Tocitethisarticle:AshrafM.Salama,FlorianWiedmann&HatemG.Ibrahim(2017)Lifestyletrendsandhousingtypologiesinemergingmulticulturalcities,JournalofArchitectureandUrbanism,41:4,316-327,DOI:10.3846/20297955.2017.1415773

LIFESTYLETRENDSANDHOUSINGTYPOLOGIESINEMERGINGMULTICULTURALCITIES

AshrafM.SALAMAa,FlorianWIEDMANNb,HatemG.IBRAHIMc

aUniversityofStrathclyde,Glasgow,UnitedKingdomofGreatBritainandNorthernIreland

b,cQatarUniversity,Doha,Qatar

E-mails:aashraf.salama@strath.ac.uk;bwiedmann.f@gmail.com(correspondingauthor);

chatem_ibrahim@qu.edu.qa

Received13April2017;accepted30August2017

Abstract.Theintroductionofnewhousingtypologiesinemergingcitiesisrootedindynamicsincludinginfrastructuralinvestments,urbangrowthratesandnewdevelopmentpolicies.Inaccommodatingnewlifestyles,demand-drivenpatternsbytenantsandpropertyownersarethemainfactorsconsolidatingdevelopmenttrendsinfuture.Thispaperexplorestherelationshipbetweennewlifestylepatternsandhousingtypologiesinemergingcities.WithinthecontextofGulfcities,namelyDubai,AbuDhabi,DohaandManama,thispaperinvestigatesdemographicstructuresandhousingtrendswherearapidphaseofurbangrowthhastransformedlocalurbanism.Currentsocialstructureswereanalysedbyfollowinganew‘lifestyleframework’resultinginthecharacterizationoffourmainlifestyletrends.Thisiscoupledwiththeassessmentof240casesofnewresidencesfromtheGulfcitiesunderstudy.Thejuxtapositionofbothstudiesoffersanoutlookrelevanttotheimportanceofatransitionfromsupply-driventodemand-drivenhousingdynamicstoaccommodateemergingmulticulturalsocieties.Thepaperthuscontributestoabetterunderstandingandidentificationofthesocialgroupsthatarecurrentlylackingsuitablehousing.

Keywords:Housingtypologies,lifestyletrends,realestate,Gulfcities,urbantransformation.IntroductionSincethebeginningofmodernglobalizationcitieshaveenteredafiercecompetitiontoattractinvestmentinordertotransformintokeyhubswithinexpandingnetworks.In1976HarveyMolotchdescribedthenewrolesofcitiesas“growthmachines”(Molotch1976).Whilecitiesinhighlyindustrializedcountriesbenefitedfromalreadyexistinginfrastructure,theirlargesizeandthusestablishedlocalmarkets,citiesinemergingcountriesneededtoinitiatenewdevelopmentstrategiesin

ordertoattracturbangrowthsincetheendofthe20thcenturyinordertocompete.Thisgrowthresultedinrapidurbanizationprocessesandthemassmigrationofnewinhabitants.Subsequently,housingmarketsneededtoreacttorapidlyincreasingdemandinvariousareas,fromstudioapartmentsforshort-termstaystofamilydwellingsandgentrificationtrends.Whilethedemand-drivenaspectscanberegardedasratherrestrictedduringthefirstyearsofurbangrowth,adiversificationprocessofhousingtypologiescouldbeobservedduringthefollowingperiodduetoamoreglobalizedandadvancedrealestateindustry(Bardhan,Kroll2007).

Variousfactorsdictatethehousingtypespreferredbymigrantgroupsinemergingcities.Thiscanbeobservedincasesofmigrantsfromruralorurbanplacesaswellasmigrantsfromvarioussocioeconomicandsocioculturalbackgrounds(Salama,2015).Whilealow-incomebackgroundgenerallyrestrictsthechoiceofhousingandthusdictatescertainlifestyles,highincomegroupshaveabiggervarietyofresidencestochoosefrom(Narwold,Sandy2010).Thisfactisdisplayedbytheincreasingdiversityofupperrealestatemarkets,whileaffordablehousingschemesoftenfollowmorerepetitivemodels,mainlydictatedbylandpricesandconstructioncosts(Gurranetal.2007:44).Theseparameters,however,aredependentongeneralinfrastructuralnetworksanddevelopmentpolicies.Subsequently,variousnewhousingdevelopmentpatternscanbeidentifiedinemergingcities,particularlyintheGlobalSouth,wheretheyfaceacontinuousupdatingprocessrootedinnewdynamics,includingrisinglandandrentalprices,newdemographiccharacteristicsandtheeconomicrealitiesresultingfrommigration(Aerni2016).

