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Stockholm 1997

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Masterof ScienceThesisReport ThesisReport Series1997:21Division ofLandandWaterResourcesDepartmentof Civil andEnvironmentalEngineeringRoyal Instituteof Technology

824—GH—14358

TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE WATER SUPPLYAND SANITATIONPROJECT MANAGEMENT IN RURAL GHANA: A CASE OF

THE DANISH WATER PROJECT IN THE KPANDO DISTRICT

JohnErnest, Koku

c~’ ~ —~-~--

TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATIONPROJECT MANAGEMENT IN RURAL GHANA: A CASE OF

THE DANISH WATER PROJECT IN THE KPANDO DISTRICT

John Ernest, Koku

SupervisorDr Jan-Erik Gustafsson

LIBRARY IRCP0 Box 93190, 2509 AD THE HAGUE

TeL: +31 703068980Fax -,-31 70 3589964

BARCODE:

~ &HV097Stockholm1997

Masterof ScienceThesisReport ThesisReport Series1997:21Division of LandandWaterResourcesDepartmentof Civil andEnvironmentalEngineeringRoyalInstituteof Technology

FIGURESFigure 1. Map showing CommunitiesReceivingDanida Project Assistancein the

KpandoDistrict

Figure2 Map showingSampledResearchCommunitieswithin the KpandoDistrict

Figure3 The S-ShapedDiffusion Curve

Figure4 MapofGhanashowingtheKpandoDistrict

Figure5 Flow ChartillustratingtheDaniclaWaterProjectsPlanningStrategies

Figure 6 Flow Chart illustrating Socio-EconomicImpacts Associatedwith SafePotableWater SupplyProvisionin theKpandoDistrict

PLATESPlate 1. Picture illustrating water sourceabuse in communitieswithout adequate

potablewaterfacilities

Plate2. An illustration ofa SanplatHouseholdLatrineType

Plate3. An illustration ofaMozambiqueSlabTypeLatrine

Plate4 An illustration ofaRectangleSingle(VentilatedImproved)Latrine

PREFACEThis report is an outcomeof a thesis work carried out at the Division of Land andWater Resourceswithin the Royal Institute of Technology(KTH), Stockholm-Sweden It was presentedin partial fulfilment of the requirementsfor a Master cfScience(EnvironmentalEngineeringand SustainableInfrastructure)Degree Dataforthecompilationofthereportwasacquiredfrom afield visit to Ghanaduring the periodJanuary-March1997 Write up of the final report was completedin Stockholm inAugust,1997 The choiceof theDanishWaterprojectfor thestudy wasself-motivatedand not requestedby any specificorganization It cameout ofthe interestthe authorhas in its activities within the Kpando District from wherehe originates Thus, theviewpointsand conclusionspresentedin the documentarethoseofthe authorand cLonot necessarilyreflect thoseof the Division It is hopedthat findings from this studywill sensitizethe DanishProjectto pertinentissuesaffecting its activities within theKpandoDistrict it is alsotheauthor’shopethatissuesdiscussedin the documentwUlequally serveuseful purposesfor rural water supply project planners,policy makersandothersworking in water, sanitationandits relatedfieldsin developingcountries

TABLESTable 1 PercentDistributionofRespondentsby Ethinic andReligiousaffiliation

Table2 PercentDistributionof Respondentsby OccupationalCategoryin theStudy Area

Table3. PercentDistributionof EducationalStatusofRespondents

Table 4 SelectedMajor Water and EnvironmentalRelatedDiseasesRecordedinGhanain 1994

Table5 SummaryofWaterRelatedDiseasesPrevalencein theKpandoDistrict

Table6. PercentDistributionof WaterSupplySourcein theStudyArea

Table 7 PercentDistribution of Personal/ClothesWashingPlacesby Communities

Table 8. PercentDistribution of Placesof WasteWaterDisposalin Communities

Table9 1 MaterialsRequiredfor theConstructionof aSanplatLatrine

Table9 2 MaterialsRequiredfor theConstructionofa MozambiqueTypeLatrine

Table10 CommunitiesEarmarkedfor HandPumpConversionin theDistrict

Table 11 PercentDistribution of PlannedProjectFacilities in Communitiesin theDistrict during theperiodJanuary-June

Table 12 ProblemsConstrainingWaterFacilities in the Communities

Table 13. PercentDistribution of Public Opinions and Suggestionsfor ImprovedServiceprovisionin theDistrict

Table 14 CostEstimatesfor WaterFacilitiesprovidedundertheDanishWaterScheme

ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

DANIDA - DanishInternationalDevelopmentAssistance

DCD - District CommunityDevelopment

DKK - DanishKronor

CIDA - CanadianInternationalDevelopmentAgency

EAP - EnvironmentalAction Plan

ERA - EnvironmentalHealthAssistants

EIA - EnvironmentalImpactAssessment

EPC - EvangelicalPresbyterianChurch

EPI - ExpandedProgrammeon Immunization

ESA - ExternalSupportAgency

EU - EuropeanUnion

GDP - GrossDomesticProduct

GWSC - GhanaWaterandSewageCorporation

mc - InternationalWaterand SanitationCentre

LFA - Logical FrameworkApproach

MOH - Ministry ofHealth

NGO - Non-GovernmentalOrganization

ODA - OverseasDevelopmentAdministration

SIDA - SwedishInternationalDevelopmentCooperationAgency

UN - UnitedNations

UINCED - UnitedNationsConferenceon EnvironmentandDevelopment

IJNDP - UnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme

UNICEF - UnitedNationsInternationalChildren’sFund

USAID - United StatesAgencyfor InternationalDevelopment

USS - United StatesDollars

VRWSSP - VoltaRuralWater SupplyandSanitationProject

WATSAN - Waterand Sanitation

WATSANEWS -WaterandSaitationNews

WV! - World Vision International

ABSTRACTGhanais one West African Country that is endowedwith a relatively abundantwaterresources But, until recently ineffective water resourceplanning and management,complicatedby the high per capitacost of water supplies, hasmadepotablewatersupplya big problem Theresultis thata largeproportionof thecountry’s population,particularlythe rural dwellers, hardlyhaveaccessto safepotabledrinking water Inmostrural districtsofthe countryincluding theKpandoDistrict wherethis projectwascarriedout, thesituationhasresultedin all forms of waterresourcemisuseand abusewhich haveimpacts not only on the environmentbut also on the health statusofpeople.Recently,the governmentof Ghana,awareof thegravity of the problem,hasinitiated several rural water and sanitation projects in conjunction with manyinternationalorganizationstowardsaddressmgthecrisis

Onesuchco-operationis the DanishWaterProject(also referredto asthe VoltaRuralWater and SanitationProject)in theKpandoDistrict This studyseeksto evaluatetheDanishWater Projectfrom the point of view of sustainability In that context, itexaminesthe level of public participation,public health and environmentaleducationand othercomponentsofthe project’sdemand-drivenstrategyfor rural watersupplyand sanitationmanagementProblemshinderingthe smoothrunning ofthe project, itssocio-economicimpact and prospectswere also given special focus The studyprovidesuseful recommendationsthat could guide future policy formulation towardsattainingsustainablewaterprojectmanagementin theKpandoDistrict

Keywords. Sustainability, Demand-DrivenStrategy,Public Participation, ProjectPlanning andManagemenL

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTThe dreamof compiling this thesisreport which marksthe completionof my MScstudies could not have becomereality without very significant contributionsfromseveralpersonswho deservespecial mention In that regard, my most profound

gratitudegoesfirst andforemostto Ms Karin Dif andthe entireBoard ofthe SwedishInstitute for sponsoringmy studies All the contributionsand careenjoyedfrom themthroughoutmy studyperiodhavebeenvery much appreciatedIt is my hopethat sucha kind gestureof sponsoringmy studiesfor an Msc (EnvironmentalEngineeringandSustainableInfrastructure) Degree will mark the beginning of a more organiz~dresearchco-operationbetweentheRoyal Instituteof Technology(KTH), the SwedishInstitute andthe UniversityofGhana,Legon-Accra Having said this, I speciallywishto acknowledgewith gratitutethevaluableassistance,careand concernenjoyedfromDr Jan-Erik Gustafsson,my supervisorand Direstor of Studies(EESI Programnie),and Dr Nils Viking (former programmeDirector). The useful guidanceand insightsgivenmeon this subjectconstitutedan importantmotivationalfactorthat haskept rrieall through. Dr GordonMcGranahanand Ms MarianneKjellen all of the StockholmEnvironmentInstitute (SEI) also deservespecialwords of thankgiving Their criticalcomments and useful literature on methodologicalapproachesare very muchappreciatedTheyhavegreatlycontributedto giving thedocumentits final shape

My words of acknowledgementwill be incompletewithout extendingvery specialwords of gratitute to the entire staffof the DanishWater Project for the greatco-operationreceivedfrom them,which greatlyfacilitatedmy work during thefield studyperiod In this connectionspecial thanks go particularly to Ms Mette Baekgaard,MessrsJosephAfedo and Augustine Fornyikpor all of the RegionalProject Office(Ho) as well as MessrsForster Soley(District Project Engineer), John Dzoboku(District ProjectAdministrator)andall staffofboth officeswho contributedin diversewaystowardssuccessfulacquisitionof datafor this report To all thesepeopleI say:“Akpe kakaka” which, in my dialectmeans“thanks so very much” and wish all ofthem many rewardsand successin their endeavoursFinally, to my belovedparentsLordsonand Gifty Koku, I offer them avery specialplacein my heartin appreciationof the incessantmoral support and inspiration enjoyed from them all through rriyeducationalyearswhich haskeptmeforgingaheadon the academicladderfor all theseyears To all thesepersonsand severalothersincluding colleaguesarid friends wJiocontributedin oneway or theothertowardsthis successfulend, I say a big THANKYOU

TABLE OF CONTENTS

i Abstractii Key Wordsiii Acknowledgement

CHAPTER ONE: RESEARCH PROBLEMAN~tJ~E~S.tt.T’J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . . .......... 1

11 0 IntroductionandStatementofResearchProblem 1111 RationaleandScopeoftheStudy . . . . .. .311 2 SpecificObjectivesoftheStudy11 3 ResearchMethodology .. .. 41.1 4 Problemsofthe Study ... .... 6

1.2.0ConceptualFramework - SpatialDiffusionof Innovationand Sustainabiity in a Relevant Context 7

1 2 1 Hagestrand’sDiffussionTheoryIn Perspective1.2.2 Sustainabilityin a RelevantContext . .. .10

CHAPTER TWO: GENERAL CHARACTERISTI CS(..kl’ THE .S’TIJL)1’A.I~.E14........... . ..... . ..... 12

2 1 0 Locationand Socio-EconomicInformationon theStudyArea. . . . 122.2 0 EconomicCharacteristicsoftheStudyArea ... 132 3.0 Environmental,InfrastructuralandHealthStatusofthe Area ... 152 3 1 Housing . . .. 152 3 2 SanitationandWaterSupply .. 152.3 3 Education .. . ... . ... .. .. 162 3.4 TheHealthStatusofthe StudyArea . . . 17

