KIP/ASVTKIP/ASVT

20010/1120010/11

Revision lessonRevision lesson

Basic features of scienceBasic features of science

publicpublic: scientific knowledge is subject to public scrutiny. : scientific knowledge is subject to public scrutiny. Most of scientific knowledge is published in more than Most of scientific knowledge is published in more than 70.000 journals. Important discoveries are explained by 70.000 journals. Important discoveries are explained by media. media.

historichistoric: scientific knowledge is rooted in the past. This : scientific knowledge is rooted in the past. This historical aspect is ensures the continuity. historical aspect is ensures the continuity.

reproducible: reproducible: Scientific discoveries are not isolated Scientific discoveries are not isolated events. Their validity is verified and proved by repeating events. Their validity is verified and proved by repeating the same or similar experiments. the same or similar experiments.

provisionalprovisional: scientific knowledge develops and is only : scientific knowledge develops and is only temporary. All scientific laws are subject to changes, there temporary. All scientific laws are subject to changes, there is no ultimate truth in science. is no ultimate truth in science.

probabilisticprobabilistic: Interpretation of experiments is based on : Interpretation of experiments is based on mathematical models. Experimental data are interpreted mathematical models. Experimental data are interpreted using probabilistic models. using probabilistic models.

Ideals of science: skepticism, communication, Ideals of science: skepticism, communication, reproducibilityreproducibility

Scientific logicScientific logic

general => special special => general

deduction induction

analysis synthesis

top-down bottom-up

specialization generalization

concretization abstraction

Often used iteratively: ... =>  general => special=> general => special=> ...

Necessity of controlNecessity of control

peer review peer review blind experiment - placeboblind experiment - placebo double blind: even the double blind: even the

experimenter does not know who experimenter does not know who gets placebogets placebo

scientific integrity and ethicsscientific integrity and ethics truth and beautytruth and beauty

TechnologyTechnology

Process that, based on explicit or Process that, based on explicit or implicit phase of research and implicit phase of research and development (through application development (through application of scientific knowledge), makes of scientific knowledge), makes possible commercial production of possible commercial production of goods and/or services.goods and/or services.

Basic steps of creative Basic steps of creative processprocess 1.1. identification of a problem or of a task identification of a problem or of a task

2.2. collecting data and information, collecting data and information, accumulation of knowledge and their accumulation of knowledge and their classification classification

3.3. generating solutions generating solutions

4.4. selecting optimum solution selecting optimum solution

5.5. implementing solution implementing solution

6.6. monitoring, control monitoring, control

Technological progressTechnological progress

Four waves of Four waves of civilization civilization

Obstacles on the road Obstacles on the road to information society to information society information itself information itself

– its growing volume and difficulties of its its growing volume and difficulties of its organization and structure organization and structure

– quality quality – reliability, credibility reliability, credibility

morale and ethics: easy availability of data morale and ethics: easy availability of data and their mining can be misused, therefore and their mining can be misused, therefore especially personal data must be protected especially personal data must be protected against misuse by against misuse by – the state - danger of Orwell's "Big Brother" the state - danger of Orwell's "Big Brother" – unauthorized, commercial or criminal purposes, unauthorized, commercial or criminal purposes,

loss of personal privacy (health and personal loss of personal privacy (health and personal property records, misuse in hiring employees, property records, misuse in hiring employees, insurance policies, etc.) insurance policies, etc.)

human factor: people cannot be easily human factor: people cannot be easily "upgraded", their absorption capacity "upgraded", their absorption capacity is limited is limited

education education – rigid educational system, too narrow rigid educational system, too narrow

specializations, certification specializations, certification – access to educational resources are not access to educational resources are not

any more localized, technology supports any more localized, technology supports distance, lifelong learning distance, lifelong learning

– broadband connection of schools and broadband connection of schools and public libraries to Internet public libraries to Internet

Internet and education Internet and education

broad availability of resources, broad availability of resources, Internet as the largest Internet as the largest encyclopedia encyclopedia

easy access, growing volume of easy access, growing volume of professional journals available professional journals available online, full-text online, full-text

e-learning, blended learning e-learning, blended learning

e-learninge-learning AdvantagesAdvantages::

– choice of place and time for learning choice of place and time for learning – application of multimedia application of multimedia – lowering expenses on travel and accommodation lowering expenses on travel and accommodation – easy and fast actualization of study materials easy and fast actualization of study materials – easy course management (learning management easy course management (learning management

systems, LMS) systems, LMS) – communication (synchronous - chat, communication (synchronous - chat,

videoconferencing, asynchronous - mail, discussion videoconferencing, asynchronous - mail, discussion groups), feedback groups), feedback