Inrecentyears,lifestyleresearchhasplayedanincreasinglyimportantroleinunderstandinghousingpatternsandthusurbandevelopmentdynamics.Primarily,theintroductionoflifestylegroupsfollowstheneedofeconomiststopredictfuturedemandpatternswithincomplexandadvancedmarkets.Thetheoriesof“Sinus-Milieus”(SinusInstitute2016)arethusoftenusedinrealestatestudiestopointoutmarketpotentialsaswellasdeficitsinparticularareas(Grögeretal.2011).Inlightofthenotionthatlifestylesleadtocertainhousingchoices,newhousingdevelopmentscanbestudiedasareflectionofthesenewlifestyles.ThispaperinvestigateskeyhousingtrendsinfouremergingcitiesintheGulfregionandtheirmanifestationsoflifestyletrends.Lifestylesareseenasaproductofindividualpreferencesbutwithinthecontextoflocalspatialandeconomicrealities.Thus,theinvestigationoflifestylesandtheirrelationshipwithhousingtypologiesplacesemphasisonunderstandingcurrentdevelopmentsratherthanfollowingtheeconomists’approachtoquantifymarketpotentialsanddeficits.LifestyletheoriesandhousingContemporaryliteratureemphasizesthathousingismorethanthepureneedforshelter.Thehomeenvironmentcanbeseenasbothaformofself-expressionandanimportantspatialfactordefininghumanperceptions(Marcus1997).Whereandhowahumanwasraisedwillalwaysaffectfuturechoicesandhisorheracceptanceofcertainresidences(Freeman1998:330).Additionally,theage,incomelevelandhouseholdsizewillalsoimpactthepreferenceofcertainhousingtypes.Tostudytherelationshipbetweenhousingandlifestyles,thebasicneedsmustfirstbeidentified.Whiletheneedforsheltercanbeseenasthelowestlevelofneedsbasedonthesimplepremiseofhumansurvival,thesocialneedstoestablishasenseofbelongingarefollowedbytheindividualneedsofself-expression(Newmark,Thompson1977).Inprinciple,lifestyletheoriesarebasedonacomplexframeworkthatacknowledges

therealityofhumanbeingsasbeingdrivenbydynamicinteractivefactorsratherthanstaticpersonalandsituationalfactors(Walters2006:3).

In1977,PierreBourdieuintroducedtheconceptofhabitusastheresultofboththehexis(amoreorlessstabledispositionofknowledgeorcharacter)andmorecomplexmentalandsubjectiveschemesofperception(Bourdieu1977).Habitusreferstopastexperiencesresultingindifferentskills,dispositionsandhabits,whichleadtocertainsocio-behaviouralpractices.AccordingtoBourdieu,eachsocialclasssharesacertaingeneralhabitusduetosimilarenvironmentsandthusexperiences.Thishabitushasadirectimpactoneachindividualleadingtodynamicsbetweengivenstructures,whichhavedevelopedovergenerations,andnewindividualperceptionsintroducingcertainrestructuringprocesses(Bourdieu1987).Thehabituscanthusbeidentifiedasaholisticapproachtowardsunderstandingtheoriginoflifestylesandtheresultofalong-termhistoricevolution,whichiscontinuouslychanging.AccordingtoBourdieu,individualsneedtheirhabitustofindnewsolutionsbasedontheirintuition,whichinhisviewisdirectlylinkedtosocietalnorms.Theresultinglifestyleshavesignificantimpactonhowsocialstructuresandspatialdevelopmentpatternsevolvebecausetheyinfluencetheideasthatdefineagoodsociety(Benedikter2012).

In1970,theBritishanthropologistMaryDouglasintroducedher“groupandgrid”modelinherbook”NaturalSymbols”(Douglas1970).Accordingtoherdefinition,agroupimpliesageneralboundaryaroundacommunity,whichisbasedonchoice,andagridincludestheouterforcesandregulations.Douglasdistinguishesbetweenfourmaingroup-gridtypes:the“isolate”,the“positional”,the“individualist”,andthe“enclave”.Whilethe“isolate”onlyincludessocialgroupsthathavebeenisolatedbythesystem,suchasprisoners,andthereforehardlyhasanyimpactondevelopments,the“individualist”ismainlyconcernedwithprivatebenefitsandisthereforeaproductofanincreasinglycommercialsociety(Douglas2006:6).Therefore,socialstatusanditsexpressioncanplayanimportantroleinhousingdynamics(Chapman1955).The“positional”isrootedinadistinctgroupfollowingacleargrid-givenstructureandthusoftensupportstraditionandorder(Douglas2006:4).Finally,the“enclave”includesallgroupsthatrefusetoparticipateinanygivenframeworkandfollowownstructures(Douglas2006:5).Thesefourfundamentaltypesofferanenhancedunderstandingofgenerallifestyledynamics.Thediversityoflifestylesisthushighlydependentonthegeneralsocialstructure.

InadditiontotheholisticapproachofunderstandinglifestylesastheresultofthehabitusasdefinedbyBourdieuandfollowingtheclearpositionswithinDouglas’s“groupandgrid”model,otherscholarshaveintroducedpragmaticmodelsonhowtodistinguishcertainlifemodesthatshapelifestyletrendstoday.Inhisbook“State,Culture,andLife-Modes:FoundationsofLifeModeAnalysis”(2003),ThomasHojrupintroducedthreepragmaticlifemodes:self-employedlifemode,wageearnerlifemode,andcareerorientedlifemode(Hojrup2003).Theprecedingclassificationshowsthathouseneedsandpreferencesusuallyvarybasedontheincomelevel,worksector,andworkstyleofanindividual(Salama2011:10).Whilelifemodescanbedistinguishedaccordingtothevaryingwaysinwhichpeoplework,otherfactorssuchasthedemographicincreaseanddecreaseoffamiliesandtheassociatedlifemodeshavebeenresearchedbyscholarstoinvestigatethedynamicsofhousingmarkets(Graham,Sabater2015).

Coupledwithhowpeopleworkandtheirfamilystatus,theroleofleisure-andconsumption-orientedlifemodescanbeidentifiedasthethirddeterminingfactorforhousingchoice.Whilesomesocialgroupsaresignificantlyrestrictedintheirspending,othersconsciouslychoosetosavetheir

earningsoratleastaportionofthem.Othergroupsalternativelyoptforapredominantlyifnotsolelyconsumer-drivenlifestyle,asanalyzedanddescribedbyThorstenVebleninthelate19thcentury(Veblen2013).Still,amongthethreetypesofsocialgroups,workandfamilystatusaswellasconsumptionpatternsdeterminehousingpreferenceswithintheconstraintsofsupplyanddemand(Beamishetal.2001).