CHAPTER THREE:THE DANISHDEVELOFMENT POLICIESANDMANAGEMENTSTRATEGIES........21

3 1 0 Introduction . .. ... .. 213 11 AdministrativeAid Structure.. . . 22312 Staffing .. . .. . . .... . .223 1.3 Aid PoliciesandStrategies ... . . 233 1 4 Interventiontools in theWaterSector . . . . 24

3.1 5 VolumeandShareofAid Resources .. ... 253 1 6 CountrieswhereAid is Concentrated . .. 253 1 7 Partnersin ProjectPlanningandImplementation . 253 1 8 Coordination.... ... . . . .26

CHAPTER FOUR: THE VOLTA RURALWATER PROJECTHISTORYANDPLANNING STRATEGIES.............27

4 1.0 Introduction.. .. 274 11 BackgroundoftheProject .. ... 274 1 2 PrinciplesoftheProject .... .. 284 1 3 PlanningandManagementStrategies

-InvolvementofCommunityParticipation .. 284.1 4 ProjectInformationandDataCollection .... 284 1 5 Healthand SanitationPlanning.. .. 294 1 6 Feasibility andSocio-Economic Studies.. . . 304 1 7 Meetingwith Communitiesto Negotiateon Facilities 304 1 8 SigningofFormalAgreement .. ... 314.1 9 ConfirmationandTraining ofWaterandSanitation

(WATSAN) Commitees ... . 314 2 0 ConstructionofFacilities 314.2 1 OperationandMaintenance ... . 314 2 2 Monitoring andEvaluation . . 32

CHAPTER FIVE: DATA ANALYSIS,RESULTSAND DISCUSSIONS.....33

5 1 0 Introduction ... .. . 315 1.1 Water Supply, SanitationandAncillary Facilitiesin theCommunities 315 2 0 WaterSupply facilitiesand caretakerResponsibilities . 365.2.1 Water Supply Facilities 365 2.2 Boreholeswith Handpumps

(GhanaModified IndianMark H Handpumps) .. 375 2 3 Gravity FlowPipedWaterSupplySystem 385.2.4 Other WaterSupplyFacilities 385 2 5 HandDugWellswithout aHandpump .. 385.2 6 CommunityHand-DugWells fitted with Handpumps 395.3.0 Sanitation Facilities 395 3 1 SanplatLatrine . . 405 3 2 MozambiqueSlabTypeLatrine . . . 415 3 3 RectangleSinglePit Latrine . . . ... . 425 4 0 SpatialDistribution ofProjectfacilities in theDistrict.. . 43

5 4 1 ProblemsConstrainingWaterSupplyandSanitationFacilityProvisionin the District . . ~. 46

5.5.0 Opinions/Suggestionsof BeneficiaryCommunitiesforeffectiveProject Performance and Improved Services 48

5 5 1 Public OpinionsabouttheDanishWaterProject . . .. 495 5 2 PublicSuggestionsfor improvedServiceDelivery .. 505 5 3 TheImpact andProspectsoftheDanishWaterProject

in theDistrict. . . . .. . .. 52

CHAPTER SIX: DISCUSSIONOFMAJOR FINDINGS . . . . . ... 55

6 1 0 Introduction . . .556 11 Major Findings . . 55

CHAPTER SEVEN: RECOMMENDATIONSAND CONCLUSION.....................60

7 1 0 Introduction .. 607 11 FinanceandLabourFactor . . ... . 607 1.2 Public! Community Education 607 1 3 FutureResearch/Studies 617 1 4 ConcludingRemarks . . 61

BIBLIOGRAPHY 65

68Hypotheses. .... . . 69Samplesof StructuredQuestionnairesusedfor thefield survey 72Extractsfrom theVRWSSPCommunityManagementHandbook. .79

FIG.1 COMMUNITIES RECEIVING DANIDA PROJECTASSISTANCE IN KPANDO DISTRICT

OlO~E__________________ O~I5E

AQbenoXoS

Feal I /Reaettl.rn.ntA /

Kpando A Kpondo Borne

I fAgudzlAGadzoI A”ozoonti

NDO

Anyofo 4

Anylube.

/I,

/

LEO~ND

Communitiss recsiviflqDANIDA Project assistance

First Class Road— — — Third Class Road

. Other town,

SOURCE:

O~20’ 0’ 30

pondoDzoanti 7C~0’-

Kpando Dzlgbe

Yordanu

FIg. 2 SAMPLED RESEARCH COMMUNITIES WITHIN THEKPANDO DISTRICT

Bame6’

LEGEND

Sompi.dCommunities

Major Roads

6’

Ts lye n U

—— Minor Roads

______ Lake

0 4 8 12KmI I I I I I I

0’ 20’ 0’ 30’

Source: Survey of Ghana.

CHAPTER ONERESEARCH PROBLEM AND DESIGN

1.1.0 Introduction and StatementofResearchProblem

Sustainablewateruse and managementhasfor various reasonsbecomean issue ofgreat concern in many countriesthe world over in recent times While increasedawarenessabout scarcewater resourcescoupledwith their intricate relationshipwiththe environmenthavebeenmajor driving forcesbehindthe growing concernenjoyedby this resource,demographicfactors have compoundedthe aboveto necessitateamoreurgentattentionfor waterresourcemanagementin mostnationsoftheworld Inmostthird world countries,especiallyin Africa, rapidpopulationgrowthtogetherwithlack of effectiveand holistic water managementpolicies havecombinedto maketheproblemalittle morecomplicated Sincethebeginningofthe 1980’sconcertedeffortshavebeenmadeby many governmentsto respondto the waterproblem, includingaccessto safe drinking water, which led to increasedcoveragewithin the periodHoweverrecentexperiencesare suggestingthat more still remainsto be donefor thedesiredimpact to be felt in mostcountriesIn fact, it is estimatedthat abouttwo-thirdsof Africa’s rural populationare still without accessto improvedwatersuppliesdueprimarily to highper capitacostofwatersupplysystems(World Bank 1989)

Ghanais by no meansan exceptionin the above situation. The country is endowedwith abundantwaterresourceswhich servedasa spring-boardfor its socio-economicdevelopmentefforts after attainmentof independenceand still remains one of thefundamentalendowmentsfrom which the nation’s people derive their livelihoodIdeally, given therelativeabundanceofwaterresourcesin the country,especiallyin thestudy area(KpandoDistrict), it should bepossibleto makewateravailablenot only inapotableform for theentirepopulationwith minimal effort, but alsothatits availabilityon a sustainablebasisshouldbe guaranteedYet, for reasonsrelatedto inappropriateplanningand management,weakwaterresourcemanagementinstitutional frameworksaswell aslimited useof appropriatetechnologies(which ofcoursehingeon inadequatefinancial resourcesavailable to governmentto meet adequatewater needsof itsgrowingpopulation)shortagesarequite commonandmostpeople,particularly in ruralareasdo nothavegoodaccessto potablewater

Government’sresponsiveefforts in termsof potablewaterprovisionto amelioratethesituation dates back to the late 80’s. However, attention seemedto be moreconcentratedon the urban sectors to the neglect of the greater Ghanaianruralpopulace Consequently,thesituationin theruralareasbecamesobanefulmuchto theextent that only about 15% of the rural communities with population below 500personshaveaccessto potablewater (GhanaEAP,1989) Under the circumstancesmanyusefulman-hoursarewasteddaily by theruralpeoplein searchofwater. And incaseswhereeasyaccessis not availablethesepeoplehaveno optionthan to resorttodrawing water from unhealthysourceswhich exposethem to several airborneand

1

water-relateddiseaseslike guzneawor7n,schistosomiasis,dysentery,typhoid, etc thusposingsignificantthreatsto humanhealth(McGranahanG, andSongsoreJ (1994).Today, the enormity of the water issuein the countryhasbegunto attracta mcreseriousattention than it did in the past Government,fully recognizingthe futureimplicationsofthe watersupplycrisisin rural Ghanaespeciallyits impacton thesoc;io-economicdevelopmentofthe countryhasenteredbilateralco-operationwith a numberof internationalorganizationssuchasthe World Bank, UN Organizations,CanadianInternationalDevelopmentAgency(CIDA), United StatesInternationalDevelopmentAgency(USAID) etc,all ofwhich haveinitiated rural watersupplyprojectsin severalpartsofthe countryto alleviatethe problem TheDanishRural Water and SanitationProject is one such recent international co-operationswhich is currently providingwaterand sanitationfacilities for peoplein the KpandoDistrict Although this wal.erprojecthasbeenunderwayin theKpandodistrict for threeyearsnow the coverageisvery low. Besides,thereseemsalsoto bevery low adoptionof facility-usedue to loweconomicstatus,lack of adequateeducationon the part of the inhabitantsto enablethem appreciatethe essenceof good portable water/hygienicpracticesand perhapslack ofadequatepublicawarenessamongpeoplein the district concerningthe projectThesefactorsdeserveseriousconsiderationfor the futuresustenanceofthis projectinthedistrict.

Sustainabiityofa communitybasedprojectofthis kind requiresawell craftedstrategywhich fully integrates beneficiary community in all phasesof its planning andmanagement. To this end, many international water projects have adopted differentapproacheswith varying degreesof impact Indeed,the DanishWater Projecthassinceits inceptionrecognizedcommunityparticipationasa key to sustainableprojectmanagementandhadtried to translatethis beliefinto actionin its activities. Howev~r,the integrationof communityparticipation per se in project activities alonewithoutperiodic small-scaleevaluationdoesnot guaranteesustainability Small scaleperiodicevaluationson the performanceof a project arenecessaryingredientsfor sustainableprojectmanagement.It providesusefulfeedbackto projectofficials which enablethemrectify any existing or potentialorganizationaland manageriallapsesassociatedwiththeir projects Against this background,this thesis sets out to provide a small scaleevaluationreport on the DanishRural Water Supply and Sanitation Project in theKpando District. It examinesamong other issues: the project’s strategiesfor niralwater supply and management,public opinions and suggestionsfor impro’iedmanagementof the project, its impact and prospectsas well as pertinent problemsencountered.It finally concludeswith recommendationswhich can facilitate futurepolicy formulationtowardsattaining sustainableprojectmanagementin thedistrict

2

1.1.1 Rationale and Scopeof the StudyThe linkage betweenwater supply, health, and the environment, hasmade waterresourcemanagementa crucial issuein the socio-economiclives of many countries.However, the issue becomesmore crucial and sad for a district like the KpandoDistrict, which sharesborderswith the largestlake in Ghana,and yet majority of itspopulation,especiallythe rural folks who constitutethe main agriculturalwork forceofthe nation do not haveadequateaccessto safedrinkingwater. Today, theDistrictis privilegedto be selectedasoneof theareasto benefit from the DanishRuralWaterProject. Accordingly, for thepastthreeyearsit hasbeenreceivingassistancefrom theDanishInternationalDevelopmentAgency(DANIDA) RuralWaterProjectHowever,sincethe inceptionofthis projectin November1994no thoroughevaluationstudyhasbeen conductedon its performanceto assessits future sustainability Caincrossetal (1985)emphasizedan ex-postevaluationfor an effectiveproject managementTothem, sustainableprojectmanagementcanbe promotedby carryingout of a thoroughsystematicreview of a project from time to time. Thus, within the contextof an ex-post evaluation they outlined a numberof issueswhich needmajor attentionin anyevaluationstudyon ruralwatersupplyprojects Amongthemarethefollowing

• assessment ofthe degree ofservice ofcompleted water supplies, and,• finding outhow this might be increased through improvement in operation and maintenance,• provision offeedback on appropriateness ofcurrent strategyfor the water programme in terms of

resource allocation, village selection, choice of technology, etc in the light of its currentobjectives andobserved benefits;

• justifiuing the efforts being made with a view to attractingfurther resources;• indicating areas where complementary inputs such as health, education and agricultural

extensions could improve the overall efficiency and effectiveness ofrural water investments

Certainly,an evaluationwhich addressestheseissuescouldprovideusefulfeedbackforplanning and design It helpskeepwater projectson a sustainedpath and ultimatelymakesthemattractiveto centralgovernmentaswell asbilateralaid donorswho arethemain financiersof suchprojects. It is in view of the abovethat this study becomesjustified as a frameworkwithin which the futureof the project canbe mirrored It ishopedthereforethatfindings from this field will servetwo importantpurposesFirstly,it will seekto providefeedbackinformationto projectmanagementon its performanceSecondly, it will suggest alternative strategies(where appropriate) for a moresustainablewaterprojectmanagementin thedistrict.

