%i'l# inadimplenti non est adimplendum, +* i$ $( ,$t

#,it)l# ,+iv#!$ll" !#%(+i4#* t&t it /,$t )# ''li#*1=> i+ i+t#!+ti(+l !#lti(+$ l$(.1=6

T&i$ '!i+%i'l# (ll(3$ !(/ t&# '!i+%i'l# (! $(v#!#i+ #,lit" ( Stt#$.1>@

T&# Vi#++ C(+v#+ti(+ (+ t&# L3 ( T!#ti#$1>1 '!(vi*#$1>- t&t 3&#+#v#! t&#!# i$

/t#!il )!#%& ( /,ltilt#!l t!#t" )" (+# ( t&# '!ti#$ it #+titl#$1>2 '!t" $'#%ill"

#%t#* )" t&# )!#%& t( i+v(?# it $ !(,+* (! $,$'#+*i+ t&# ('#!ti(+ ( t&# t!#t" i+

178 IC* Legal Conse3uenses for States of t!e Continued Presence of Sout! (frica in 1amibia

Sout! est (frica. 1ot wit!standing Security Council 'esolution B?> -=#?G. A*vi$(!"O'i+i(+ ICJ R#'(!t$ 1: 16=1.

179 PCI* Diversion of ater from t!e &euse Di$$#+ti+ ('i+i(+ A+4il(tti PCIJ S#! AB N(=@. 5@ 162=.

180Stt#/#+t )" *# L,+ [16::7I1] BILC :-.

181 supra +(t# 1@:.

182 Legal Conse3uences for States of t!e Continued Presence of Sout! (frica in 1amibia

-Sout! est (frica. notwit!standing Security Council 'esolution B?> A*vi$(!" O'i+i(+16=1 I.C.J.R#'(!t$ 1:.

183 supra +(t# 1@: , !t. :@ - ).

33



t&# !#lti(+$ )#t3##+ it$#l +* t&# *#,lti+ Stt#.1>8 T&# !i&t ( $,$'#+$i(+1>5 #+$,!#$ t&t

t&# *#,lti+ Stt# *(#$ +(t #+(!%# t&# t!#t" i+$t t&# i++(%#+t '!t" 3&il# vi(lti+ it.1>:

I+ t&# '!#$#+t %$# t&# R#',)li% ( B#!#l/i! &$ )##+ *#'l("i+ t#%&+(l(" (! ,!t&#!+%#

( +ti7$t#llit# 3#'(+$ !(/ )#(!# t&# %%i*#+t.1>= A%%(!*i+l" 3&il# $$#!ti+ it$ %li/$

B#!#l/i! &$ +(t ''!(%&#* t&# C(,!t 3it& t&# %l#+ &+*$ t( t&# #xt#+t t&t it %(+ti+,#$

)#i+ t&# !#$$(! ( t&# $/# %l/it" (! 3&i%& it $##?$ %(/'#+$ti(+.

T&# t3( !#,i$it#$ (! i+v(?i+ A!ti%l# :@-) !# Z t&# *#,lti+ Stt# /,$t &v#

%(//itt#* /t#!il )!#%& ( t!#t"1>> +* t&t t&# i++(%#+t '!t" /,$t )# $'#%ill" #%t#*

)" $,%& )!#%&.

Mt#!il1>6 )!#%& ( t!#t" !##!$ t( )!#%& ( '!(vi$i(+ #$$#+til (! t&# %%(/'li$&/#+t

( t&# t!#t"0$ ()#%t +* ',!'($#16@ (! !#',*iti(+ 3&i%& #+%(/'$$#$ *#+,+%iti(+$ +(t

,$tii#* )" t&# C(+v#+ti(+.161

184 Ibid

185 Ibid !t. :5 5.

186ILC Report 1966 YBILC 1966 11 255 9.

187C(/'!(/i$ 1:.

188 supra +(t# 1@: !t. :@2.

189K AREN J. GREENBERG JOSHUA L. DRATEL THE TORTURE PAPERS >1 1@2 -@@5.