Concludingtheprecedingtheoriesastheyrelatetohousingpreferencesandchoices,lifestyleshavealwaysbeendriversforhousingdevelopments,whiletheexistinghousingconditionshaveareciprocalimpactonlifestyles.Lifestylesareaproductofindividualandcollectiveprocesseswithinsocietiesand,therefore,theircharacteristicsarehighlycomplex.Anewframeworkisthusdeveloped(Fig.1)tointegratethevariousparametersthatshapethelifestylesofdifferentsocialgroups.AccordingtoBourdieu’stheory,societyistheproductofahistoricprocessandtheorganizationofasocietyisdirectlylinkedtopastexperiences.Thisismanifestedintheindividual’shabitus,whichisrootedinculturalcustomsaswellasbasicsurvivalneedsandtheirsocialstatus.Thisabstractconceptionofthefoundationoflifestylesinadditiontotheunderstandingofthepresentgroup-gridstructureofasocietyprovidesanoverviewofbasicsocialgroupsandtheirroles.Thetheoreticalunderstandingofhowsocietiesarestructuredneedstobeincorporatedintoanunderstandingofpredominantlifemodesasdriversofnewrestructuringprocesses.Theselifemodescanbedefinedbybeingfamily-related,work-based,orleisure-oriented.

Fig.1.Atransdisciplinaryframeworkforunderstandinghousingasareflectionofhistoricprocesses,socialstructuresanddominantlifemodes.Source:Authors.

MethodologyandproceduresEmergingmulticulturalsocietiesarerootedinextensiveinternationalmigrationandareparticularlyimportantcaseswherebynewhousingdynamicsandlifestyletrendscanbeobserved.Hence,thispaperaddressesthefastestgrowingGulfcitiesincludingDubai,AbuDhabi,DohaandManamaasitscasestudies.Accordingtopreviousstudies(Salama,Wiedmann2013:25),allfourGulfcitiessharekeycharacteristicsregardingmigrationpatterns,economicrestructuringprocessesandspatialdevelopment.Subsequently,keytrendsinthedynamicsbetweenhousingtypologiesandemerginglifestylegroupscanbeobservedinthefourcities.Thispaper’smethodologicalapproachisthusbasedonaregionalratherthanlocalscaletoavoidthelimitationsofutilizingonlyonecasestudy.

Sincetheprimaryobjectiveofthispaperistointroduceanewunderstandingofthegeneraldynamicsbetweengrouplifestylesandhousingtrends,themethodologicalapproachiscentredonanalysingsocialstructuresbyfollowinganewframeworkforcharacterizingparticulargrouplifestylesandonevaluatingdatainordertointroducethemainhousingtypologies.

Thedemographicstructureswereanalysedbyexaminingrecentofficialreportsanddata.Themainaimistoidentifythevariouscountriesoforigin,thegenderdistributionandtheagegroupsinthe

contextofemploymentandincome.Basedonthenewframeworkfourimportantlifestyletendenciescanbeidentified.

ThehousingtypologystudiesincludeastrategiccollectionofdataofrecentlybuilthousingunitsinthefourGulfcitiesinaccordancewithareviewofofficialrealestatereports.Intotal,240sampleswerecollectedbyconductingawebsurveyofrealestatedevelopmentcompanies,whichwascoupledbyaseriesofcontactsandvisitstoarchitecturalfirms.While120ofthecasesareapartmentunitsinvariouslocations,theremaining50percentarevillasandtownhouses.Thestrategicselectionofallsamplesisbasedonageneralrealestatereviewofallfourcitiesbasedonofficialreportsandmediaarticles.Basedonthisreview,sixtypicaldevelopmenttrendscouldbeidentifiedandanalysed.

Representativegroundfloorplansareexplainedonthebasisofastatisticalevaluationofallsamplesforeachhousingtypebyinvestigatingkeycharacteristics.Thesesixgroundfloorplansareevaluatedbasedonasetofcertainresearchquestions(Table1):

− Entrance:Theentranceandaccesstotheunitisanimportantindicator,ifadwellingisutilizedforsocializingandhostingguests.Thus,thesizesaremeasuredandlayoutsareinvestigatedineachcasestudy.Culturalparticularitiescanbeidentifiedinthecaseofseparateentrances.

− Privateandpublicspaces:Thegeneralratiobetweenprivatespaces(bedrooms)andsharedspacesisimportantforidentifyingthegeneraltendencyofhousingtobedesignedeitherforhostingfamiliesandtheirguestsortobeflexibleforsharedliving,particularlyinthecaseofmigrantemployees.Inadditiontosizes,thelayoutswereevaluatedineachcase.

− Kitchentype:Thethirdevaluationstepisfocusedonhowkitchenshavebeenintegrated.Anintegrationofkitchensinopenlivingareasisoftenanindicationofacertainlifestylefocusingonworkingoutsidethehomeanddiningout.

− Exposuretodaylight:Anotherimportantaspectisthegeneralexposuretodaylight,whichisanotherindicatorofwhetherhousingisbuiltandusedmerelyasnecessaryshelterorasimportantspaceswherealargeshareoflifeistakingplace.

− Neighbourhood:Inadditiontothelayoutandsizesofeachhousingtype,thetypicalneighbourhoodswereinvestigatedtoidentifycommontrendsinintegratedservicesandleisureopportunities.