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1.1.2 SpecificObjectivesof the Study

Giventheevaluativenatureof the studya critical assessmentof theperformanceoftheProjecthadbeencarriedout from a sustainableviewpoint However,the authorwishesto acknowledgefrom the outsetthat the evaluationsdocumentedin this report do notinclude technical issues The discussionsare restricted to administrative/managerialissues, environmental and health impacts as well as village level issues e g theeffectivenessoflocal level organizations,extension,responsesandfeedbackaswel]I asdistribution of benefits Further, the study seeksto establish causal relationsFupsunderlyingfindings from theresearch In pursuit oftheabove,thestudywasguidedbythefollowing objectives

1. To examinethe spatial distribution of the variousDanida Water and SanitationServiceswithin theDistrict.

2. To examinepublic opinion and the impact of the DanishWater and SanitationProjectamongbeneficiarycommunitieswithin theDistrict

3. To assessthe sustainabiityof the Water and SanitationProgrammeby criticallyexaminingamongothers

• Criteria for selecting beneficiary communities, the element ofpublic participation, project financeand maintenance, public education, use of unemployed labour etc all in the context of theirdemand driven approach

4. To identify and suggeststrategiesfor solving pertinentproblemsconfronting theDanishProjectin theKpandoDistrict

1.1.3 Research Methodology

Thefieldwork for this thesisprojectlastedthreemonths(January-March1997) Duringthis period,field dataweregatheredboth from Secondaryaswell asPrimarySourcesin support of the project write up First, the SecondaryData which constitutesbasically written documentswere obtained from Annual Reports of the DarüdaRegionaland District Offices at Ho and Kpando respectively.Other relatedwriliendocumentspertainingto Water Supply and the Sanitationsituationwere also drawnfrom the Kpando District Health Administration, and the Water and SewerageCorporation Additional secondarydataalso camefrom libraries of the University ofGhana,andfrom libraries ofNGO’s involved in therural water/sanitationprogrammesall ofwhich providedusefulreferencesfor the study.PrimaryData on theotherhandwhich gives empirical support to the researchwere derived by using structuredquestionnairesadministeredin the field. By useof suchquestionnaires,informationgatheredfrom thesecondarysourceswereverified in thefield throughdirect intervi~wwith the public, and officials involved in the water and sanitationsector to giveempiricalvalidity to findings documentedin this final report.

4

ResearchInstruments - Two basic researchinstrumentswere usedin collecting theprimarydata Theyare(i). Self-.Ad,ninisteredQuestionnaires(for literaterespondents),and (ii). Interview Questionnaires( for illiterate respondents)

Respondentsfor the Study - Respondentsfor the study comprised (a). Officialsworking on theDanidaWaterProjectboth attheDistrict andRegionalLevel aswell asthoseworking with organizationsthat deal with waterand sanitationrelated issues,e g the Kpando District Assembly, the District Health Administration etc(b)Respondentsfrom the GeneralPublic especiallythosefrom the outreachvillageswheretheDanishWaterProjectis beingcarriedoutweresampledfor study

SamplingTechnique- At the time of this study, therewere about 22 communitieswithin thedistrict wheretheprojectactivitieswereactivelybeingcarriedout Howeverin view of the limited resourcesandtime constraints,the questionnairesurveycouldnot cover all these communities Consequently, the researcherhad to adopt aSystematic Random Sampling Technique (Twumasi,1986) in selecting 10representativecommunities By using this technique,the researchernumberedall thetwenty-two communities serially And, with a randomstart, he selectedevery 2ndvillage numberedserially on the list until he arrived at the 10 systematicallysampledcommunities(figs 1 & 2).

Within eachsampledcommunity,PurposiveSamplingTechnique(Twumasi,ibid) wasadoptedto select24 respondentsuntil all theten communitieswerecovered.Thus, inall a total samplesize of 240 personswere selectedfrom the generalpublic for thequestionnairesurvey It is worth acknowledging at this point that the samplingtechniqueadoptedin the presentstudy has someinherentweaknessesFor instance,given thelimited time andresourcesavailableto theresearcheratthetime of thestudy,the studywasrestrictedto cover only a small samplesize of 240 personswhich mightnot be too adequateto form a goodbasesfor any generalizationconcerningthe entiredistrict. Besides,a combinationof Systematic Samplingwith PurposiveSamplingTechniquecancreat room for biasis whenadoptedby someonewho is not familiarwith theDistrict

Stratified SamplingTechniquecould have been more appropriate.But, given theabovementionedcontraintsit wasnot convenientfor the authorto useit However,consciousattempthasbeenmadeduring the study to guardagainstsuchbiases Infact, the researcherin the caseof the presentstudy originatesfrom the study area(KpandoDistrict) and haslived therefor over twentyyears As such,he is equippedwith reliable information on the study area which he has tried to incorporate,dispasssionately,into the study to make up for suchweaknesses:Furthermore,inaddition to questionnairesadministeredin the field, Focus Group DiscussionsandInformal Interview Scheduleswere also held with suitable personswho by virtue oftheir professionhave knowledgeand information on Water Supply and Sanitationactivities going on in the district to complementdataobtained from the sourcesenumeratedabove Finally, with regardsto testing of hypothesis,dataanalysis andinterpretation,datageneratedfrom thefield wereanalyzedusingSpearinan‘s RankedOrder Correlation Coefficient, as well as Descriptive Statistical Techniquese.g.SimplePercentages,Graphs,etc.(Walsh,A 1990 ,ChavaandNachmiasD 1996)

5

1.1.4 Problemsof the Study

The major problems encounteredin the field relate to lack of adequatefundsUnfortunatelyno researchfunding hadbeenallocatedfor thefield studies As sucht]~eresearcherwas compelledto limit the scopeand arealcoveragefor the studyasmuchaspossiblein orderto managewith the little funding he wasableto raisefrom his littlesavingsasastudentTheotherproblemencounteredduring theresearchhad to do withfears on the part of somerespondentswhich madethem a little bit hesitantin givingresponsesto questionsposedsincethey were not very sureof the purposeof theresearchIn sucha situation, theresearcherhadto taketime to explainthepurposeofthe study to the convictionof respondentsto alley all fears. Initially this had not be~neasybut with time it becameeasierfor the researcherto establishgood rapportwiththe peoplehencetheinterviewsessionproceededsmoothly. On thewhole, apartfromthetwo basicproblemsidentifiedthe studycould be saidto havebeensuccessfulsincethelevel ofcooperationfrom theDanidaproject staffand thegeneralpublic had beenquite high Consequently,all the relevantdataneededfor the write up of the thesisreporthadbeenacquiredto meetthe intendedpurposes

6

1.2.0 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK- HAGERSTRAND’SDIFFUSION THEORY OF SPATIAL INNOVATION ANDSUSTAINABILITY IN A RELEVANT CONTEXT

1.2.1 HAGESTRAND‘S DIFFUSION THEORYiN PERSPECTIVEHumanSpatialBehaviourin termsofadoptionofnewly introducedinnovationsvariesand dependson a numberof factors Thereare a numberof theoriesapplied in thesocial sciencesto understandingspatial behaviour One such theory which canprovidea useful framework for analyzinghumanspatialbehaviourin the particularcontext of the newly introducedDanishWater Supply and SanitationProjectis theTheoryofSpatialDiffusionofInnovations. This theorywaspropoundedby TorstenHagerstrand- a swedishgeographerand hasbeenin usesincethe secondhalfofthepresentcentury Rogers(1983)in one ofhis earlywritings on the subjectdistinguishedbetweeninnovationanddiffusion To him, Innovationrefersto “an ideaperceivedasnew by an individual” whereasDiffusion implies “a processby which an innovationspreads”.Combiningthesetwo definitions he thereforedefinedtheconceptD~ffusionofInnovationsimply as

“the proc~csby which an innovation is communicatedthrough certainchannelsovertimeamongmembersofa socialsystem”(Rogers,E.M 1983).

It follows from this that an essentialmedium of a diffusion processis the humaninteractionin which one personcommunicatesa new ideato anotherperson Thus, atthe most elemental level of conceptualization,the processof innovation diffusionconsistsofthreecardinalcomponents

1. A NewIdea2. An Individual “A” who knowsaboutthe innovation; and3.An Individual “B”~

Thesocialrelationshipof “A” and“B” hasa greatdeal to do with theconditionsunderwhich “A” disseminatesinformationaboutthe innovationto “B” In thecontextofthenewly introducedDanishWaterSupplyandSanitationProjecttheeducationalactivitiesof agentsofchangearevery importantat the earlystagesof theproject As with anynewly introducedinnovation in a typical rural community, peoplemight be skepticalabout the usefulnessor importanceof the newly introducedwaterproject, and thusmight feel reluctantto adopt It is thereforeimportant for the innovatorto strive atexciting the interestof potentialadoptersto keepthe level of information flow high(positive) throughfor example,innovationevaluationinformationwhich helps reduceuncertaintyaboutthe innovation’sadvantagesand consequencesAt any ratetherearealways different typesof adoptersand their behaviourvariesdifferently along a timecontinuumasdiscussionsin thenextsubsectionwill illustrate.

7

AdopterCategoriesandtheS-ShapedD~ffusionCurveA numberof adoptercategoriescan be identified in the life cycle of any innovationprocesssincenot everyoneadoptsinnovationatthesamerate Basically,peopleadoptinnovations in a time sequencethat classifiesthem into about five(5) categoriesnamely. 1.Innovators, 2.Early Adopters, 3.Early Majority, 4.LateMajority, 5. LaggareisThesefive categoriesof adoptersform a bell-shapedfrequencycurve, which whenconvertedinto a cumulativecurve showingadopterdistributionsgives a classicalS-Shapedcurveasindicatedbelowin Figure3.