190Written statement by te !o"ernment o# te $nite% &tates o# 'meri(a) Legal

Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South Africa in Namibia

(South West Africa) Notwithstanding Security Council Resolution !"(#$!%)&

*+ea%in,s) -ra+ ar,ments. /o(ments) IC Reports 863) 864 1971.

191 supra +(t# 18-.

34



B" )!#%&i+ it$ ()liti(+$ t( +(t i+*,l# i+ /ilit!" 3#'(+i4ti(+ +* !#,$i+ t( &(l*

%(+$,ltti(+ 3it& T&#/i$t( 3it& !#!*$ t( &!/,l i+t#!#!#+%# )" $,%& /ilit!"

3#'(+i4ti(+ B#l#l/i! &$ *##t#* t&# ',!'($# ( Li)ilit" C(+v#+ti(+ ( ,!t&#!i+ t&#

#x'l(!ti(+ +* ,$# ( (,t#! $'%# (! '#%#,l ',!'($#$.

T&# t#!/ $'#%ill" #%t#* $ ,+*#!$t((* !(/ t&# Vi#++ C(+v#+ti(+ (+ C(+$,l!

R#lti(+$16- i$ l$( $ti$i#* i+ vi#3 ( T&#/i$t($ %(/'#titiv# '($iti(+ i+ t&# (,t#! $'%#

i+*,$t!"162 +* B#l#l/i!$ %li/$ i+$t T&#/i$t(.

A!ti%l# :@ ( t&# L3 ( T!#ti#$ (v#!l'$168 3it& t&# %,$t(/!" i+t#!+ti(+l l3 !,l#$ 165 (+

%(,+t#!/#$,!#$ i+ ILC A!ti%l#$ (+ R#$'(+$i)ilit" ( Stt#$ (! I+t#!+ti(+ll" !(+,l

A%t$.16: T&# /t#!il )!#%& ( t!#t" l3"$ /(,+t$ t( + i+t#!+ti(+ll" 3!(+,l %t 16=

ivi+ !i$# t( Stt# !#$'(+$i)ilit"16> +* %(+$#,#+t #x#!%i$# ( !#%tiv# !i&t$ $ '#!/itt#*

,+*#! A!ti%l# :@-).166

192OLIVER DRR K IRSTEN SCHMALENBACH VIENNA CONVENTION ON THE LA OF TREATIES A COMMENTAR 1@26 -@11.

193C(/'!(/i$ 8.

194G)%i?(v( supra +(t# 1:8 '. = Legal Conse3uences, supra +(t# 1=8 '. 1:.

195 supra +(t# 1@: !t. =2.

196ILC A!ti%l#$ (+ R#$'(+$i)ilit" ( Stt#$ (! I+t#!+ti(+ll" !(+,l A%t$. UNGA R#$5:>2 1- D#%#/)#! -@@1 A++#x UN D(% ARES5:>2. See A!t$ 86758.

197 Ibid, !t. -.

198 Ibid, !t. 8-.

199 Ibid, !t. 86 -.

35

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It i$ &,/)l" $,)/itt#* t&t T&#/i$t( )# '!(vi*#* '!(t#%ti(+ !(/ %li/$ ,i*#* )" A!ti%l#

:@-) ( t&# L3 ( T!#ti#$ i+t#!+ti(+l 3!(+ %(//itt#* )" B#l#l/i! +* it$

%(+$#,#+t !#$'(+$i)ilit".

I:.C. T 7em#s%o a!!o% e 7e*( *#a*e )!(e" $e!e"a* #!%e"!a%#o!a* *a+D

T&# '!i+%i'l#$ ( i+t#!+ti(+l li)ilit" !# )$#* ,'(+ t&# (,+*ti(+ ( t&# %,l')l# %(+*,%t

( Stt#$-@@ 3&i%& i/'li#$ ,lt" %(+*,%t.-@1 F,lt /" )# tt!i),t#* t( + %ti(+ 3&#+ t&# %t

i+ ,#$ti(+ i$ +(t !#$(+)l# +* '!,*#+t i+ t&# li&t ( t&# %i!%,/$t+%#$. -@- Al$( ,+*#!