− Architecturalstyle:Lastbutnotleast,architecturalstyleswereinvestigatedandcomparedbydistinguishingthemaininteriorandexteriordesignlanguages(oriental,Mediterranean,modernaswellaseclectic).

Conclusionsareestablishedtoprovideanoverviewofthekeychallengesandcurrentsituationofhousingsupplyandtheemerginglifestylegroupsinanincreasinglymulticulturalsociety.

DemographicsandlifestyletrendsingulfcitiesBeforemajorlifestyletrendscanbeidentifiedandcharacterized,thegeneraldemographicsneedtobeanalysed.Rapidmigrationhasledtoaparticulardemographicstructureandaconsequentpredominanceofmigrantgroupsinallfourcities.From2005to2015,morethan3millionmigrantsmovedtoallfourcities.Alargeshareofmigrantshasbeenstayingalimitednumberofyearsdueto

short-termcontracts,whichhasledtohighannualemigrationinparalleltotheincreasingimmigration.SouthAsians,particularlyfromtheIndianSubcontinent,constitutethebiggestshareofallmigrants(around80percent).Duetotheexpandingconstructionindustries,themajorityofthissegmentofthepopulationaremalelabourers(DeBel-Air2014,2015a,2015b).Theselabourersarehousedinparticularaccommodationsprovidedbyemployers,locatedeitherindeterioratingdowntowndistrictsorinindustrialareas.Inallfourcities,labourersareprovidedwithaccommodationbytheiremployersandtheyarenotpermittedtomovewiththeirfamilies(Gardneretal.2013).Basedontheevaluatedstatisticsofallfourcities,theselabourersmakeupatleast40percentoftheurbanpopulation(AbuDhabiStatisticsCentre2016;BahrainInformation&eGovernmentAuthority2014;DubaiStatisticsCenter2015;MDPS2016).

Thenextlowestincomegroupcanbedescribedaslowtomediumincome,mainlyfromtheIndianSubcontinent,thePhilippinesandtheMENAregion.Thisgroupisengagedinservicesectors,suchasconstruction,tradeandtourism,andincludesmanymigrantsandtheirfamilieswhohavesettledinthefourGulfcitiesduringpreviousdecades.Specifically,alargeshareofthisgroupisfromcountrieslikeIndia,Pakistan,Egypt,IranandSudan.Althoughmediumincomegroupswithaminimummonthlywage(around$2,700inQatarandtheUAE)areusuallypermittedtomovewiththeirfamilies,alargesharehasmovedassinglesduetoshort-termcontractsandduetobeingyoungprofessionals(DeBel-Air2014,2015a,2015b).Thismigrantgroupaccountsfor30to40percentoftheurbanpopulationineachcity.

Theremainingshareoftheurbanpopulationissplitintotwogroups.First,thelocalpopulationconstitutesonlyaround10to20percentoftheurbanpopulationininallfourcities,andsecond,mediumtohighincomeexpatsadduparound10percentofthepopulation.ThemediumtohighincomemigrantsarethemostdiversegroupastheyincludemigrantsfromWesternandMiddleEasterncountries.

Thelocalpopulationisthemostinsularacrossallfourcities.Allstatisticsshowaverylowlevelofactiveparticipationofmostlocalsintheprivatesector(DeBel-Air2014,2015a,2015b).Themajorityisengagedinpublicsectoroccupationsinadditiontotheirdecisiverolesaslandlordsandinvestors.Mostlocalsleftcitiesandresideintheperipheryorinsatellitesettlementsandtheirhomogeneousneighbourhoodsessentiallybelongtoaseparatehousingmarket,guidedbythelanddistributionofgovernmentsandrigiddevelopmentpolicies.Insummary,allfourcitieshaveaverydistinctivedemographicstructureinspiteoftheirdifferentsizes,historicbackgroundsanddifferingpoliticalleadership(Fig.2).Allfourcitiesshareaverysimilarstructureasconcernsthebackgroundsofmigrants,whichincludetheirorigin,incomedistributionandagegroups.Thus,majorlifestyletrendscanbeidentified,whichapplytoallfourcities.

Fig.2.Anoverviewofthedemographicstructureinallfourcities

Source:AuthorsreferringtodatafromtheGulfLabourMarketsandMigrationProgramme2016andtheauthorDeBel-Air2014,2015aand2015binadditiontoofficialdatafrom:AbuDhabiStatisticsCentre2016;BahrainInformation&eGovernmentAuthority2014;DubaiStatisticsCenter2015;MDPS2015

and2016.

Basedonincomelevels,culturalpreferencesandexistingurbanconditionsinallfourGulfcities,fourmainlifestyletrendscanbedistinguishedasanalyticallydiscussedhereunder(Fig.3):

1) Work-focused:Inmuchoftheservicesector,youngprofessionalshavemovedtoGulfcitiesforearningandsavingmoneyonatemporarybasis.Inspiteoftheirlimitedincomeandtheirobjectivetosavetheirearnings,theyusuallyadheretobasicprinciplesoforderandtraditionalvalues.ThisisrootedintheiruncertainemploymentsituationcoupledwiththeirAsianandMiddleEasternculturalbackgrounds.Leisuretimeisratherreducedandisusuallyspentinpublicspacesandaccessibleshoppingmalls,wherethemainactivityisfocusedonmeetingfriendsfromasimilarculturalbackground.