PercentageofInnovationAdopters

Figure 3: The S-ShapedDiffusion Curve

This S-Shapedcurveprovidesa usefulillustration ofthe diffusionof an innovatiort. Itshowswhenfor instancethediffusion ofan innovationcantakeoff. For instancefromthe S-Shapedcurveone could observethat the areaunder the curveafterabout 15%to 20 -25% adoptersis the heartof the diffusion process.After this point on. it isprobablyimpossibleto stopfurther diffusion ofan innovationevenif onewishesto doso especiallywhenadequateinformationnetworkis set in placeto allow adoptiorL oftheinnovationto catchon strongly.

In essence this theory provides a conceptual framework for analyzingand evaluatingtheDanishWaterProject.Sinceits inceptionin theKpandoDistrict, adopterbehaviourof community membersseemsto follow closely the exposition outlined above. Forexample,in mostofthebeneficiarycommunitiesthepercentageof adoptersis curre]ntlyquitelow for reasonsenumeratedin the earlier discussions.Besides,thewatersupplyand sanitationconceptbeing introducedin the communitiesappearsquite newto i:hepeople As such, the currentadoptersin the communitiescould be classifiedmainlyinto the secondcategory(early adopters).However,with intensivedisseminationofprojectinformationbackedby effectivehealtheducation,theadoptionrateis gradunllypushingits way into categorythree(earlymajority). There is thereforea needfor agreatereffort in propagatingproject informationamongrecipients The successofthis

TimeafterintrodzsctionofInnovation

Source:Adapted fromRogersE M (1983)Diffusion of Innovations

8

dependslargely on the strategiesadoptedin that direction It is in view of this thatregular evaluation of the communities receptivenessbecomesa necessarytool ifproject managementwishes to keep track of the adoption trend and adjust itsstrategiesappropriatelyIn summary,therelevanceof applyingHagerstrand‘s Theoryof InnovationDiffusion in analyzinga project needs no further emphasis It canprovidecluesto determiningwhatphasesof thediffusion cyclethe projecthasreachedat aparticularmoment,or within whattime the adoptionratewill reacha certainlevelby aparticulartime period

9

1.2.2 SUSTAINABILITY IN A RELEVANT CONTEXT:SUSTAINABLE RURAL WATER SUPPLY

The conceptofSustainableDevelopmenthasfloodedmany developmentwritings inrecenttimes and had enjoyed special attention since its adventon the developmentscene.Theposition it enjoysreflects the recognitionof its importancefor the futurewelfareofhumansocietiesat large In view ofthis recognition,attemptshavevariou~lybeenmadeto apply the conceptin practical realmsto all forms of activities whichrelate to human interaction with the physical environment, and how such aninteractioncould affect resourceuseand the peoplewithin the environmentwherethese activities take place However, given the varied levels of socio-economicdevelopment in many societies the concept conveys different meaning and ]~asconsequentlybeen applied variously in many geographicalsettings For instance,whiles the problemof the North(developedcountries)centersaroundfactorssuchasthe scaleof resourceuse,wastesand greenhousegasemissionsresulting from theirhigh consumptionlifestyle, that of theSouth(developingcountries)revolvearoundlackof development,the degreeof poverty perpetuatedby decadesof unsuccessilildevelopmentplanning approachesadopted by these societies These and theirassociatedfactorshaveculminatedin unsustainablelevelsofresourceuse,theeffect ofwhich are the environmentalproblemsthat confront societiesin the presentdecadeDeliberatingupon thesefor sometime, theBruntland Commissionin its report “OurCommonFuture” publishedin 1987 summarizesexplicitly the tasks required of allnationswith regardsto reversingthe currenttrends With concernfor the future inmind, the commissiondefinestheconceptSustainableDevelopmentto imply

“the meeting the needsof the presentgeneration without compromisingability of the fut~’regenerationsto meettheir needs”(Brutland,1987)

Todaymany governmentsin third world countriesarereshapingtheir socio-econorricdevelopmentefforts with specialfocuson thefuture Accordingly, manyofthemhaveincorporatedsustainabilitydemandsinto their developmentprojectsin variousfieldse g. agriculture, industrialization, housing, etc. However, the applicability and theimport ofthis conceptapplyexclusivelyto WaterResourcemanagementissues.Ovet adecade ago, Water and Sanitation projects are equally getting keyed towardssustainabiityIn pursuit ofthis task, severalissuesarebeing highlightedwith concernfor sustainablewater resourcemanagement In the particular contextof rural waterandsanitationprojectmanagement,anumberof issuesandfactorshavebeenidentifiedandapplied in manycountriesdependingon prevailingconditions for theattainmentofsustainability Key amongissuesidentified are Publicparticipation which accordingto Mwami (1995)implies “a learningprocessbywhichcommunitiescontrolanddealwith technology,changeanddevelopment”,and EmpowermentThesekey factorsarecraftedand appliedsuccessfullyin a Demand-DrivenApproach in many communitybasedprojects.

10

The Demand-DrivenApproach(asopposedto the previouslyadoptedsupply drivenapproachwhich lays more emphasison meetingonly physicaltargetsin watersupplyprovision), has proven to be a more sustainable approach It is essentially anoperationalstrategyin whichplannedactivitiesaredeterminedby thepeople’sdemand,willingnessand ability to participatein the implementationprocessas well as in theoperationand maintenanceof water supply system Thus, the approachrefers to a“developmentstrategywherethepeoplethemselvesareexpectedto takeinitiativeandthe responsibilityfor improving theirwatersupply situationratherthan being passiverecipientsofthegovernmentservices”(Rosendahl,1996). In practicetherefore,supportis given only to activities that are genuinely requestedby beneficiarycommunitiesWith sucha demonstratedinterestone expectsbeneficiariesto takeresponsibilityformanagingprojectfacilities, payingfor construction,operationand maintenancecosts.This is where public participation as a tool of sustainablerural water projectmanagementderives its greatestexpressionand relevance, and thus needsto beencouraged.Furthermore,a communitywith a demonstratedinterestandpreparednessto own and maintainfacilities providedthem is likely to do all it can in its powertoensurethat the facilities provided them is sustainedand continuesproviding thebenefitsenvisaged However,its worth cautioningthat public participationper secannot be achievedwithout a carefullyplannedintegratedactionwhich takesinto accountchangesin people’sbehavioralpatters In a typical rural setting where most waterprojects are carried out, people’sperceptionsand attitudesare to a large degreeinfluencedby prevailing economicand socio-culturalsituations Any changein suchconditionsis likely to be reflectedin a correspondingchangein attitudesandthe waythey relateto the waterand sanitationfacilities provided In this regard,thereis theneedfor a closerinteractionwith therural folks to identify their needsand tastesto beableto adjuststrategiesaccordingly.An importantway to achievingthis aspracticedby most projectsis to foster participationat the lowest possiblelevel in all phasesofwhateverprojectstrategyoneadopts

Finally, sincewaterandsanitationfacility provisionalonedoesnot guaranteeimprovedquality of life, there is the needto incorporateenvironmentaldemandsinto projectactivities throughpublic educationusing the various forms of media to ensurethatpeople’s behavior in relation to interaction with the physical environment are inharmonywith acceptablehealthstandardsSuchan integratedapproachto waterandsanitation project managementcould be a viable way to achieving sustainabledevelopmentin rural communities

11

CHAPTER TWO

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE STUDY AREA

This chapter providesa backgroundinformation on the study area,touchingon itssocio-economicstatus, environment, infrastructure, and the health status of itsinhabitantsIt is hopedthat, insights into suchcharacteristicswill enhancethe readersunderstandingofpertinentissueswhich influencethewaterand sanitationsituationaridconsequentlyaffect sustainableprojectmanagementin thedistrict.

2.1.0 Location and Socio-EconomicInformation on the StudyAreaKpandoDistrict is located in the centralpart of the Volta Region of Ghana,on theSouth Easternborderof the country It is bound in the north by Paprawusi,whichsharesboundarywith the JasikanDistrict, and to the southernpart, by AsikurrLaFinally, it is bound in theeastby the Ho andHohoeDistricts(fig 2).

Geographically,the areais locatedapproximatelybetweenlongitude 0~10~and 0°25’East, and betweenlatitude 6°30’and 7°05’North. It coversan areaof about 122Y.5km2 (Volta RegionalHealthAdministration,1994). It is a relatively densepopulatedareawith about 124.000 inhabitantsasat 1990 However, this figure is estimatedtohaveincreasedby 4 8%thus putting its 1995 populationestimateat 129.916(DiseaseControl Unit, Kpando District, 1995) About 80% of the population live in ruralcommunitieswith lessthan4000people Theaveragepopulationdensityofthe distii ctis about115 peopleperkm2 Howeverin thetypical rural areasthedensityis estimatedat about60 per km2(KrygerConsults,1995)

Ethnically, theareais predominantlyoccupiedby Ewe-speakingpeoplewho constituteover 90% of the populationThereareother smaller groupingslike the Akans,Hausaand the Fulanis. Many of the inhabitantsare Christiansbelonging to a diversity ofdenominationsHowever,from thesurveythereareafew otherswho aretraditionalists(table 1).

Table 1: PercentDistributionof Respondentsby EthnicandReligious Affiliation

EthnicAfflUanon

NumberofRespmdents

Percentage(%)

ReligionsAffHiatlon

NumberofRespondents

Percea1a~(%)

Akans 08 33 Orthodox 156 65

28 3 -—

67 -—

Ewes 216 90 0 Pentecostals 68

Hausa 12 50 Traditionalist 16

Others 04 17

100 -—TOTAL 241) 100 TOTAL 240

Data Source: Author’s QuestionnaireSurvey, 1997.

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Questionnairesurveyconductedin the study arearevealeddatawhich portrays thedistribution ofethnic and religiousaffiliation in the district From table 1, about90 %ofrespondentsinterviewedwereEwes By the sametoken,a largeproportionofabout93% have affiliations with christian religious sects, with the remaining 7% beingtraditionalists Religious affiliation might not instantly be consideredasa major factorwhich caninfluenceprojectperformancein somecommunities However, its unifyingfactorseemsto be playing a crucial role in projectimplementationin Jordanu(one ofthebeneficiarycommunities)asdiscussionsin chapter5 will exemplify

2.2.0 EconomicCharacteristics of the Study AreaThe economiclivelihood of most peoplein the area is centralizedaround rain-fedsubsistenceagriculture Petty trading is another important economicactivity whichcomesquite closeto farmingin thedistrict(table2)

Table 2: PercentDistribution of OccupationalCategoryin theStudyArea

OccupitionalCategory Number Percentage(%)

Artisans 40 167

Civil Servants 42 17 5

Farming 90 375

Tradmg 54 22 5

Others 14 58

TOTAL 240 100

Data Source: Author’s QuestionnaireSurvey, 1997.