#$t)li$&#* t(!t $t+*!*$ t&# )!#%& /,$t )# t&# '!(xi/t# %,$# ( t&# */# i+ (!*#! t(

)# /*# li)l# (! t&# */#.-@2 P!(xi/t# %,$#$ !#,i!#$ v(i*)ilit" +* (!$##)ilit" (

!i$?.-@8 T&# l3 (+ li)ilit" i+ i+t#!+ti(+l $'&#!# compre&#+$iv#l" !#,i!#$ $ti$%ti(+ ( t&!##

%(+$tit,#+t$Z1 ,lt" %(+*,%t - (!$##)ilit" +* 2 v(i*)ilit".I+ t&# '!#$#+t %$# t&# */# (! 3&i%& B#!#l/i! &(l*$ T&#/i$t( li)l# 3$ t&# !#$,lt (

%(lli$i(+ ( t&# $ %((l+t t+? ( Hli/#*# 3it& 'i#%# ( (!)itl *#)!i$ 3&i%& 3$ v#!"

$/ll i+ $i4# +* /$$ ,'(+ 3&i%& Hli/#*# &* +( %(+t!(l.-@5 Al$( )!#?i+ ( ( t&#

&)itti(+ /(*,l# +* it$ !#7#+t#!i+ t&# t/($'&#!# t#! t3( 3##?$ 3$ i+ +( 3"

200BESS C.M. R EIJNEN THE U NITED NATIONS SPACE TREATIES A NALSED 1=5 166-.

201IAN BRONLIE PRINCIPLES OF PUBLIC I NTERNATIONAL LA 881 166> E.R.C. VAN BOGAERT ASPECTS OF SPACE LA 1:= 16>:.

202MORRIS D. FORKOSCH OUTER SPACE AND LEGAL LIABILIT >@72 16>- BRUCE A.HURIT STATE LIABILIT FOR OUTER SPACE ACTIVITIES 1: 166-.

203J" Gi+$),! !e ;ig! "rontier: ort Claims and Liability for Damages Caused by

&an0&ade Space Objects 1- SUFFOLK TRANSNATIONAL LA JOURNAL 51516>6.

204See Ov#!$#$ T+?$&i' U.K. Lt*. v. Mill#! St#/$&i' C(. Pt". Lt*. , 16:: 1 All E.R.=@6.

205C(/'!(/i$ -2.

36



(!#$##)l# (! %(,l* &v# )##+ v(i*#* $ $'%# *#)!i$ t!v#l$ t t&# $'##* ( 1>@@@ /il#$

'#! &(,! i+ t&# l(3 #!t& (!)it. -@:

It i$ &,/)l" $,)/itt#* t&t T&#/i$t( %++(t )# &#l* li)l# (! t&# */# %,$#* t(

B#!#l/i!.

I:.. T 7em#s%o a!!o% e 7e*( *#a*e )!(e" O)%e" S-ae T"ea%6 a!( L#a#*#%6

Co!'e!%#o!D

A St# %+ )# &#l* li)l# ',!$,+t t( A!ti%l# VII ( t&# O,t#! S'%# T!#t" i it i+%,!$ +"

i+t#!+ti(+l li)ilit". I+t#!+ti(+l li)ilit" ,+*#! t&# OST !##!$ t( li)ilit" ,+*#! #+#!l

i+t#!+ti(+l l3 +/#l" ,lt7)$#* li)ilit"-@= $i+%# + )$(l,t# li)ilit" !#i/# 3$

*#li)#!t#l" l#t (,t.-@>

It i$ &,/)l" $,)/itt#* t&t 3&#!# T&#/i$t( %++(t )# /*# li)l# ,+*#! t&# ,lt )$#*

!#i/# it %++(t )# &#l* li)l# ,+*#! t&# OST.