2) Family-oriented:Thisfamily-orientedlifestylegroupincludesmigrantswhohavesettledinGulfcitiesfordecadesandnewlyarrivingmigrantfamilieswithsufficientincomewhoseobjectiveistosettleforalongerperiodoftime.Duetotherequiredminimumincome,mostofthesemigrantsmeetaminimumeducationalbackgroundandareusuallyfromAsiaortheMiddleEast.Incontrasttothework-focusedmigrants,thisgroupoftenhastheopportunityandobjectivetosettlelong-terminGulfcities.Theirlifestyleisusuallycentredonfamilylivingwherecarownershipplaysanimportantroleinenablingvariousfamilyactivities.

3) Mobileinternationals:ThethirdmigrantgroupconsistsofhighincomeexpatswhomovewithorwithoutfamiliestoGulfcitiesandwhousuallyhaveplanstostayforalimitedperiodoftime.Thisgroupismainlyattractedbyhighsalariesandthehighlevelofinternationalmobility.TheGulfexperienceisperceivedasanopportunityforprofessionalexperience.Thus,mobileinternationalsarediverseinageaswellascountryoforigin,mostofwhichbeingAraborWestern.Theirhousingchoicesarelessdrivenbyprivatebudgetconsiderationsandmorebytheirdemandforacertainlivingstandardandanexpressionoftheirprofessionalstatus.Whilethisgroupfollowsaclear“individualist”approach,itfindsitselfcontainedinanewlybuiltgatedenvironment.

4) Localtraditional:Thelastlifestylegroup,whichsignificantlydiffersfromthethreepreviousgroups,constitutesthetraditionallocalpopulation.Asaresultoffastgrowthandrapidmigration,thelocalpopulationhasfounditselfinaseparateworld,detachedfromtherulesandeconomicforcesthatmigrantsarefacing.Insomecases,asinBahrain,thelocalpopulationisrelativelycomplexanddiverse,particularlyonthebasisofincomelevels.Despitethefactthatnotalllocalinhabitantshaveahighincome,theyallsharetheobjectiveofpreservingtheirlocaltraditionsandcustoms,astheyhavebecomeasocialminority.Thelanddistributionforlocalhousingdevelopmentsenablesthisgrouptoliveinanalmostdetachedspaceandthus“enclave”trendscanbedetected.Mostleisuretimeisspentinprivateandspaciousvillaswherethedifferentgenerationsmeetandinteract.Localneighbourhoodmosquesalsoplayasignificantrolewithinthesecommunities.

Fig.3.Themaincharacteristicsofthefourlifestylegroups

Source:Authors.

HousingdynamicsandtypologiesinGulfcitiesExtensivemigrationandtheresultingmulticulturalsocietyhavetogetherledtoaquicktransformationoflocalhousingmarketsinallfourGulfcities.Theneedtoaccommodateadiverseworkforceaswellastherisingpressureofinvestmentsonfreeholdpropertieshavebothresultedinaclearlydefinedrealestatesector.Ontheonehand,masshousinghasbeenneededtoaccommodatelowtomediumincomemigrants,whileontheotherhand,exclusivemegaprojectshavebecometheactualdriversofurbangrowth.Inparallel,thehousingmarketforthelocalpopulationshascontinuedonthebasisoflanddistributioninsecludedsuburbanareas.Lastbutnotleast,labouraccommodationshavebeenbuiltinordertoshelterthelargeandfrequentlyexchanginglabourersfromSouthAsia.

Ingeneral,threemainurbandevelopmenttrendscanbeidentified:(1)thecontinuousexpansionofsuburbanareas,(2)thedevelopmentofdenselybuiltareasinproximitytodowntownandindustrialareasand(3)thelaunchofmegaprojects,particularlyalongwaterfronts.Thesegeneraldevelopmentpatternshaveledtosixdistinctivehousingtypologies,whichcanbeanalysedinthecontextofthefourpreviouslyidentifiedlifestylegroups(Fig.4;Table1):

Apartmentsindenselybuiltmixed-useareas

Inproximitytothehistoriccentresandintransitionareasalongurbanfringes,denselyurbanareashaveemergedinrecentyears.Inaccordancewithlocalregulations,themainhousingtypologyhasbeenapartmenttowerswithanaverageheightofelevenfloorsindowntownareasandfivetosevenfloorsintransitionareas.Themostcommontypeisthe2-and3-bedroomapartment.Accordingtothecasestudies,anaverageof2.3bedroomsandaveragesizeof95squaremeterscanbefound.Themajorityoftheseapartmentsaccommodatethesharedlivingofmigrantswithwork-focusedlifestyles.Theremainingshareisinhabitedbymigrantfamiliesthatarelookingforrentalratesmoreaffordablethanthoseinaccessiblesuburbanareas.Theapartmentsfollowregionalstandardsandarenotspecificallydesignedforsharedliving.Whileprivatebedroomscovermostoftheevaluatedgroundfloorplans(71percent),thebigsizeofbedroomsandtheconsequentlyhigherrentalrateshaveledtosharedroomsandalackofprivacy.Inmostcases(62percent),kitchensareseparate.Thesittingareasareusuallyfacingthenorthorthesouthandnoclearpreferencecanbedetected.Ingeneral,daylightisoftenlimitedduetothedenselybuiltsurroundingsandshortdistancesbetweenbuildings.Theneighbourhoodsurroundingsoftenincludebasiccommercialservices.Socialinfrastructure,suchasschoolsandpublicspaces,arehoweverlimitedduetotheabsenceofaneedtoaccommodatealargenumberoffamilies.Thearchitecturalstyleisdominatedbythefunctionalappearanceofprefabricatedcementelementsandlacksgeneralattractiveness.Thehighfrequencyofchangingtenantshasledtoavisibleinstantneighbourhoodenvironmenthardlyreflectingtheneedforhomesbutinsteadservingaspureshelter.