– quality control quality control DisadvantagesDisadvantages::

– not suitable for mastering manual skills not suitable for mastering manual skills – missing personal contact, "human touch" (education missing personal contact, "human touch" (education

has strong social role) has strong social role)

Information as a Information as a production factor production factor

Data text, images, sound + meaning + structure

Informationorganized, structured, interpreted

and aggregated data+ reasoning + abstraction +

relations + application

Knowledge case, rule, process, model+ selection + experience +

principles + limitations + learning

Expertisefast and precise advice,

explanation and justification of results

+ integration + distribution + navigation

Competence

organizational competence, knowledge warehouse, integrated performance management, core skills

 

High quality High quality information information preciseprecise - does not contain errors, is - does not contain errors, is

clear and reflects meaning of data on clear and reflects meaning of data on which it is based which it is based

timelytimely - the required information is - the required information is available when it is needed available when it is needed

relevantrelevant - it answers questions: - it answers questions: What? Why? Where? When? Who? What? Why? Where? When? Who? How? How?

adequateadequate (with reasonable (with reasonable redundancy) and understandable redundancy) and understandable

Knowledge

Knowledge is more than knowing something technical.

Knowledge management as one Knowledge management as one of the management disciplinesof the management disciplines

Tacit vs. explicit knowledgeTacit vs. explicit knowledge

Risks involved in Risks involved in working with working with information information it is not always possible to identify and verify it is not always possible to identify and verify

information source information source files can be damaged by chance or files can be damaged by chance or

intentionally (hackers) intentionally (hackers) secure transfer not always guaranteed - be secure transfer not always guaranteed - be

careful when working with personal or careful when working with personal or confidential information, use secure confidential information, use secure protocols, encoding, digital signatures protocols, encoding, digital signatures

data can be damaged during transfer (only data can be damaged during transfer (only rarely) rarely)

your activities can be monitored without your your activities can be monitored without your knowledge and consent knowledge and consent

increased possibility of virus infection - use increased possibility of virus infection - use antivirus and spam protection antivirus and spam protection

To work with information is risky To work with information is risky and sometimes expensive. and sometimes expensive.

However, to work without However, to work without information is even more risky information is even more risky and expensive.and expensive.

IntranetIntranet

other users: intranet users are company other users: intranet users are company employees familiar with organization employees familiar with organization structure, professional jargon, etc. structure, professional jargon, etc.

intranet is used for routine daily applications intranet is used for routine daily applications and contains specific, often quite complex, and contains specific, often quite complex, applications applications

intranet contains other type of documents: intranet contains other type of documents: drafts, project documentation, information on drafts, project documentation, information on human and other resources and similar, often human and other resources and similar, often sensitive and confidential information; sensitive and confidential information; externally the company publishes usually externally the company publishes usually mainly marketing information mainly marketing information

the volume of information in intranet is usually the volume of information in intranet is usually several orders of magnitude higher than that of several orders of magnitude higher than that of information published on public Internet pages information published on public Internet pages

technical background: bandwidth of internal lines technical background: bandwidth of internal lines used by intranet is often much higher, data used by intranet is often much higher, data transfers are therefore faster and it is possible to transfers are therefore faster and it is possible to use rich graphics and multimedia. Hardware and use rich graphics and multimedia. Hardware and software is usually quite uniform and you need software is usually quite uniform and you need not pay too much attention to compatibility of not pay too much attention to compatibility of different platforms. different platforms.

style of intranet pages should be standardized style of intranet pages should be standardized

ExtranetExtranet

Access to Access to extranetextranet is provided to selected is provided to selected business partners, who can then directly business partners, who can then directly connect to information system of your connect to information system of your business. Typical applications are: tracing business. Typical applications are: tracing orders, price lists and catalogues.orders, price lists and catalogues.

As the extranet users access it quite As the extranet users access it quite frequently, you can train them to use special frequently, you can train them to use special applications, which then can be quite complex. applications, which then can be quite complex. However, be careful - the typical user (as a However, be careful - the typical user (as a salesman) usually works with several other salesman) usually works with several other extranets and should not be overburdened extranets and should not be overburdened with broad variety of requirementswith broad variety of requirements

SystemSystemss approach approach

SystemSystemss approach: way of thinking and approach: way of thinking and problem solving based on complex problem solving based on complex treatment of phenomena and treatment of phenomena and processes, taking into account both processes, taking into account both internal and external internal and external linkslinks..