206D!. illi/ S%&(+)#! ;eavens, !at a &essM ;ow to Deal wit! t!e Problem of Space

Debris C&i! ( Civil A!%&it#%t,!l +* E+vi!(+/#+tl E+i+##!i+ t Mi$$(,!i U+iv#!$it"( S%i#+%# +* T#%&+(l(" i+ l#%t,!# *#liv#!#* t t&# A%*#/" O S%i#+%# St. L(,i$.

207PETER MALANCUK HAFTUNG INK ARL7HEIN BOCKSTIEGEL HANDBUCH DES ELTRAUMRECHTS =>-75 1661.

208C!l . C&!i$t(l International Liability for Damage caused by Space Objects: (nalysis

and )ac4ground Data, 6-* C(+ -* S#$$ M" 16=- t 25278 Bi+ C&#+ International

Liability for Damage caused by Space O)#%t$ I MANUAL ON SPACE LA >= 16=6 Peter, supra +(t# '. ===7>@.

37

http://www.academyofsciencestl.org/event/science-seminar-series-topic-tba-mark-calendar-check-back-soon/






T&#/i$t( %++(t-@6 )# '!ti%,l!l" &#l* li)l# (! t&# */#-1@ %,$#* t( O)#!(+ $ */#

i+ t&# (,t#! $'%# i$ )$#*-11 (+ ,lt )$#* !#i/#.-1-

T&#/i$t( %++(t )# &#l* li)l# (! t&# %($t$ i+%,!!#* i+ t&# #v%,ti(+ +* %l#+ ,' ( t&#

!#t,!+#* *#)!i$ *,# t( t&#i! '($$i)l# !*i(%tivit". &#+#v#! %($t$ &v# )##+ *#/+*#* i+

t&# '$t )" t&# i+,!#* Stt#$-12 3it& !#!* t( t#! #%t$ ( !*i(%tiv# /t#!il$ it &$

)##+ )$#* (+ %#!tii#* !#'(!t$ #+tili+ t&# !*i(%tiv# +t,!# ( $,%& /t#!il$ (! %#!ti+

'($$i)ilit" ,+li?# t&# '!#$#+t %$#. &#!# it i$ %l#!l" $tt#* i+ t&# M((t C(/'!(/i$-18 t&t

t&# *i$'#!$l ( t&# !*i(%tiv# /t#!il 3$ l!#l" %(+ti+#* i+ t&# (,t#! $'%# *#/+* (

%($t$ *,# t( '($$i)l# !*i(%tivit" i+ t&# )$#+%# ( +" %#!tii#* !#'(!t$ i$ &i&l"

'!#v#+tiv# /#$,!#.

P!#v#+tiv# */#$ !# +(t %(v#!#* ,+*#! t&# *#i+iti(+ ( */# i+ A!ti%l# 1 ( t&#

Li)ilit" C(+v#+ti(+. It *#i+#$ */# $ l($$ ( li# '#!$(+l i+,!" (! (t&#! i/'i!/#+t (

209F. K#++#t& S%&3#t# Space Law: Considerations for Space Planners 1- R UTGERS COMPUTER TECH. L.J. -85 -5@ 16>= J%() i$$, (stroregs: !e 8'ules of t!e 'oads9

in Outer Space 8: I.I.S.L. PROC. 28@ 281 -@@2.

210U+it#* Nti(+$ R#'(!t$ ( I+t#!+ti(+l A!)it!l A3!*$ 168> 88 ,(t#* by Mli? , Liability for Damages Caused by Space (ctivities : IJIL 285 16::.

211!e *ava >1 U.S. 1>6 161 1>=1 $## l$( !e ;ector 5 U.S. 11@ 1-875 1>:@urecamo &aritime Inc v ee4s Dredge 1o $=> >=- F. S,''. 1-15 1--6 D.N.. 1668

see also G#(!# T. H%?#t S'%# D#)!i$ +* t&# C(!',$ J,!i$ S'tili$ 1668 1>1 J(%&#+P#i#! International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects 2@ GER. J. AIR

SPACE L. -15 -2@ 16>1.

212 supra +(t# 15@ !t. III !t. VI1.