Both sexesparticipatein all the two activities. But petty trading appearsto bemostpopularamongfemales.Major cropsproducedin the locality areMaize,Cassava,Yam,SweetPotatoesandVegetableslike Tomatoes,Okro etc.Thesecropsareproducedonseasonalbasis following the annual agricultural cycle which consists of LandPreparation (April-May), Planting (May-July,) and Harvesting in July-October.PeriodsoutsidetheseseasonsespeciallybetweenNovemberandMarcharedryperiodsduring which no farming activity takeplacebecauseof the heavyrelianceon rain-fedagriculturalpracticeadoptedin the area For thoseliving closeto the Volta lake, amore practicalsolutionwould be to providethem with irrigation facilities to promotecontinuityof their farmingactivitieswithout relianceon rainfedagriculture But this isnot the casethere The seasonalfarming practicedoesnot guaranteecontinuity anddoesnot also generateany substantialincome for thosewho rely on farming astheironly meansof livelihood In periods of severedrought seasonalfarmers and theirdependantsarethemost affectedsincetheir modeof productiondoesnot allow themto gainmuch and evensaveany incomefor their maintenancePerennialtreecroppingsuchasOil-Palm and Citrus Fruit cultivation arealso practicedin somecommunities.However,only about5%of thefarmersareemployedfull-time in this sector.Thefarmsizesofatypical family is about2 0-2.5 ha (BerendtN andRasmussen,1997)

13

Fishing is anothermajor economicactivity practicedamongcommunitiesliving alongtheshoresoftheVolta Lake Typical fish speciessuchasTilapia,Mudfish and severalothersaboundpreviouslyin the lake to promotethis activity But, recentlytherehasbeena declinein harvestresulting in lesserincome from fishing far from supporlingfamily maintenanceConsequentto this decline in incomefrom the fishing sector,most

fishing families are now practicing additional farming types for subsistence Anextensionto the farming and fishing activities is the trading of fish and agriculturalproducts However, this activity seemedto be most popular among women andyoungerchildren Thereareabout 9 major marketsin the district with their daysofoperationrotatedon every4th or 5th day Generally,the occupationof thepopulalionin and aroundKpando,andothertownsin the district canbe characterizedas service-oriented Most economic activities operate in the sectors of food and beverageservices,tailoring and sewing,small-scalerepair servicesand roadsidevendouringofagriculturalproducts Therearealso groupsof artisanswho specializedin trades[ikecarpentry,masonry,building constructionandmachines In Kpando (the capital)andits neighborhoods,therearea numberof public employeesworking with governnlentinstitutions e g the health centers,educationaldepartmentsand in other ministries(Kruger Consults, 1995) From the questionnairesurvey, 17.5% of the respondentsfall in this category However, their activities are mostly concentratedin and aroundtheDistrict capital(Kpando)

The socio-economiclife situationof peoplein the district had to a greatextentbeenaffectedby the constructionof theAkosomboDam in 1964 Theimpoundmentof theVolta River resulted in the resettlementof several thousandsof people and theircommunities(Derban,1975,Odei,1994)Consequently,many of thevillages in KpandoDistrict are communitieswhich were originally forced to move to resettlementsitesscatteredaround the newly formed lake. Housing, waterand sanitaryfacilities wereprovidedin the new settlements,but communallatrines soonceasedto function a.~aresultof lackof propermaintenanceAlso, thepiped-watersystemoriginally providedand operatedby diesel enginesin many of the settler communities failed For theresettlers,it hastakena long time to re-establishtheirsubsistencefarming and fishingto a reasonablelevel of efficiency, thus leaving a negativeeffect on their economicbase Indeed,for most of them., the initial periodafter the creationof theVolta Lakewas a period with the greatest social and economic distress (Derbanj975)Nevertheless,many of them are making personalefforts throughfishing, tradingandother small scaleactivities to revamptheir economicbase At present, the generalwaterandsanitationsituationis still relativelypoor, eventhoughdifferentnationalandbilateral organizationshavetried to improvethewatersupply and sanitationcoveragethroughoutthe years. The DanishWater Project, Kryger Consults AIS and GhanaWater and SewerageCorporationarethe next in the series,currently implementinganew watersupply and sanitationfacilities in the district. It is expectedthat the I1LCW

approachesandstrategiestheyadoptwill changesituationsandeventuallyimprovethelife conditionsofpeoplein thearea

14

2.3.0 Environmental, Infrastructural and Health Status of the AreaThis sectionoutlinesthe existing environmentaland infrastructuralconditionsin thestudyareaandhow thateffectsthehealthstatusof its people

2.3.1 HousingOn the whole, housingconditions in the study areaare hygienically unsatisfactoryMost housesin the district are constructedout of sun-driedmud bricks They areclosely built, rectangularly shapedwithout any proper plan and are roofed withcorrugatedaluminium sheetsor thatchin thevery poorcommunitieswherepeoplecannot afford to buy roofing sheets In mostcases,suchhousesarepoorly maintainedandleft in very bad shapetypified by crackedwalls Thesehousingconditionscoupledwiththe tendencyof keepingwindows shut for securityreasonsor for preventingentry ofmosquitoes,result in poor ventilation which constitutesa seriousthreat to humanhealth.

2.3.2 Sanitation and Water SupplyThe Volta Regionof Ghanawithin which KpandoDistrict is locatedhasthe poorestfacilities for human excretadisposal in the country In 1992 only 9% of the ruralpopulationin thedistrict had accessto sanitaryfacilities (MOH, 1994) It is no surprisethereforeto identify poorsanitaryconditionsasoneofthe majorproblemsconfrontingtheKpandodistrict Efforts havefor sometime nowbeenmadeby healthauthoritieswithin thedistrict to createsanitaryawarenessamongcommunitiesthroughcommunityandpublic healthactivities. But, for reasonsrelatedto high illiteracy ratecompoundedby inadequatefinancialandlogistic supportfrom governmentto boost activities ofthehealth units, very little results have been achieved. Consequently,most peopleespeciallychildren resortto usingunauthorizedplacesfor wasteand excretadisposalas most communities in the district still remain without accessto hygienicallysustainableplacesof convenienceand wastedisposal The caseof domestic wastewaterdisposalseemsto bea seriousproblemprevailing in almost all communitiesinthedistrict henceequallydeservingattention(table8).

None of the ten sampled communities studied indicated having any hygienicallyappropriateplacesfor wastewater disposal(section5 11). The effect is that mostinhabitantsof thesecommunitiesdisposeoftheirdomesticwastewaterindiscriminatelyeither behind their housesor in some caseson the open spacesof their dwellingcompoundsWith regardsto place of convenience,threebasictypesare commonlyused in the communities These are the Pit Latrine, the Free-Range(the mostcommonlyusedby children)and the VentilatedImprovedPit (VIP) Latrine. Thereis afull description covering each of these in chapter five However, in most of thecommunities theseplaces of convenienceare often poorly maintained, liberatingoffensiveodours Also, in somecommunitiesto encountermaggotsarecommonin thepits developinginto flies which may contaminatedrinking waterandfoodwith humanexcreta (Echeverria et al, 1993, Khin Nwe Oo et al 1989). Theseare potentiallyserioushealthhazardswhich neednot only urgentattention but also very pragmaticsolutionsasdiscussionsin chaptersix will propose.

15

2.3.3 EducationA numberof educationalfacilities havebeenidentifiedin Kpando Howevergiven thelarge populationof the areasuchfacilities can be consideredinadequatein meet~igeducationalneedsofthepopulation The educationalinstitutionsidentifiedin the fieldsurveycanbe classifiedinto two main categories,namely First Cycle (elementaryaridjunior secondaryschools)and SecondCycle (senior secondaryschools, technicalaridteachertraining institutions) Most of these schoolsare public-owned(governmentassisted)with a few others being run by private individuals. Some religious aridcharitableorganizationsalso operateday nurseriesto relieve working mothersof thetask of taking theirwardsalong to work Theseorganizationsalso runadult literacyprogrammesfor illiterate adults to cut down on the level of illiteracy amongtheinhabitants

Nevertheless,theseinstitutional facilities are mostly located in the District CapiLal(Kpando) One is confrontedwith a different picture as one moves out into thehinterlands.Apart thedistrict capitalwhereschoolsof comparativelybetterstandardscanbe found most ofthe schoolsidentified in the hinterlandareof poor standardsinmanyrespectsMost village schoolslack basicinfrastructurelike shelterand furnitureEvenin caseswheretheseexist, theyare either almost collapsingor of a substandardquality Furtherto this, lackof adequatelyqualified teachingstaffis an issuethat needsseriousattention Worsestill, enrollmentinto theseschools,particularlythe first cycleinstitutions, is also quite low, consequentlyaffectingthe educationalstatusattainedbypeople in the district In fact, the questionnairesurvey revealsover 50% of therespondentsattaininglevelsnot higherthanelementaryeducation(table3)

Table 3: PercentDistribution of Educational Status of Respondents

EducatinnalStatus Numberof Reipondents Percentage(%)

--None 36 150

Elementary(First Cycle) 120 500

Secondaryetc.(SecondCycle) 44 18.3

-.Higher (Tertiary Cycle) 40 167

TOTAL 240 100

Data Source: Author’s QuestionnaireSurvey, 1997

Howeverin spiteoftheseproblems,theMinistry of Educationis doing its bestwithinthe available meansto alleviatethe situation. Health awarenessand for that mailerattainmentof improved health statusand quality of life, are contingentupon goodeducationof peoplein a community. As such, it is imperativefor the governmenttogive specialattentionto improving educationalstatusesof peoplein the district, so asto facilitate adoptionof good hygienic practices Adoptionof good personalhygieneand sanitarydecencywill go a long wayto improvethe quality of lives ofpeoplein thedistrict

16

2.3.4 The Health Statusof the Study AreaThehealthstatusofpeoplein KpandoDistrict is no different from the generalnationalsituation Generallylife expectancyis low In 1992thenationallife expectancy(whichis equally applicableto theKpandoDistrict) wasestimatedat about52 yearsfor malesand about56 yearsfor females This level of life expectancycouldto someextentbeattributed to the high poverty level coupledwith the low level of health serviceprovision But, to a largeextent it alsodependson thewaypeoplelive theirdaily livesin relationto environmentalresources,particularlywater This subsectionthrows lighton the healthconditionsofthe studycommunitieswith specialfocuson the followingindicators Morbidity, Mortality and Nutritional Status On the whole, malariahasbeenidentifiedasthe mostprevailingdisease,especiallyamongchildren,in theKpandoDistrict This situationis not surprisingif one considersstatisticalfigurescompiledondiseases(incidence)reportedto theout patientdepartmentsof healthinstitutionsin thecountryatthenationallevel (table4)

Table 4: SelectedMajor Water and Environmental-Related DiseasesRecordedin Ghana in 1994

TOTAL 100.0

Source: MOB. Top-TenDiseases1994

It is evident from Table 5 that Water and Environment-relateddiseasesaccountforabout64 0%ofmajor diseasesreportedin thecountry,with Malaria taking a shareof40 3% of this total The high incidenceof this diseasecan to a great extent beexplained in terms of the poor environmentalconditions existing in communitiesOften, uncoveredstagnantwater bodies in the communities as well as bushesleftuncleared,servedasbreedingplacesfor mosquitolarvaeresultingin thehigh incidenceof malariawithin the communities Thetwo basicvectorspeciesof Malariaparasitesidentifiedin theVoltaRegionareAnophelesgambiaes.L andAn. Funestus(Appawuet al 1994; Volta RegionalHealthAdministration,1994) These vector speciesarecommonin the KpandoDistrict especiallyin areasof closecanopyforests,and infesthouseswhich offer no protectionagainstthem