Methodical objective: understand, Methodical objective: understand, appropriately formulate and solve a appropriately formulate and solve a problemproblem

Tools: models, simulationTools: models, simulation

Basics of system approachBasics of system approach

System is more than the sum of its partsSystem is more than the sum of its parts We analyze the system to be able to predict its We analyze the system to be able to predict its

behaviourbehaviour The main purpose of the system is that in The main purpose of the system is that in

favour of which we can sacrifice other favour of which we can sacrifice other objectives.objectives.

Every system is an information system: it must Every system is an information system: it must analyze the flow of informationanalyze the flow of information

It may be advisable to decompose complex It may be advisable to decompose complex system into subsystems, which are then treated system into subsystems, which are then treated individually and in the end again as one whole.individually and in the end again as one whole.

System is a dynamic network of interconnected System is a dynamic network of interconnected elements. The change in one element results in elements. The change in one element results in changes other elements.changes other elements.

The system boundary can change according to The system boundary can change according to the goal of the analysis.the goal of the analysis.

Systems – basic concepts Systems – basic concepts 11 systemsystem – set of elements and their mutual links – set of elements and their mutual links

that exhibit specific behaviour as a wholethat exhibit specific behaviour as a whole structurestructure – way of arrangement of elements and – way of arrangement of elements and

their linkstheir links subsystemsubsystem – subset of elements with stronger or – subset of elements with stronger or

more numerous linksmore numerous links environmentenvironment – elements not belonging to the – elements not belonging to the

system, but having links to its elements (however system, but having links to its elements (however weaker then within the system)weaker then within the system)

inputinput – action from the environment to the – action from the environment to the systemsystem

outputoutput - action from the system to its - action from the system to its environment environment

processprocess – transformation input output – transformation input output

Systems – basic concepts Systems – basic concepts 22

feedbackfeedback – link monitoring outputs and feeding – link monitoring outputs and feeding information to inputinformation to input

closed systemclosed system - system without inputs and - system without inputs and outputs (not interacting with its environment)outputs (not interacting with its environment)

open systemopen system – has inputs and outputs, – has inputs and outputs, exchanges mass, energy, information with its exchanges mass, energy, information with its environment environment

static systemstatic system – neither system nor its – neither system nor its elements change with timeelements change with time

dynamic systemdynamic system - system and/or its elements - system and/or its elements change in timechange in time

control, regulationcontrol, regulation – evaluation of inputs, – evaluation of inputs, processes and output and doing changesprocesses and output and doing changes

System with feedbackSystem with feedback

negative – system stabilizationnegative – system stabilization positive – amplification of the responsepositive – amplification of the response

Try to find examples of both kinds of feedbackTry to find examples of both kinds of feedback

SYSTEMINPUT OUTPUT

FEEDBACK

RR&&DD

Basic research: activity of scientists Basic research: activity of scientists focused on uncovering of secrets of focused on uncovering of secrets of nature, without any direct applications. It nature, without any direct applications. It is usually - at least in part - financed from is usually - at least in part - financed from public resources. public resources.

Applied research: brings discoveries of Applied research: brings discoveries of basic research to be useful in specific basic research to be useful in specific applications.applications.

Development: consists of steps necessary Development: consists of steps necessary to implement new or modified products to implement new or modified products and processes in production.and processes in production.

DiscoveryDiscovery

Discovery is the observation of new phenomena, new Discovery is the observation of new phenomena, new actions, or new events and providing new reasoning to actions, or new events and providing new reasoning to explain the knowledge gathered through such explain the knowledge gathered through such observations with previously acquired knowledge from observations with previously acquired knowledge from abstract thought and everyday experience. abstract thought and everyday experience.

Some discoveries lead to invention of object, process, Some discoveries lead to invention of object, process, or techniques. or techniques.

A discovery may sometimes be based on earlier A discovery may sometimes be based on earlier discoveries, collaborations or ideas, and the process of discoveries, collaborations or ideas, and the process of discovery requires at least the awareness that an discovery requires at least the awareness that an existing concept or method can be modified or existing concept or method can be modified or transformed. However, some discoveries also transformed. However, some discoveries also represent a radical breakthrough in knowledge.represent a radical breakthrough in knowledge.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discovery_(observation)

SerendipitySerendipity

Serendipity is the effect by which one Serendipity is the effect by which one accidentally discovers something fortunate, accidentally discovers something fortunate, especially while looking for something else especially while looking for something else entirely.entirely.