Apartmentsinsuburbancompounds

Whileurbanareasalongthefringesofhistoriccitycoreshavebeenwitnessingrapidgrowthduetoverticaltypologies,thesuburbansprawlhascontinued.Inadditiontovillasandtownhouses,anincreasingnumberofapartmentbuildingsandblockshavebeenintegratedintocompound

developmentstoaccommodatelowtomediumincomemigrants.Duetolocalregulations,thishousingtypologyusuallyreachesanaverageheightofthreetofourfloorsandthetypicalapartmentreachesasizeofupto120squaremetersduetotheprevalenceof3-bedroomapartments(2.45onaverage)amongall40samples.Theapartmentsweredesignedfollowingregionalstandardswithparticularconsiderationforfamily-orientedlifestyles.Theentranceusuallyleadstoasmalllobbyandisslightlybiggerinsharedlivingspacesthanindowntownapartments(34percentofthetotalarea).Bothseparateandopenkitchensarefoundequally.Whilecertainamenities,suchasswimmingpoolsandgyms,areoftenincludedwithinthecompoundprecincts,generalcommercialservicesandsocialinfrastructureareusuallylessintegrated,whichultimatelyleadstohighercardependency.Inthecaseofthe40evaluatedcompounds,thearchitecturaldesigneitherfollowsamodernfunctionaldesignlanguageororientalornamentation.Therentalpriceshighlyvarydependingonthelocation.

Apartmentsinexclusivewaterfronthigh-rises

Sincethebeginningoftheconstructionboom,coastalareashavebeenwitnessingrapiddevelopmentincludingtheirextensionviafurtherlandreclamation.Duetohighlandpricesandgenerallywellaccessiblelocations,high-risebuildingswithupto101floorshavebeenbuilt.Inthecaseoftheinvestigatedsamples,thegroundfloorplansreachanaveragesizeof140squaremeters.Theaveragenumberofbedroomsis2.2andthereisadiversityofapartmentsfromstudioapartmentstofourbedrooms.Inmostcases,theentrancedirectlyleadstoalargespaciousopenplanlivingarea,whichcoversanaverageofalmost40percentoftheentiregroundfloorplan.Thisclearlyrepresentativespaceaccommodatestheneedsofamobileinternationallifestyle.Asinthecaseofsuburbanapartments,bothseparateandopenkitchenscanbefound.Accesstodaylightisplentifulandtheorientationofsittingareasisdependentontheview.Spaciousterracesandbalconiesareoftenintegratedtounderlinetheexclusivenessofthistypology,whichisfurtherexpressedbymanyin-houseservicesandleisureactivities.Thearchitecturaldesignofmosthigh-risebuildingsisessentiallyinfluencedbyWesterndesign,expressedthroughmoderniststeelandglassarchitecture.Whilethecoastalareasintegratevariousamenitiesandservicesduetoahighdensityofhotels,socialinfrastructureislimitedduetohighlandprices.Furthermore,thehighrentalrateshaveledtohighvacancyratesandwidespreadsharedliving.

Attachedandsemi-attachedhomesincompounds

Inallfourcities,compoundregulationspermitthedevelopmentofmoredenselybuiltplotsbyconstructingattachedorsemi-attachedhomes.Inmanycasesthesehomes,arestillrecognizedasindividualhouses.Thetypicalcompoundhomehasanaveragesizeof330squaremetersandtwofloors.Theentranceleadstoamediumsizedlobbyorsemiopen-planlivingarea.Theproportionofprivatebedroomstosharedlivingareasisusuallybalancedduetothegenerallayoutofbedroomsbeinglocatedonthefirstfloor.Thistypologymainlyaccommodatesfamily-orientedgroupswithmediumandhighincome.Thedesignfollowsregionalstandardsandconservativelayouts.Inmostcases(90percent),kitchensareseparateand,inthemajorityofcases,smallroomsformaidshavebeenintegrated.Duetothesizeofthesehomes,livingareasareusuallynotseparatedandthusthereisusuallynotraditionalmajlisformalevisitorsinproximitytoentrances.Thesesuburbanneighbourhoodsareusuallyservedby

shoppingmallsandsmalldistrictcentres.Yet,allresidentsrelyonthecarasmainmodeoftransportation.Inmostcases,theprecinctsofthecompoundintegratesharedleisureareas,suchasagym,poolandsmallplaygroundsdependingonthesizeofthecompound.

Attachedandsemi-attachedhomesinmegaprojects

Inadditiontoattachedhomesincompounds,suchtypologyisalsoprevalentacrossmegaprojects,particularlythoseonreclaimedorcoastalland.Withanaveragesizeofaround460squaremeters,thesehomesaresignificantlybiggerthantheusualcompoundhomes.Duetotheirlocationingatedmegaprojects,theyusuallyformlinearandopendevelopmentsunlikethecompactnessfoundincompounds.Thesehomesaccommodatehigh-incomefamily-orientedlifestylesofmigrants,particularlyfromtheMENAregionincludingotherGulfstates,aswellaslocalcommunitiesthatareopenforinternationalhousingstandards.Theentrancesleadtoacentralcorridororlobbyandtheshareofareasoccupiedbyprivatebedroomsisslightlylower(57percent)duetobigopenrepresentativeareasandlargebalconies.Theshareofopen-plan-livingspaces(almost40percent)issignificantlyhigherthanthatfoundamongtypicalcompoundhomes,whichisasignofthetendencytowardsamodernandcontemporarylayout.Thearchitecturaldesignismainlymodern,butbothorientalandMediterraneandesignelementscanbefound.Theintegrationofcommercialservices,suchassmallmalls,permitstheproximityofthehomesandneighbourhoodstovariousleisureareas.Inthecaseofwaterfrontprojects,manyhomeshaveaccesstoasmallprivatebeach.Asinthecaseofexclusivetowerprojects,thesupplyofsocialinfrastructureislimitedduetohighlandpricesandfewguidelinesforcingdeveloperstointegratesufficientservices.