213S#ttl#/#+t ( Cli/ )#t3##+ C+* +* t&# U+i(+ ( S(vi#t S(%ili$t R#',)li%$ (!D/# C,$#* )" ;C($/($ 658< R#l#$#* (+ A'!il - 16>1 N,%l#! T#$t$ A,$tl. v. F!.16=8 I.C.J. -52 D#%. -@ A''li%ti(+ ( N#3 #l+* N#3 #l+* v. F!+%# 16=2 I.C.J.Pl#*i+$ v(l. II N,%l#! T#$t$ 2 > A''li%ti(+ *t#* 6 M" 16=2.

214C(/'!(/i$ ->.

38



&#lt& (! l($$ ( (! */# t( '!('#!t" ( Stt#$ (! ( '#!$(+$ +t,!l (! ,!i*i%l. T&i$

%(/'!#&#+$iv# *#i+iti(+ 3$ !#%&#*-15 $ !#$,lt-1: ( #xt#+*i+-1= t&# %(+%#'t i+ ll

'($$i)l# 3"$.-1>

It i$ &,/)l" %(+t#+*#* t&t T&#/i$t( %++(t )# /*# li)l# t( '" '!#v#+tiv# %($t$ t(

B#!#l/i!.

It i$ &,/)l" $,)/itt#* t&t T&#/i$t( i$ l$( +(t li)l# (! +" (t&#! %($t$ t( B#!#l/i! i+ t&#

li&t ( #x(+#!ti(+ t&t /,$t )# %%(!*#* t( it )#%,$# ( B#!#l/i! $ !#$$iv# %tiviti#$

',!$,+t t( A!ti%l# VI ( t&# Li)ilit" C(+v#+ti(+.

SU/MISSIONS TO THE COURT

F(! t&# (!#(i+ !#$(+$ t&# P!i+%i'lit" ( T&#/i$t( A''li%+t !#$'#%t,ll" !#,#$t$ t&#

C(,!t t( *,*# +* *#%l!# t&t

1. B#!#l/i! %t#* ,+l3,ll" i+ t&# %(+*,%t ( /ilit!" !#$#!%& +* ,$# ( (,t#! $'%#

-. B#!#l/i! %t#* ,+l3,ll" i+ !#,$i+ %%#$$ )" t&# %!#3 ( Mi!+* IV t( Oberon i+

J+,!" -@-@

215S%&3!t4 B#!li+ (fter t!e "all: (n (nalysis of !e Canadian Claim for Damage

Caused by Cosmos #$%, -= MCGILL L.J. =@= 16>-.

216P. VAN FENEMA THE 16=- CONVENTION ON I NTERNATIONAL LIABILIT FOR DAMAGE CAUSED B SPACE OBJECTS 22 16=2.

217G. HUKOV . K OLOSOV I NTERNATIONAL SPACE LA 1@5 16>8.

218C(%% !e Principle of A"ull CompensationA in t!e Convention on Liability for Liability

for Damage Caused by Space Objects Launc!ed into Outer Space, i+ PROCEEDINGS ONTHE FIFTEENTH COLLOUIUM ON THE LA OF OUTER SPACE 62 16=-. See also

STAFF OF SENATE COMM. ON AERONAUTICAL AND SPACE SCIENCES 6-D

CONG. -D SESS. STAFF REPORT ON CONVENTION ON INTERNATIONALLIABILIT FOR DAMAGES CAUSED B SPACE OBJECTS =8 -2 C(//. P!i+t 16=-.

39



2. B#!#l/i! i$ li)l# (! ili+ t( /?# !#$(+)l# +* +#%#$$!" #(!t$ t( !#$%,# t&#

%!#3 ( &iranda I+ ,+til it 3$ t(( lt# +* (! t&# *#t& ( (,! 8 /#/)#!$ ( t&t

%!#3

8. T&# %li/$ +* $$#!ti(+$ /*# )" B#!#l/i! !# ,+t#+)l# +*

5. A+" (t&#! !#li# $ t( t&i$ C(,!t /" $##/ ''!('!it#.

Memorial for Applicant

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