InventionInvention

An An inventioninvention is a new composition, device, is a new composition, device, or process. Some inventions are based on or process. Some inventions are based on pre-existing models or ideas and others are pre-existing models or ideas and others are radical breakthroughs. Inventions can extend radical breakthroughs. Inventions can extend the boundaries of human knowledge or the boundaries of human knowledge or experience.experience.

An invention that is novel and not obvious to An invention that is novel and not obvious to those who are skilled in the same field may those who are skilled in the same field may be able to obtain the legal protection of a be able to obtain the legal protection of a patent. patent. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invention

RR&D LABORATORIES&D LABORATORIES

Company laboratories Company laboratories Government laboratories Government laboratories Independent laboratories Independent laboratories Research consortia Research consortia University laboratories University laboratories

RR&D &D MANAGEMENT MANAGEMENT

Value based analysis, cost-benefit Value based analysis, cost-benefit analysis analysis

Project management – CPM, Project management – CPM, PERT, ToCPERT, ToC

Stage-gate process Stage-gate process

RR&D&D in EU in EU

2007 - 20132007 - 2013 Framework programsFramework programs CIPCIP Structural Funds - R&D&IStructural Funds - R&D&I Innovation scorecardInnovation scorecard

R&D, Innovation and R&D, Innovation and Knowledge Knowledge Management Management

Innovation impulses - InInnovation impulses - Internalternal

environmentenvironment Own R&DOwn R&D Technical divisions – design, Technical divisions – design,

technologytechnology Production divisions (production, Production divisions (production,

provision of services)provision of services) Marketing and salesMarketing and sales Logistics (purchase and supplies)Logistics (purchase and supplies) Guarantee and post-guarantee serviceGuarantee and post-guarantee service OwnersOwners

Innovation impulses - External Innovation impulses - External environmentenvironment

CustomersCustomers SuppliersSuppliers CompetitorsCompetitors Consultants, R&D Consultants, R&D

institutionsinstitutions Schools, universitiesSchools, universities Professional Professional

publications, Internetpublications, Internet Exhibitions, fairs, Exhibitions, fairs,

specialized seminars specialized seminars and conferencesand conferences

Advertising agenciesAdvertising agencies InvestorsInvestors MediaMedia Authorized testing Authorized testing

laboratories, laboratories, certification agenciescertification agencies

State institutions, State institutions, public sectorpublic sector

LegislationLegislation GlobalizationGlobalization

MARKET PULLMARKET PULL - - R&DR&D PUSHPUSH

Market pullMarket pull– looking for the best way of satisfying a newly looking for the best way of satisfying a newly

emerging customer demandemerging customer demand– iimprovement of the existing products, mprovement of the existing products,

extension of the existing offer or decrease of extension of the existing offer or decrease of priceprice

– iimpulses for continuous, incremental mpulses for continuous, incremental innovations or for process innovationsinnovations or for process innovations

Research and development pushResearch and development push– looking for commercial use of new impulses looking for commercial use of new impulses

resulting from the R&D resultsresulting from the R&D results– generating of new markets for conceptually generating of new markets for conceptually

different products different products

77 SOURCES SOURCES (Drucker)(Drucker)

INTERNALINTERNAL 1.1. ununexpected eventexpected event2.2. ccontradictionontradiction3.3. change of work processchange of work process4.4. cchange in the structure of industry hange in the structure of industry

or marketor market

EXTERNALEXTERNAL– Demographic changesDemographic changes– Changes in the world viewChanges in the world view– New knowledge New knowledge

Categories of innovationsCategories of innovations

Sustaining– better products, can be – better products, can be sold for higher prices to demanding sold for higher prices to demanding customers; incumbents wincustomers; incumbents win

DisruptiveDisruptive – commercialization of – commercialization of simpler, more user-friendly simpler, more user-friendly products, which are cheaper and products, which are cheaper and targeted for new or less demanding targeted for new or less demanding customers; newcomers wincustomers; newcomers win

Clayton M. Christensen: The Innovator's Solution, Harvard Business Press, 2003

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Innovation and new Innovation and new product development product development Innovation is critical to successInnovation is critical to success The product life cycle is getting shorter and The product life cycle is getting shorter and

shorter, new products must me introduced shorter, new products must me introduced ever more frequently. ever more frequently.

The lead time between new product idea and The lead time between new product idea and its introduction to the market must be as short its introduction to the market must be as short as possibleas possible

The design-push approach must be changed The design-push approach must be changed to market-pullto market-pull

The excellent new product is the necessary The excellent new product is the necessary condition for success, but it does not condition for success, but it does not guarantee it. guarantee it.