DISEASES % OF TOTAL CASES REPORTED

Waler& Em~uomnenTalRelaledThsease

Malaria 403%

Djarrhoeal Diseases 5 1 %

IflteStlflal WOrms 29%SklflDiseaSCS 51%

Upper RespiratoryInfections g i %

Acute Eye~ 2 5 %

~ r~iatadthse~es) 36 0 %

17

Other forms of diseasescommonly found in the study areaand which relate veryclosely to wateruseand personalhygieneare diarrhoeal diseasesand intestinal aridskin infestations Theseinfectionsare quite commonamongchildren under 5-yearsofagesincetheyaremostvulnerableandhavelesserresistanceto disease

In theKpandoDistrict in particular,researchesconductedby expertsin the pasthaverevealeda high prevalenceof Schistosomiasis(Bilharzia) The impoundmentof theVolta River has created habitats for intermediate host snails responsible fortransmissionofS. Haematobium(Paperna,1969; Odei 1973, Chu & Vanderburg,1976,Klumpp & Chu, 1977) However,the dominatinghost snail specie(Bulinus truncaiusruhlfsi,) aremorewidely establishedall over the Volta Lake (Odei,1972) For overadecadenow attemptshave beenmadeto eliminate this speciesso as to curb theincidence of bllharzia among communities located along the lake Nevertheless,anumberof urinary schistosomiasiscasesare still being encounteredin communiit~iessuchas Agbenoxoeand Todome(NielsenS.B and RasmussenM, 1997) Table 6(Nielssenetal, ibid 1997)providesa broadoverviewofthecurrenthealthstatusin thestudyarea It showsa summaryof diseaseconditionsprevailing in communitieswithinthe studyarea,the environmentalfactorspromoting them, communityvulnerability aswell ascapacityof healthinstitutionsto control identifiedwater! environmentalrelateddiseasesin the district

Table5 SummaryofWater RelatedDiseasesin theDistrict

DISEASECONDITIONS

ENVIRONMENTALFACI’ORS

COMMUNITYVULNERABILITY

CAPAC~FYOF HEA]LTIIPROTECFION AGENC’]ES

Malaila Farming plots and scatteredtrees and high vegetation ofgrasses and bushes surroundthe study villages In thisenvironment numeroustemporarywaterpools ideal formosquitobreeding are createdduringrainy season.No majorbreedinghabitatsexist insidethevillages.The housesarenotmosquitoproofed.

Despitea relatively high levelof knowledge, most of thecommunities are highlyvulnerable to infection aspeople cannot afford to buybednets,mosquitocoils and/orrepellants Some peopleexpresseda resigned attitudetowardscontrolofmosquitoes

Curative: High, aschloroquine is available ut allhealth agencies ser~r1ngthevillages Chioroquine widelyavailable in local shops Alsosecondline drugs(quinine) arepresent at Margaret MarquatCatholic Hospital, St PatrickHospital and Pcki GovernmentHospital for treatmentofseverecasesPreventive: Low Noextensive programmes andactivities.Surveillance: Low No fieldsurveys, only registration ofrecordedcasesat governmenthealth institutiinsMicroscopistspresent but thiscapacity is not fully utlILeedNo monitoring of drugresistanceVectorcontrol: None

Urinary.~chistosomiasis

Potentially good snail habitatspresent at the shore of lakeVolta The habitatsare locatedvery close to workingenvironments and domesticareas in Agbenoxoe andTodome Fesi is located 3kmfrom the lake, but a numberoffanningplotsownedby farmersfrom Fesi are located on theshore Gadzais located 5kmfrom the lake and no snailhabitats exist in immediateproximity of the village In

All villages m AgbenoxoeandTodomehave close contact toLake Volta either throughoccupationalpractises,domesticwork, recreationalactivities ormaintenance of personalhygiene The populationin thetwo lake shore villages arehighly vulnerableto infection.In Fesi only farmersworkinginfanning plots near the lakeshoreandchildren who play inthe lake areat a risk of gettinginto contactwith infestedwater

Curative: Low Microscopicdiagnosticavailableat KpindoHealth Center, MiLegretMarquat Catholic Hospital, StPatrick and Peki GoverersentHospitals Low availability ofdrugsfor treatmentPreventive: NoneSurveillance: Low No heldsurveys, only registration ofrecordedcasesat govenrrrientinstitutionsVectorControl: None

18

general,all villages havepoorwatersupplyandsanitation.

Poorsupplyof safewater Rainwater containers uncoveredUnprotected water sourcesVery inadequate sanitauyfacilities create risk ofcontamination of domesticareas Unopened livestockThe identified environmentalfactors favouring diseasetransnussionarethesamein allstudyvillages

Inadequateavailability of safewater Rainwatercatchmentuncovered. Water sourcesunprotected. Extremely lowavailability ofsanitaryfacilitiescreatesa risk of contaminatingdomestic environmentsUnpenned livestock Theidentifiedenvironmentalfactorsfavouring diseasetransmissionaresamein all studyvillages

sourcesThetotal populationofFesi have therefore lowvulnerability to infection.Limited knowledge on thecausesof the diseaseandhowto prevent it. In Gadza, nomember of thecommunityhascontactwith the infestedwatersourcesThus, thepopulation inGadzs in not vulnerable toinfectionMost ofthe villages havehighvulnerability to infectionbecauseof open defecationandrelatively poor personalhygiene Peopleprefer unsafewater sources for drinkingDrinking water is handled inan unhygienic mannerGenerallow levelof knowledgeon transmission routes ofintestinalhelminthsWomis aresometimes regarded as anatural thing that is impossibleto avoid Insufficient use ofprotectingfootwear

Knowledge on the relationbetween environmental /personalhygieneand diarrhoeavaries between the studyvillages but all studycommunities practiceunhygienuc handling ofdrinking water, opendefecation, poor personalhygiene and prefer unsafewatersourcesfor drinking

Curative: High Drugs fortreatmentavailablein all healthinstitutions serving thecommunities Microscopicdiagnosisperformedat KpandoHealth Center, MargretMarquartCatholic Hospital, StPatrick Hospital and PekiGovernmentHospitalPreventive: Low TheVRWSSP is not fullyimplementedin villages in thestudy area and no otherextendededucationprogrammeon personalhygieneexist in thedistrictSurveillance: Low No fieldsurveys, only registration ofrecordedcasesat governmentalhealthinstitutionsCurative: High. Oralrehydrationsaltsandantibioticsavailable at all health serviceagenciesPreventive: Low. TheVRWSSP is not fullyimplementingin all villages in

the study area and no otherextended educationprograunmeson personal andenvironmental hygieneexist in

the districtSurvefflaisce: Low No fieldsurveys, only registration ofrecordedcasesatgovernmentalhealthinstitutions

Intestinal HelminthInfections

Diarrhoea

Measles The transmissionofthemeaslesvirus easily takes place inalmost any type of domesticenvironment

Due to low efficiency of EPIthe numbers of all studyvillages are highly vulnerableto infection. Immunizationcoverage of measles is only45% Close contactsbetweenpeople and gathering ofchildren in kmdergaternsfavourhigh transmissionofthevirus Risk of complicatingsecondary infections due tomalnutrition. Low knowledgeon how to preventcomplicatingconditions

Preventive: Low Lowcoverageof measles by EPILimited efficiency ofgovernmental maternal andchild welfareprogrammesSurvefflanee: Low Nosurveys, only registration ofrecorded cases at thegovernmental healthinstitutions Relatively goodreportingsystemofcoveragebyEPI

Eye Problems Unprotected water sourcesFlies breeding in communaltrench latrines create risk ofspreadingof pathogens Theidentifiedenvironmentalfactorsfavouring diseasetransmissionaresameasin all studyareaa

Again, vulnerability toinfection is high in the villagesLow level of knowledge ontransmissionof eye infectionsunsafewater usedfor bathingandpeoplehaverelativelypoorpersonalhygiene Blur visionamong elders are probablycausedby cataract

Cuntive: High / LowAntibiotic eye ointmentavailablefor treatmentof eyeinfections No ophthalmologistpresentinthedistrictPreventive: Low TheVRWSSP is not fullyimplementedin all villages in

the study area and no otherextendededucationprogrammeon personaland environmentalhygieneexist inthedistrictSurveillance: Low No fieldsurveys, only registration of

19

recordedcaseat governmentalhealthinstitutions

ci r .‘••anna ~OnultIOflSHot and humid environmentPlenty of biting insects,Unprotected water sourcesThe identified environmentalfactors favouring diseasetransmissionarethesameas in

all studyvillages

High vulnerability in all studyvillages due to relatively poorpersonal hygiene and use ofunsafe water for bathingMishandling of pesticides in

relation to agnculturalpractices.

CuratIve: Low Very heartedpossibilityfor treatmentPreventive: Low TheVRWSSP is not hillyimplementedin all villager in

the study area and no otherextended educauonpro~aznmeson personal andenvironmentalhygieneexist inthedistrictSurveillance: Low No fieldsurveys only registratioii ofreported case at thegovernmental healthinstitutions

Pain in Joints Poorworkingenvironment,dueto lackofmechanizedtools.

Occupational health nskManual farming practicescause mechanical alintion ofjoints No knowledgeonhowtoimprove farming practicesandthereby prevent straining ofjoints High vulnerability inmostvillages

Curative: Low PainkillersavailablePreventIve:NoneSurveillance Low No fieldsurveys~only registration ofrecordedcasesat governmentalhealthinstitutions.

DataSource:Adapted from Rasmussen.MandNielsenS.B (1997)

TheHealthInstitutionstogetherwith the EnvironmentalHealthAssistantsare putftrigin placeefforts to controlwater/environmentalrelateddiseasesin theDistrict throughvariousprogrammes(curative,preventiveandeducationalprogrammes).

20

CHAPTER THREETHE DANISH DEVELOPMENT POLICIES

AND MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES

This sectionreviewsthe DanishGovernment’sDevelopmentAid Policy which guidesactivities in developingcountries With this, the backgroundis preparedfor furtherdiscussionof the watersupply policies and strategiesadoptedby the DanishRuralWaterProjectin Ghanaasweshall seein chapterfour

3.1. 0 IntroductionMajor changeshaveoccurredin bothdevelopingandindustrializedworld overthepastdecadeAs part ofthesechanges,majorpolitical balanceshaveshifted,powerblockswere dissolved,trading agreementshavebeenreachedwith new onesunderway Bythe sametoken, regional integrationprocessesare increasinglygaining momentum,thereby giving birth to new forms of international cooperationsbetweennationsIndeed,suchrapidly occurringchangeshavemeanta lot in thesocio-economiclives ofmanythirdworld countries,especiallythosewithout any strongeconomicbase.In mostof the developingworld where lack of financial capacitycoupledis with ineffectivepolicies to meet the demands of the changing world economy, poverty andunderdevelopmenthavebecomevery visible.