Single-detachedvillas

SincetheriseofoilproductionintheGulfcitiesunderstudy,thenativepopulationhasmovedtowardssuburbandistricts.Theresultinghomogeneousneighbourhoodsmainlyconsistofsingle-detachedvillas.Theaveragelivingareawithincontemporarysingle-detachedhomesreachesbetween500to600squaremeters,whichisthebiggestsizeoutofalltypologies.ThehousingdesignfollowstherequirementsoftraditionalhomesinGulfstatesandtheobjectivetoaccommodatelargefamilies.Inadditiontoamainrepresentativeentranceleadingtoalargecentrallobbywithstairways,aservantentranceisusuallyintegratedtopermitseparatedmovements.Nexttothemainentrance,aprivatesittingarea,knownasmajlis,isoftenintegratedtoallowtheseparationofmaleandfemaleguestsinaccordancewithlocalcustoms.Thefamilylivingroomisplacednexttothediningroom,whichusuallyincorporatesasmallopenkitchen,whilethekitchenfordailycookingislocatedoutsideofthemainlivingareasnexttotheservants’roomsandutilityrooms.Thefirstfloorismostcommonlyoccupiedbymainlybedroomsandtheirbathrooms.Insomecases,alivingroomisintegratedtopermitintergenerationallivingunderoneroof.Thevillasusuallyhavesufficientaccesstodaylightdespitetheirlargegroundfloorarea.Skylightsinthestairwaysareaareoftenusedtoimprovethenaturallightningincentralareas.Thevillasareusuallybuiltinthecentreofstandardizedplots,whicharesurroundedbyahighwalltoprotectthefamilies’privacy.Theneighbourhoodsintegratebasicsocialinfrastructure,buthardlyanycommercialservices.ThearchitecturaldesignvariesbetweenvariousdesignlanguagesfromMediterraneantomodernsimplistic.Amongthemostcommondesignelementsareorientalornaments.

Fig.4.Thesixmostcommonhousingtypologies’inGulfcities

Source:Authors.

Table1.ThekeycharacteristicsofthesixcommonhousingtypologiesinGulfcities

SuburbanApartments(villas&blocks)

DowntownApartments(blocks&high-rise)

WaterfrontApartments(high-rise)

Compoundhouses(attached&semi-attached)

Waterfronthouses(attached&semi-attached)

SuburbanVilla(detached)

Entrance&access

Entranceusuallyleadstoacentrallobby(averagesize:5.9sqm).

Entranceusuallyleadsdirectlyintoacorridor(4.8sqm).

Entranceusuallyleadstoalargeopenplanlivingarea(6.1sqm).

Entranceusuallyleadstoalobbyandsemi-openlivingarea(20sqm).

Entranceleadstocentralcorridorconnectingallrooms(15sqm).

Entranceleadstoabiglobbyandstairways(35sqm).

Private:publicspace 66%:34% 71%:29% 61%:39% 51%:49% 57%:43% 44%:56%

Kitchen:Type&location

Separatekitchensandopenkitchensarebothfrequent(55%:45%).

Separatekitchensinmostcases(62%).

Separatekitchensandopenkitchensarebothfrequent(56%:44%).

Inmostcaseskitchensareseparate(90%).

Amajorityofseparatekitchens(64%)andabigshareofopenplanliving.

Inallcases,kitchensareseparate.Manyvillasintegrateasecondopenbreakfastkitchen.

Daylight&orientation

Sufficient.Mostsittingareasareorientedtowardsthenorth(68%).

Limited.Theorientationofsittingareasisdirectedtowardsthenorthandsouthequally(51%:49%).

Good.Theorientationofsittingareasisdirectedtowardsthenorthandsouthequally(53%:47%).

Sufficient.Mostsittingareasareorientedtowardsthewest(89%).

Sufficient.Thedirectionofthesittingareasdependsonthecoast.

Good.Duetotheabsenceofattachedbuildings,allroomshaveaccesstodaylight.

Neighbour-hood

Suburbansurroundings.Lowintegrationofservices.

Denselybuiltandmixed-useenvironment.

Integratedleisureandcommercialservicesinmostcases(99%).

Lowintegrationofservices.Somesharedleisurefacilities.

Somesharedleisurefacilities.Proximitytopublicleisureandcommercialareas.

Lowintegrationofservicesapartfromschoolsandmosques.

Architecturaldesign

Moderndesign,Western(51%)andorientalstyle(49%),claddingandcement.

Functionalmoderndesign(95%);prefabricatedcement(63%).

Moderndesign(75%);steel&glass(51%)andcladding(49%).

Widespreadtraditionalornaments(30%)andmoderndesign.

Mainlymoderndesignandwidespreadorientalornaments.

Mainlytraditionalornamentsandacertainshareofeclecticdesignstyles.

Source:Authors.

