Political Office in the Mid-Late Roman

RepublicTheresa Cho

Roman Republic Background• The Roman Republic spanned from 509 BCE to 27 BCE.• It began with the overthrow of monarchy led by Lucius Junius Brutus (ancestor of the Brutus

who assassinated Julius Caesar).• The government of the Republic was originally dominated by the Patricians (Roman

aristocracy), but over time, the plebeians (Romans of non-aristocratic birth) gained more influence and power within the Senate.

• The main body of government was the Senate (ran by senators)—which worked with other assemblies with a system of checks and balances. Once a man was admitted as a senator (he automatically became one after holding the most junior magistracy), he was senator for life.

• The Senate was responsible for passing decrees (called the Senatus Consultum), which were implemented by magistrates. It also oversaw foreign policy and to some extent, military policy, in the appointment of military commanders.

• Roman citizens had two choices when running for political office:1) Start as a Tribunus Plebis (Tribune of the People)2) Follow the Cursus Honorum (Course of Honour)—This was a series of steps on the political ladder. One would usually start as a military tribune, then advance as a quaestor, aedile, praetor, and ultimately the consul.

• Other offices that one could hold outside the Cursus Honorum were: 1) The Censor 2)Exceptional cases: Dictator and Master of the Horse.- Only Roman men citizens could run for office. Office was usually held for a year, with the exception of a few.

Engraving of a Roman Senate Meeting

A Note on Legislative AssembliesDuring the Roman Republic, there were two types of legislative assemblies:

1) The Comitia (committee)—The comitia included all Roman citizens. This was the type of assembly called up to ratify laws, elect magistrates and try judicial cases.

The comitia was further divided into two categories:a) The Comitia Tributa (Tribal Assembly)—It arranged citizens based on geographical area.b) The Comitia Centuriata (Centuriate Assembly)—Arranged citizens based on class—wealth and status.

2) The Concilium (Council)—This was just an assembly of a specific group of citizens.e.g.) The Plebeian council— This council was composed of Roman citizens of plebeian heritage who gathered to elect Plebeian magistrates, enact laws only applicable for plebeians and try cases involving plebeians.

*Note: Not all families of the ruling class of Rome were Patricians. There were also many powerful noble political families which had plebeian roots, such as the Caecilii Metelli.

Tribunus Plebis (Tribune of the People)

This was a very powerful political office even though it was not part of the Cursus Honorum. The Tribunes of the People were not considered magistrates, but rather, officials.The role of the tribune in government was to represent the interests of the common people (the plebs) against the arbitrary power of the Senate and the magistrates (mostly made up of the elite ruling class).Each year, ten members were elected by the Plebeian Council. Only a man of plebeian blood could be a tribune of the people.In law, the body of a tribune was sacrosanct—no one was allowed to attack him. Whoever attacked a tribune could be executed.The People’s Tribunes had a special right called the ius auxiliandi, which enabled them to provide aid to any plebeian from the power of a magistrate. They were also given the right to propose legislation, which could be passed if the proposed law was popular. The special power of the tribune lay in his “veto.” He was allowed to veto anyone (including senators, magistrates and other tribunes) except for the dictator (if there was one). Veto means “I forbid.” Because tribunes were regarded as the champions of the common people, it was important that people had access to them at all times, so they were not allowed to lock the doors of their houses. They were also not allowed to be absent from the city for an entire day.

Famous Tribunes of the People

The Gracchi Brothers:Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus

The Offices of the Cursus Honorum

Tribunus Militum (Military Tribune) Each year, twenty-four young men were elected to serve as

military tribunes.Military tribunes were elected by the Comitia Tributa (the Tribal Assembly of Roman people based on geographical area). By being a military tribune, one could gain military experience. Technically, it was not necessary to be a military tribune in order to advance on the ladders of the Cursus Honorum. However, military experience was always an asset, so many young men ambitious for political office would start out as a military tribune. Of the 24 tribunes, six were distributed to each of the two consuls’s two legions. They held the rank of legion officers.