In the particular case of sub-SaharanAfrica, poverty has been noted as onefundamentalfactor behind most of its problems. This poverty factor has in manyinstancesgivenrise to socialdeprivation,persistentpopulationgrowth, environmentaldegradationat variousscales,increasingmigration and local conflicts, amongothers.These problems, when allowed to persist produces impacts with far-reachingimplications not only for the developingcountrieswherethey occur,but also in thedevelopedcountries,given thecurrentglobal integrationofthe world economiesIt isagainstthis backgroundthat the Danish Governmenthasdrawn up a DevelopmentAssistancePolicy Strategytowardsthe year 2000. By this strategy,it sets out toextend developmentassistanceto third world countriesthrough a numberof aidprogrammesto boostsocio-economicdevelopment,improveon their standardof livingand consequentlyalleviate the plight of the poor. The following sectionsoutlinecomponentsof the DanishAid Policy strategyby focusingon its administrativeaidstructure,staffing, aid policieswith specificreferenceto waterandsanitation,irrigationand the environment,waterresourcemanagement,its interventiontools in the watersector,aswell asvolumeandthe sharingof its aid resources

21

3.1.1 AdministrativeAid StructureThe beginning of the 1990’s witnessedstructuralchangesin the organizationof theDanishForeignService As part ofthe change,the DanishMinistry ofForeignAffairsis currently divided into two main groups- the north(coveringthe industrializedcountries,CentralandEasternEuropeand mostof theFormer Soviet Republics)andthe south(coveringall developingcountries) Theregionaldivisions in the south groupare responsiblefor all Danish bilateral relationswith a given developingcountry.political, economic, commercial and developmentassistance In January 1993, aMinister for DevelopmentCooperationwas appointedto steer affairs relating todevelopmentassistanceas well as assistanceto central and easternEurope ‘TheMinister for Developmentcooperation is advised by a board on InternationalDevelopmentCooperationconsistingof nine members(IRC,1994) Before financialcommitmentsaremade,all majorproposalsareexpectedto be submittedto the boardfor consideration The composition of the board ensuresa broad contact withorganizations and groups of central importance for Denmark’s participation ininternationaldevelopmentA processof decentralizationto embassieswas initiated inthelate 1980’s Accordingly, embassiesarenowauthorizedto approvesmall projectsandenterinto contractswith e g local privatecompanies,local NGO’s etc in amountsup to DKK 3 million (US$ 500,000) Theembassieshowever,areexpectedto reportback to the Board on how the funds are being spent Between1988 and 1994 thenumberofembassieswith developmentcooperationpersonnelhaveincreasedto about18 (IRC 1994)

3.1.2 StaffingDanishdevelopmentassistancepersonnelhave beenintegratedin the unified foreignservice,effective 1 september1991 By July 1993 thesouthgroupin total employedafull time staff of 382, out of which 117 were on assignmentabroad There is aTechnicalAdvisory Servicewhich asof 1994 had a personnelcomprisingaboutthirtysectorprofessionals Theseprofessionalsprovide the Southgroup with professionalassistanceespeciallyin relation to feasibility, appraisaland review of developmentassistanceprojectsin the third world In thetechnicaladvisoryservice,threeengineersandananthropologistdealwith drinking waterand sanitationprojects. Additionally,threetechnicaladvisorsare dealing with environmentalissues,two technicaladvisorswith natural resourcesandone technicaladvisor(agronomistlmale)with agriculturalandirrigationprojects

Water Resource activities are generally handled together with water supply,agriculturalandenvironmentalissues In certaincases,technicaladvisorsareposted atDanish Embassiesto assist with preparationof proposalsand implementationofprojectsin sectorsof key priority in theagreedDanishdevelopmentassistancein thatparticular country By 1994 threesuch postingswere madeand the officials weresubsequentlysent to DANIDA receiving countriesto man water-relatedprojectsBesidesthe permanentstaff in the Technical Advisory Service, a large numberofconsultantsare employed on short term assignmentsto supplementthe in-hoiuseprofessionalskills

22

3.1.3 Aid PoliciesandStrategiesThebasicobjectiveoftheDanishdevelopmentassistanceis povertyalleviation throughpromotionof economicgrowthandsocialdevelopment,protectionof the environment,participation of women in development,as well as promotion of human rights,democraticvaluesand processesKey principles in Danida’spolicy for developmentassistancearepartnershipandparticipationaswell asreplicability and sustainabilityofthedevelopmentprogrammesandprojects A strategyfor DanishDevelopmentPolicytowardsthe year2000”A World in Development”was endorsedby parliamentin1994 Main elements in this strategy are concentrationof Danish developmentassistanceon 20 countries and within thesecountrieson a few selectedsectors,increasingsupportto programmesand sectorprogrammesat the expenseof projectsupport; promotion of ownership on the side of the recipient country throughpartnershipand dialogue, more active involvement from and supportto the privatesectorand thevoluntarysectoraswell assupportto thepublic sector

Water, Sanitarion,Irrigation andtheEnvironmentAccording to Danida’s sectorpolicy documentfor water supply and sanitationtheobjectivesfor Danishsupport to this sectorare provision of equalaccessto watersupply and sanitationfacilities for asmany peopleas possiblewithin identified poorareas,while at the sametime safeguardingthe environmentfor future generationsDanida’s sector-specificguidelines are followed while planning and implementingwaterprojects Theguidelinesaddressthefollowing key issues provisionof technicaland financial aid (support)for watersupply and sanitation to rural, small towns andperi-urban (slum) areas, managementand institution building to strengthenlocalorganizations,use of simple and affordable techniques,community participation,promotion of sustainabilityof water projectsthroughcost recovery, involvementofwomen,promotionofcoordinationofwaterprojectwith otherdonors.

WaterResourcesManagementin relation to Dublin andRioDarndafully endorsesthe principlesfor water resourcesmanagementasdevelopedinthe Dublin conferenceand theUNCED conferencesin Rio. Danidatogetherwith theother Nordic donor agencies, actively supported the preparatorywork for theseconferences,for examplethroughtheCopenhagenInformalConsultationon IntegratedWaterResourcesDevelopmentandManagementin November1991 As afollow-up tothe Copenhagen-Dublin-Rioprocess,Danida has since entered into agreementstofinancea Water Action Plan for a numberof countriesin Africa It hasalso initiatedAction Plans for Water Resourcesdevelopmentin Upper SrepokBasin in VietnamundertheMekong Secretariat

23

3.1.4 Intervention tools in the WaterSectorThefollowing sectiondescribes“tools” Danidausesto orientpoliciesandprogrammesin the assistedcountries

PolicyLevelAnnual negotiationsare held betweenDanida and the 18 programmecountriesas afollow-up on ongoingprojectsand to discussnew project proposalsNormally, ideasfor projectsareformulated by theprogrammecountry Danidahowever,commentsontheideasTheappropriateperson/institutionin theprogrammecountryis thenprovidedwith thewatersectorpolicy guidelinesof Danidaasahelpto developtheideafurtherinto aproposal.For eachofthe 18 programmecountriesDanidapreparesrolling five-yearsplans,wherethekey sectorsmutuallyagreeuponfor collaborationareindicated.

ProjectLevelLike Sida, Danida applies the Logical Framework Approach (LFA) along with“Guidelinesfor ProjectPreparation”which were revisedby Danidain January1992They specif~’amongother things, the format required for a project proposalto beappraisedfor Danishfinancing Theyalso specify the format for a project document,which is thebasis for the formal agreementbetweenthe two governmentsand whichconsequentlyservesasaguidefor the implementationofprojects

The “Guidelines for the ProjectPreparation”togetherwith Danida’s SectorPolicydocumentfor water supply and sanitationare the basic tools to be followed whileformulating, appraising, implementingand reviewing water and sanitationprojecisWater resourcesand environmentalaspectsrepresentone of the eight focal pointsmentionedin Danida’sSectorPolicy TheDublin Statementis also usedasguidelinesfor projectpreparationtogetherwith EIAs in a dialoguewith theprogrammecountryUsually, in situationswherethe recipientcountry cannotdo it, the deskofficer inchargeat the Embassycarriesout the project identification and formulation, whichresultsin a standardDanidaformat For thosedevelopingcountrieswithout aDani~hEmbassy,the deskofficer in theregionaldivisionat thesouth groupwill undertakethisassignment.Appraisals are carried out under the responsibility of the TechnicalAdvisory Service(in the South Group) Appraisalsarenormally carriedout by ateamheadedby oneof Danida’stechnicaladvisorsand comprisingexternalconsultantsandresourcepersonsfrom the assistedcountries.

TechnicalAssistanceAs part of its technical support,Danidaoffersscholarshipsfor training in Denmarkaswell as seminars, study tours etc, to staff involved in project planning aridimplementationIn 1992 Denmarkprovidedsupport to 422 studentsandtraineesfromdevelopingcountriesaspart of its humanresourcecapacitybuilding programme,1.0

cometo Denmarkfor studiesin fields relevantto its areasof cooperationin theircountriesTo this is added93 otherssupportedin other europeancountriesand 1923for studiesin thirdworld countries Danidaalso providestraining for staff at variouslevelswithin ministries/agenciesto strengthentheir capacityin managingwaterissues

24

3.1. 5 Volume and Shareof Aid ResourcesDenmark’sdevelopmentassistancereacheda level of 1% of GDP (disbursements)by1992 From 1985 to 1992Denmarkhad spentbetweenDKK300-450million(IJS$50-70 million) per year in the drinking watersuppliesand sanitationsector This figureconstitutedabout 10 to 15 % of thetotal DanishbilateralassistanceWithin the period,63 percent of its developmentassistancewent into rural watersupplies,34 percentwas devotedto urban water supplies, with only about 3% for urban sewerageSanitationand Water resourcemanagementallocationshad until recentlybeenverylittle But with the current considerationsgiven to sanitation as an importantcomponentoftheir rural watersupplyprogrammes,budgetaryallocationsareexpectedto increasein the nearfuture Following theRio conference,theDanishParliamenthadin December 1992 decided to establish a special programme of assistanceforenvironmental and emergency purposes Starting from DKK 100 million(US$l5million) in 1993 and an estimated DKX 1 billion (US$147.8million) in 1994,thefinancialallocationsfor theprogrammearescheduledto reach0 5% ofGDP by theyear 2000 The allocations for the programmeare additional to the developmentassistancebudgetamountingtol percentof GDP

3.1.6 Countries whereAid is ConcentratedAs at 1994 Danida’s aid support had extendedto cover 18 programmecountriesincluding Ghana. Thesecountriesare Bangladesh,India, Nepal, Bhutan, Thailand,Vietnam, Mozambique,Tanzania,Zimbabwe, Kenya, Egypt, Eritrea, Uganda,Benin,Zambia,BurkinaFaso,Nicaragua

3.1.7 Partnersin Project Planning and ImplementationThemainpartnersin projectplanning andimplementationarethe institutionsat centraland lower levels and the communitiesof the recipientcountries Apart from these,Denmark is also cooperatingwith multi- and bilateral organizationsand privateinstitutions Currently, its aid programmeis distributedmoreor less equally betweenUN Agencies,World Bank Agencies,RegionalDevelopmentBanks and the EU. ThefundschanneledthroughDanidato NGOshavecontinuedto grow sinceadecisionwasmadein 1987 to increasethe cooperationbetweenDanida and the NGOs It nowmakesup 11 percentofDanida’stotal aid Consequently,theNGOsare encouragedtobuild elementsto strengthenthe capacity of their local partners in all projectcooperation

25

3.1.8 CoordinationDanida gives high priority to coordination between relevant recipient countryinstitutions and the donors at the national level Apart from this, Danida alsocoordinates several water-related projects with other External SupportAgencies(ESAs)and particularly with the Nordic countries Moreover Danidaparticipatesactively in the Water Supply and SanitationCollaborativeCouncil TheNordic watersectorspecialistshavebeenconsultingeachotherfor a numberofyearsIn thebeginningofthe 1980sthesesectorprofessionalstook the initiative to informallymeetoncea yeartogetherwith World Bank representativesandlater the secretariatofthe CollaborativeCouncil. In 1991, Danidaand the otherNordic agenciesdevelopedthe Nordic FreshWater Initiative, where they togetheridentified key principlesforeffectivewaterresourcesmanagement A resultof this initiative was that theNorcLicagenciescoordinatedtheir financial support to the EasternAfrican Water Resourcesseminarwhichtook placein Entebbein May 1993.