Conclusions

Duetothefrequentexchangeofmigrants,aparticularsocialstructure,oftenreferredtoasairportsociety,hasemergedintheGulfcitiesofDubai,AbuDhabi,DohaandManama.Today,itisexpectedthatlow-incomemigrants,particularlylabourers,willbelessneededinthefutureandthatthelocalpopulationswilleventuallyplayamoredecisiveroleacrosstheprivatesectors.Housingdevelopments,however,mainlyreflecttheneedforaquicksupplyofsufficienthousingontheonesideandthespeculation-driventradewithfreeholdpropertiesontheother.TheresultingurbanlandscapesinallfourGulfcitiescanthereforebedescribedasagglomerationsofhighlydensedowntownandindustrialareassurroundedbymegaprojectsandurbansprawl(Fig.5).

Fig.5.Thespatialdistributionofsuburbanextensions,megaprojectsalongwaterfrontsandhigh-densityhousinginallfourcities

Source:Authors.

Thesignificantlydifferentlifestylegroupsexpressastrongsegregationofincomeaswellasculturalbackgrounds.Accordingly,thedifferinghousingtypologiesoftheselifestylegroupsandtheirlocationshavefurthermoreledtoahighspatialsegregation.ThelargestproportionofmigrantscurrentlyperceivesGulfcitiesasatemporaryopportunitytoearnmoneyandprofessionalexperience.Thefrequentexchangeofthisgrouphasledtoahousingmarketinwhichmostpropertiesarebuilttosupplybasicneeds,ratherthanaccommodateculturalparticularities.Thisshelter-approachhasledtodenselypopulatedareasthatnowfacethemajorthreattoturnintohighlyproblematicdistrictswithincreasingcrimeratesandshrinkingliveability.

Thebiggestaffordablehousingcrisiscanbefoundinthecaseofmigrantmedium-incomefamiliesthathavedecidedtosettlelong-term.Thecomplexrequirementsregardingsafesurroundings,schoolsandmobilityhavemademanydowntownareasunsuitableforfamilies.Themovetosuburbshasthereforebeenthelogicalconsequencewheremoreandmoreapartmentbuildingshavebeenbuiltwithincompoundsinfardistancesfromurbancentrestoaccommodatethislargemigrantgroup.

Whilethetwobiggestlifestylegroupsarestrugglingtofindappropriateandaffordablehousing,thehigherincomegroupshavetheoptiontodecidebetweenagrowingvarietyofexclusiveprojectsfromwaterfronthigh-riseapartmentbuildingstovillasalonggolfcourses.However,thisgroupisshrinkingandthevacancyratesofthemostexclusivehousingprojectsarethushigh.Recentrealestateinvestmentshavefocusedonthisuppermarketduetothebiggestprofitshares.Thishasledtoahighdiscrepancybetweenovercrowdeddistrictsandvacantmegaprojects.

Inallfourcities,thelocalpopulationisfacingagrowingchallengetomaintainthehighhousingstandard,whichisstillrootedinthefirsturbanizationperiodandwelfarestatemechanisms.Despitethecommonpracticetodistributelandtolocals,therisingconstructioncostsoftenpreventthedevelopmentofhousing.Thus,manyyoungfamiliesareforcedtoliveintheirparents’homes.Ingeneral,itcanbeobservedthatmoreandmorelocalcitizensareforcedtomovetothefreehousingmarket,whereadjustmentstolocalcustomsarevisiblylacking.

Contemporarytrendsinhousingreflectaveryparticularstageofdevelopment,inwhichsupply-andspeculation-drivendynamicsaremoredominantthanagradualconsolidationandadjustmenttothelifestylesofasettledandconsolidatedmulticulturalsociety.Inthefuture,itcanbeexpectedthatthedifferentlifestylegroupswillfurtherdiversifyandthatlocalhousingmarketswillbetestedtoaccommodatethevariousneedsofmigrantandlocalpopulations.Thelong-termsettlementofmigrantworkforceandthebeginningengagementofthelocalsinneweconomieswillbecomeimportantpreconditionsforademand-drivenhousingmarketandaclearreflectionofanewidentityofGulfcitiesasintegratedmulticulturalsocietiesratherthanastemporaryshellsandshelters.

Acknowledgements

ThispaperwasmadepossiblebyNPRPgrant#[NPRP07-960-5—135]fromtheQatarNational

ResearchFund(amemberofQatarFoundation).Thefindingsachievedhereinaresolelythe

responsibilityoftheauthors.

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AshrafM.SALAMA

AshrafM.Salamaisaninternationally-renownedacademicandthe2017UIArecipientofJeanTschumiPrizeforexcellenceinarchitecturaleducationandcriticism.Theauthorandco-editorofninebooksandnumerousresearchpaperspublishedintheinternationalpeer-reviewedpress,heisChairProfessorinArchitectureandHeadoftheDepartmentofArchitecture,UniversityofStrathclydeGlasgow,UnitedKingdom.

FlorianWIEDMANN

DrFlorianWiedmannisanacademicarchitectspecializedinsustainableurbanismwhohasbeenworkinginresearch,practiceandteachingsince2006.Heistheauthorofvariouspublicationsincludingtwobooks,fivebookchaptersandmorethantwentyarticlesinpeer-reviewedjournals.HeiscurrentlyengagedasresearcherattheDepartmentofArchitecture,UniversityofStrathclyde,UnitedKingdom.

HatemG.IBRAHIM

DrHatemG.IbrahimisanAssociateProfessorofArchitectureattheDepartmentofArchitectureandUrbanPlanningatQatarUniversity.Hisresearchfocusesondesignprocessesandsimulations,contemporaryhousingstudiesandarchitecturalidentity.Inadditiontohispublicationsinscientificjournalsandsymposiums,DrIbrahimwasakeynotespeakerandtechnicalprogramcommitteeofmultipleinternationalconferencesandaneditorialboardmemberofmanyinternationaljournals.