Tribuni Militi (Military Tribunes)

Military Tribunes in Uniform

Quaestor• The quaestorship was technically considered to be the first step of the Cursus Honorum. It was the most junior of all the magistracies.•Twenty quaestors were elected every year by the Roman people through the Comitia Tributa (the same assembly through which military tribunes were elected).•Their responsibility was mainly financial—they administered the finances of the state treasury. However, they also supervised public games as an extra task.•One quaestor often accompanied a governor to help the governor oversee finances of the province given to the governor.•Being quaestor automatically enrolled that office holder into the Senate—he became a senator; however usually as a backbencher who was not allowed to voice his opinions during debates. - The minimum age to run for quaestor during the 2nd century BCE was 28; however, after Sulla became dictator in 81 BCE (unconstitutionally), he raised the minimum age to 30.

QuaestorSince quaestors were official magistrates, they were entitled to wear the toga praetexta (the toga reserved for magistrates only).

Aedilis (Aedile)• Four aediles were elected each year (two of which had to be of plebeian heritage [the Plebeian Aediles], while the other two could be either Plebeian or Patrician—these were called the Curule Aediles. •The Plebeian Aediles were elected by the Concilium Plebis (the Plebeian Council).•The Curule Aediles, on the other hand, were elected by the Comitia Tributa (the assembly that arranged all Roman citizens based on geographic area). Unlike the Plebeian Aediles, Curule Aediles were vested with imperium (in this case, it was the executive power given to them by the Senate which enabled the Curule Aediles to do anything that they considered would be beneficial to the state.)• The aediles looked after the dreary aspects of city management—corn supplies, municipal regulations, sewage treatment, maintenance of buildings, street sanitation etc.•Another important responsibility of the aedile was to provide public entertainment for everyone—in the form of public games, feasts, mock battles or gladiatorial shows. The games were often very, very expensive, and a lot of aediles ran into debt while in office.• It was not necessary to be an aedile to run for Praetor (the next rung on the political ladder); however, many ambitious Romans would still run for aedile in order to make themselves well-known and to shore up public support for the future.- People were more likely to remember and vote for those who provided good games and food.

PraetorEight praetors were elected each year by the Comitia Centuriata (the assembly of all the Roman people organized by wealth and status.)Praetors were mostly responsible for presiding over law courts; they served as judges. It was the job of the praetors to take on the duty of the consuls if the consuls were absent from Rome.It was the praetors’ responsibility to make sure that people obeyed the laws. In Rome, the Praetor Urbanus (Urban Praetor) was responsible for hearing cases in the city—he was not allowed to be away from Rome for more than 10 days.The Praetor Peregrinus was responsible for hearing cases for foreigners living in Italy. The other respective praetors were assigned to their own provinces.Outside the city, Praetors were entitled to six bodyguards, called lictors, who carried ceremonial rods with axes fixed to them. Within Rome, Praetors could only have two lictors.Praetors had imperium (in this case, slightly different from the imperium given to the Curule Aediles; praetorial imperium was also a state-conferred power, but it allowed the Praetors to command and raise armies legally.)After serving a year as a praetor, the magistrate could become pro-praetor (having all the powers of a praetor) and be sent by the Senate to govern foreign provinces and become governors.- Many ambitious Praetors who ran into debt while being an aedile looked forward to becoming governors, because becoming governors supplied them with wealth from their provinces.

*Consul* Only two consuls were elected each year. This office was considered as the most prestigious of all the magistracies. Many old Roman families would boast of the number of family members who had held the office of consuls in order to enhance the family name and prestige. The consulship was the highest rung on the political ladder. Consuls were elected by the Comitia Centuriata (the same assembly that elected the Praetors). Their responsibility included convening and presiding over discussions in the Senate. They could also introduce legislation, and they often represented Rome in foreign policy. During times of conflict, the two consuls also became generals—each one in charge of two legions.To run or serve as consul, one had to be at least 42 years old and had to have held the office of praetor. A senator was allowed to run for consul again after being consul; however, ten years had to have elapsed before they do so—this was to prevent corruption and power-grabbing. Like praetors, consuls were allowed lictors as body-guards (since they also had imperium). However, instead of having just six lictors, they had twelve.After their term of office was over, consuls could also become proconsuls (similar to pro-praetor except with powers of the consul) and be sent out to govern a province.Since years during the Roman Republic were referred to as “The Year of the Consulship of ... and...,” being consul ensured that one’s name became ingrained into Roman history for posterity.