Four cornerstones of the Four cornerstones of the design-driven cost design-driven cost reduction reduction Process discipline (stage-gate)Process discipline (stage-gate) Target setting and transparent Target setting and transparent

monitoring monitoring Cross-functional organization Cross-functional organization

removing organizational barriers removing organizational barriers and fostering collaboration and and fostering collaboration and creativity creativity

Management commitment Management commitment

Stage-gateStage-gate

Open innovationOpen innovation

Growing mobility of highly experienced and Growing mobility of highly experienced and skilled peopleskilled people

Growing number of new firms commercialize Growing number of new firms commercialize external research and successfully compete external research and successfully compete with large, established companies. with large, established companies.

Time to market is getting ever shorter and Time to market is getting ever shorter and customers are more knowledgeable and customers are more knowledgeable and more demanding. more demanding.

Open innovationOpen innovation assumes that companies assumes that companies use external as well as internal ideas and use external as well as internal ideas and both external and internal ways to market, both external and internal ways to market, and that internal ideas can be taken to the and that internal ideas can be taken to the

LIMITS TO GROWTH, LIMITS TO GROWTH, SUSTAINABLE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT DEVELOPMENT

Global issues (Club of Global issues (Club of Rome)Rome)

Environment Environment Demography Demography Development aid Development aid Value system Value system Governance Governance Labour Labour Information society Information society New technologies New technologies Education Education New global society New global society World economic and financial order World economic and financial order

Human numbers through time

                                                                               

Energy consumption vs. Energy consumption vs. GDPGDP

Energy resources Energy resources

Average growth of energy Average growth of energy consumption: 3% a year - doubling consumption: 3% a year - doubling each 25 yearseach 25 years

about 50% industry, 50% householdsabout 50% industry, 50% households fossil fuels: 67% (coal 38%, gas 17%, fossil fuels: 67% (coal 38%, gas 17%,

oil 12%)oil 12%) nuclear: 17%.nuclear: 17%. renewables: 16%, mainly water, others renewables: 16%, mainly water, others

about 1%about 1%

Risks in primary energy Risks in primary energy

generationgeneration

FuelImmediate

deaths1969-86who?

Normalized to deaths per

GWyear* electricity

Coal 3600 workers 0.34

Gas 1440workers&

public0.17

Oil (transport) 1620workers&

public0.8

Hydro 3839 public 1.41

Nuclear 31 workers 0.03

The societal aspects of The societal aspects of riskrisk There is no risk-free technology (or any other There is no risk-free technology (or any other

human activity – life itself is dangerous and human activity – life itself is dangerous and unavoidably leads to death)unavoidably leads to death)

Engineers and managers need to understand Engineers and managers need to understand how groups in society develop perceptions how groups in society develop perceptions about the riskiness of engineering projects about the riskiness of engineering projects and processes and what these perceptions and processes and what these perceptions depend on. The perceptions will generally be depend on. The perceptions will generally be quite different from the qualitative and quite different from the qualitative and quantitative assessments made according to quantitative assessments made according to traditional engineering methodologies. traditional engineering methodologies.

What is risk?What is risk? Risk is often defined as the probability that an Risk is often defined as the probability that an

undesirable vent will happen, multiplied by the undesirable vent will happen, multiplied by the impact it could have if it did happen. impact it could have if it did happen.

So, the risk of a hurricane destroying a town is So, the risk of a hurricane destroying a town is obtained by multiplying the probability of it occurring obtained by multiplying the probability of it occurring by the amount of damage that it could cause. This by the amount of damage that it could cause. This is an example of an is an example of an acuteacute risk: the catastrophe risk: the catastrophe happens very quickly and affects many people happens very quickly and affects many people simultaneouslysimultaneously

There are also many examples of There are also many examples of chronicchronic risks, risks, where the consequences build up slowly, but no where the consequences build up slowly, but no less seriously. Many cases of environmental less seriously. Many cases of environmental pollution are chronic risks.pollution are chronic risks.

Precautionary principle

When human activities may lead to morally unacceptable harm that is scientifically plausible but uncertain, actions shall be taken to avoid or diminish that harm.

Morally unacceptable harm refers to harm to humans or the environment that is:– threatening to human life or health; or– serious and effectively irreversible; or– inequitable to present or future generations; or– imposed without adequate consideration of the

human rights of those affected.