Famous Consuls Marcus Tullius Cicero(Consul of 63 BCE—exposed the Catiline Conspiracy)

Gaius MariusConsul for Seven Times (Unconstitutional;however, he was also well-known for his military reforms)

Gold Coin of a Roman Consul Walking with Lictors

A Consul on Horseback Preceded by His Lictors

CensorThe office of a censor was not really part of the Cursus Honorum; however, this was also a much esteemed, prestigious office. Two censors were elected and occupied the office for a term of five years (called a lustrum).To be a censor, one had to be a consul first and be voted in by the Comitia Centuriata. Censors had the right to expel or induce anyone into the Senate. If they thought a senator was unfit to be a senator, they could expel him. Their responsibilities also included governing the moral life of the Roman people and conducting the census to gain information about the number of all Roman citizens (important for conscription) living in Italy and abroad. It was also part of their job to manage and fund public projects—for example, making sure that the temples were in good condition.

Cato the CensorMarcus Porcius Cato the Elder—He was also well known for his manuals on farming.

Princeps Senatus The Princeps Senatus was a title given to a senator rather than a political office.The senator who was the Princeps Senatus had no imperium whatsoever, except for an extra degree of respect and some privileges accorded to him.If translated, Princeps Senatus means “First Citizen or Leader of the Senate.” Whoever held the title was deeply respected, and in any discussion or debate within the senate, the Princeps Senatus was always invited to be the first one to voice his thoughts. The Princeps Senatus was not voted in, but rather chosen by the pair of censors. Since the censors changed every five years, the holder of “Princeps Senatus” also changed every five years.- However, the new censors could accord him another five years to hold the title if they wished.Only Patrician Senators could be the Princeps Senatus—whoever held the title also had to have an impeccable political record, untarnished reputation and commanded a lot of respect from his peers.

Notable Principes Senatus

Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus- A general best known for defeating Hannibal during the Second Punic War.

Marcus Aemilius Lepidus- He established the colonies of Parma and Modena as well as constructed the Via Aemilia (a really important road in Northern Italy).

Dictator•The office of the dictator was very special, and only implemented in very special circumstances—mostly during times of crisis (war).• Since consuls could be very competitive with each other (if they were elected from different factions) they were not that effective in managing major crises; they would have disagreed on policies and ideologies. •An elected dictator was a Senate-appointed man who could only hold his office for six months or less—if the state emergency was solved in a short time.•A special thing about the dictator was that he was not held accountable for his actions during his office after his term expired. -He was allowed to do anything necessary to end the state emergency.•The dictator had no co-dictator, but there was a Master of the Horse, a subordinate of his choice, to assist him.

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Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus--An early Republican dictator who was regarded as a virtuous Roman hero.—Unlike later Republican dictators, Cincinnatus was not power-hungry; he willingly relinquished his dictatorial powers after sixteen days and returned to his farm to plow his fields.

Notable Dictators

Notable DictatorsLucius Cornelius Sulla—Sulla was an unconstitutional dictator who made the Senate give him a dictatorship without time limit. He simply retired after he grew tired of politics. Under his dictatorship, Rome underwent a reign of terror.

Notable DictatorsJulius Caesar—He was proclaimed “Dictator Perpetuo” (Dictator in Perpetuity).This was probably a factor that contributed to his assassination in 44 BCE.

Magister Equitum (Master of the Horse) The Master of the Horse was

appointed by the dictator. His term expired along with the dictator’s.The Master of the Horse was granted some imperium—typically equivalent to that of a Praetor’s. If the dictator was absent, the Master of the Horse assumed the powers of the dictator and governed in his stead.Generally, one should have held the office of a praetor previously, in order to be appointed Master of the Horse, but this was not necessary.

Marcus Antonius (Marc Antony)

While Julius Caesar was dictator, he appointed Marc Antony as his Master of the Horse. Antony was in charge of Rome while Caesar was off fighting his enemies during the civil war. As a Master of the Horse, Antony was not very effective; he often resorted to violence to put down conflicts and the city descended into a state of anarchy.

A Notable Master of the Horse

Political Factions

During the Roman Republic, there were no recognizable political parties; however, many powerful senatorial families usually allied themselves into factions—either with the populares or the optimates.

The populares appealed to the interests of the people, and their power support stemmed from tribunes and the common people.

The optimates (also known as the boni [good men]) belonged to the ultra-conservative faction, whose power came from the support of the wealthy and the old aristocratic families. Their interests lay in preserving the old privileges of the nobles.

Diagram of the Cursus Honorum

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