Psychological factorsPsychological factors Experience suggests that:Experience suggests that: Acts of God or Nature are much more acceptable than Acts of God or Nature are much more acceptable than

acts caused directly by people.acts caused directly by people. Hazards, accidents and failures of public or community Hazards, accidents and failures of public or community

enterprises are much more acceptable than those of enterprises are much more acceptable than those of private, profit making enterprises.private, profit making enterprises.

Risks are accepted much more readily if we are in Risks are accepted much more readily if we are in control or have participated in the decisions leading to control or have participated in the decisions leading to the riskthe risk

Risks are unacceptable if we cannot see the concomitant Risks are unacceptable if we cannot see the concomitant benefits either for some “deserving” group or ourselves.benefits either for some “deserving” group or ourselves.

Familiarity makes a hazard much more acceptable. Familiarity makes a hazard much more acceptable. Death in a road accident is more acceptable than death Death in a road accident is more acceptable than death caused by radiation.caused by radiation.

A large number of incidents spread over a wide area is A large number of incidents spread over a wide area is much more acceptable than if the same effect took place much more acceptable than if the same effect took place at one time in one place. (Consider the impact if all the at one time in one place. (Consider the impact if all the annual deaths from lung cancer took place at one annual deaths from lung cancer took place at one location on one day.)location on one day.)

We feel protective towards the innocent or vulnerable We feel protective towards the innocent or vulnerable (children and the old).(children and the old).

Recurrent incidents are much less acceptable than the Recurrent incidents are much less acceptable than the first occurrence.first occurrence.

Even a modest systems failure in a mysterious, poorly Even a modest systems failure in a mysterious, poorly understood operation like a chemical plant raises anxiety understood operation like a chemical plant raises anxiety about what else is lurking within and is much less about what else is lurking within and is much less acceptable than a major incident in a better understood acceptable than a major incident in a better understood environment like a ship.environment like a ship.

Response to an incident affects its acceptability. Response to an incident affects its acceptability. Retreating into defensive denial can often be even less Retreating into defensive denial can often be even less acceptable than the incident.acceptable than the incident.

The role of expertsThe role of experts Experts (engineers, scientists and medics) often have a very Experts (engineers, scientists and medics) often have a very

important part to play in establishing perceptions of risk. Such important part to play in establishing perceptions of risk. Such experts are frequently called upon to declare publicly — in an experts are frequently called upon to declare publicly — in an inquiry, public hearing or to the press — their views on the risks inquiry, public hearing or to the press — their views on the risks associated with technical decisions.associated with technical decisions. The extent to which their views The extent to which their views are believed by the public depends on factors such as:are believed by the public depends on factors such as:

What if any benefits do the experts themselves and their employers What if any benefits do the experts themselves and their employers obtain from the decision? Are they being paid by those likely to obtain from the decision? Are they being paid by those likely to benefit (or get research contracts, or additional status etc.)?benefit (or get research contracts, or additional status etc.)?

Do the experts seem to understand the concerns of the general Do the experts seem to understand the concerns of the general population, or do they seem to inhabit a world of their own?population, or do they seem to inhabit a world of their own?

What about the experts’ track record? Have their opinions been right What about the experts’ track record? Have their opinions been right previously? For example, veterinary experts and the government’s previously? For example, veterinary experts and the government’s scientific advisors had a difficult time being believed after they had scientific advisors had a difficult time being believed after they had failed to recommend the right decisions to deal with BSE.failed to recommend the right decisions to deal with BSE.

Are the experts themselves at risk? Do they accept liability for the Are the experts themselves at risk? Do they accept liability for the consequences if something does go wrong?consequences if something does go wrong?

Can social and technical Can social and technical concerns be separated?concerns be separated?

The conventional separation between the technical (the The conventional separation between the technical (the province of engineers) and the social (the province of province of engineers) and the social (the province of managers, politicians and the public) cannot survive managers, politicians and the public) cannot survive scrutiny. Engineering decisions are inevitably shot scrutiny. Engineering decisions are inevitably shot through with social considerations, just as many through with social considerations, just as many apparently political decisions depend on technical apparently political decisions depend on technical judgements. Indeed, it is often hard to tell just where the judgements. Indeed, it is often hard to tell just where the ‘technical’ ends and the ‘social’ begins.‘technical’ ends and the ‘social’ begins.

This means that engineers need to be as adept at functioning This means that engineers need to be as adept at functioning in a wider political environment as they are in a technical one in a wider political environment as they are in a technical one if they are to fulfil their role.if they are to fulfil their role.