26

CHAPTER FOURTHE VOLTA RURAL WATER PROJECT HISTORY

AND PLANNThIG STRATEGIES

4.1.0 IntroductionThis chaptergives a brief overviewof the ProjectHistory, its goalsand principles aswell as its organizationand planning structure It also shedslight on policies andstrategieswhich guideits managementoperationsFinally it examinesthewatersupplyand sanitationfacilities providedin theKpandoDistrict

4.1.1 Background of theProjectThe DANIDA Water Project,otherwisereferredto astheVolta Rural Water Supplyand Sanitation and Project (VRWSSP), is part of the developmentcooperationbetweenthe Governmentof Ghanaand the Governmentof Denmark.The project isbeingimplementedby theGhanaWaterand SewageCorporation(GWSC) andKrugerConsults,a DanishConsultingEngineeringfirm It hasas its objectivethebettermentof living conditionsofpeoplein theVolta RegionofGhana It purportsto achieveitsobjectivethrougha numberof activitiesasoutlinedbelow

• the provision of reliable and easilyaccessiblepotable drinking water, whichare managedandsustainedbythe community

• the reduction in water and excreta related diseasesby improvingsanitationand health related behaviourthrough health educationand householdadoption ofimprovedlatrines.

The project whoseimplementationstartedin March 1993 in two districts hasnowextendedto cover all districts including the KpandoDistrict of GhanaTo promotesustainablemanagementof the project in the district, it sets out its operation onprincipleswhich try to relateactivities to the grassrootslevel throughinvolvementofcommunitiesat everystageof its activities as subsequentdiscussionsin this chapterwill reveal

27

4.1.2 Principles of the ProjectA number of principles have been outlined to guide project implementationin allbeneficiary districts in Ghana Accordingly, the Kpando District follows theseunderlistedprinciplesin its operations

• Decisionmakingandmobilizationatthe lowestpossiblelevel• Transparencyandaccountabilityin all planning andfinancial transactions• Closeco-operationwith the target communitiesandcommunitiesapprovalof each major step in

theprocess• Maximizinghealthbenefitsbypromotingsanitation alongwith safewater• Flexibility in the definition of largestgroups and establishmentof village level management

organization• Maximizing therole oftheprivatesector• Promoting equal participation of men and women in planning, managementand owning and

managementofwaterandsanitationfacilities• Contributing to the national efforts in the rural water and sanitation sector by maximiz’ng

collaboration with relevantorganizationsin thesector

4.1.3 PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES -

INVOLVEMENT OF COMMUNITY PARTICIPATIONRecognizingthat communityparticipationcould play a potential role in propelling theproject towards a sustainablefuture, managementof the project has carefullyentrenchedit in all stagesoftheir project cycle as outlinedin the discussionsbelow(fig 5)

4.1.4 Project Information and Data CollectionThis marks the beginning of the project planning process(fig5). Basedon demanddrivenprinciples,theprojectstaffconveysprojectinformationto the local communitiesandexplainsconditionsunderwhichtheybenefit from theproject. Usually ameeting,isconvenedduring which project information materialsand applicationforms aregivenout. Having understoodthe conditions of serviceprovision, communitiesrequestingproject assistancefor water and sanitationimprovementapply by forwarding theircompletedapplication forms throughthe EnvironmentalHealthAssistants(EHA) tothe District Project Office Upon satisfactory evaluation of applications, the exislingstaff togetherwith community members/groups set out to collect information aboutexistingwaterandsanitationfacilities andgeneralsituationin thecommunity.For this,questionnairessupportedby communityprofilesand baselinestudiesareused.In somecases,communityregistersarealsocompiledby the communityleadersto facilitatetheplanning processBuam(1994)reiteratedthe relevanceof communityinvolvement insuchneed identification exercisesfrom the very beginning. The strategyhas theadvantageof arousing some senseof responsibility among project beneficiariesUltimately this approachwill wield greaterpublic interestandsupport

28

Fig. 5 The Phasesof the Project Strategy

I TliJ~DANIDA PROJECT STRATEGY I

1~Meeting~4thCommunityfor

Negotiationon Facifitles

‘I!SigningofFormalAgreement

‘I,ConfirmationandTraining

of WatsanCommittees

Constnictionof Fadllty ].j.

Operation andMaintenance I

Source: VRWSS Community ManagementHandbook, 1995

4.1. 5 Health and Sanitation PlanningTo ensureproperintegrationofwater,sanitationandhealtheducation,communitiesinwhich feasibility studieshave been completedareencouragedto developtheir ownhealth and sanitation plans. These are often based on the community profilesadministeredjointly by the project staff and the community The plans, in essence,identify healthand hygienerelatedproblemsin the communitiesand serveasguidesindesigningappropriatemeasuresfor addressingtheproblems

The planning exercisewithin beneficiary communitiesis carried out by the Watsan(Water and Sanitation)CommitteesTheyare helpedby project extensionstaffactingasfacilitators until the communitydevelopsits own planning capability The WatsanCommittees are also provided with training that enables them to support theEnvironmentalHealthAssistants(EHA’s) in healthandsanitationeducationdelivery.

ProjectInformationandData Collection

HealthandSanitationPlanning jFeasibilityStudy/Soclo-EconomicStudy

Monitoring andEvaluation

29

This strategyfacilitates the sanitationcomponentof the project objectivesand rai~esenvironmentalhealthawarenessin project communities Underthe guidanceof theEHA’s a numberof communities in the district have already developed and areimplementingtheir own sanitationplans Thecontentsofthesesanitationplansincludeamongotherthings

• major health problemsidentifiedby thecommunities,• priorities setby thecommunitiesto tackle their problems;• contributingfactorsto theproblemsidentified,and,• whoshouldberesponsiblefor tackling theproblemandneededinputsetc

4.1.6 Feasibility and Socio-EconomicStudyTo attain a sustainably planned water supply and sanitation services based onappropriatetechnologiesas outlined in the New Delhi Proclamation(Centerfor ourCommon Future, 1994 p 125), the Project recognizes feasibility studies as anindispensablecomponentof its strategy.Throughthe studiesthey areableto ideni~f,rand respondto the needsand constraintsimposed by existing conditions of thecommunities concerned Besides, feasibility studies facilitated by mobilization ofcommunitymembersensurethat the activities and technologiesproposedand chosenby theprojectareappropriate,acceptableandaffordableto thecommunity But, beforestarting suchstudiesit is expectedthat communitiesfulfill the following participationrequirements

• that, projectassistancehasbeenappliedfor andapplicationsareprocessedandapproved,• that, a community register showing the total population has been completedtogether with a

communityprofileform; andalso,• that, there isawarenessandacceptanceofthepurposeofthefeasibilitystudy

Having satisfied itself that communitiesfulfill the aboverequirements,the projectmanagementorganizesa focus discussionsessionon the study results The Wats3.nCommitteesand OpinionLeadersarehereencouragedto play majorrolesin providinginformationthroughfocusgroupdiscussionsLater,thegroupparticipateswith stafftoinspectexistingwatersupplyand sanitationfacilities in the communityto complem~ntits data-base.Suchinformationarevery relevantfor planningpurposes.

4.1.7 Meeting with Community for Negotiation on FacilitiesThis is one stageof the project strategywhere community participation finds itsgreatestexpression.Usually after the feasibility study, a meeting is held with it ~ieconcernedcommunities to inform them about the different options for water 2ndsanitation improvements,or in the case of entirely new facilities, the estimatedconstructionand maintenancecostsof the proposedfacilities Prior to this meeting,copiesofdraft reportsaregiven to the communityto studybefore meeting theprojectrepresentativeswho are also part of the community This arrangementfacilitateseasynegotiationascommunitieshaveenoughtime to discussamongthemselvesand makedecisionsabouttheir choice of option facility long before the proposeddate for themeeting.

30

4.1. 8 Signing of Formal AgreementThis is the stagewhena writtenagreementbetweenthe communityand the project issigned The contentsof this agreementdescribesthe water supply and sanitationfacilities which havebeenagreedupon It also includesthe prescribed5 % ofthetotalcostwhich communitiesareexpectedto pay to thecontractorwhenconstructionworkis completed This 5 % contribution is to make beneficiariesdevelop a senseofownershipand thusparticipateeffectively in thesustainablemanagementofthefacility

4.1.9 Confirmation and Training of WatsanCommitteesIt is recognizedthat basicaccountingskills togetherwith effectivedecisionmakingarerelevant for the smooth performanceof the project In this regard, the Watsancommitteesareprovidedwith somelevel of training to enhancetheirperformance ADistrict CommunityDevelopment(DCD)staff is also secondedto the DanidaProjectto assist in organizingcommunitiesin the useof water and sanitationfacilities. TheWatsancommitteesarethenrequiredto openaBankAccount andto collectfundsforthe5 % contribution

4.2.0 Construction of FacilityBefore constructionstarts, the project arrangesa tenderingprocedurein which theWatsancommitteeelects a personto representthe community at the opening oftenders After tendering,a planningmeetingis arrangedwhencontractoris introducedto the community From this point on, the contractorand the Watsancommitteestogetherbegin work on a planpreparationwhich describesthe activitiesto be carriedout by the contractor,the project and the community The contractorwho wins theawardbuilds the facility under the supervisionof the technical staff from the districtoffice, and in cases where manual labour and/or materials are available in thecommunity, the contractorhires manpoweror purchasessuch materials from thecommunity.During the constructionstage,thebeneficiaryroles changefrom activetolessactiveparticipation However,theWatsancommitteesattendsitemeeting,and areobliged to reportlapsesobservedin theconstructionto theprojectstaff. Meanwhileasconstructionis in progresstheWatsancommitteesselecta caretakerto undergoan onthe job training with the contractor Operationally, on the job training could bedefinedin this contextto mean“someoneworkingwith aprojector an organizationasstaff while at the same time understudyinganother person with a more superiorexpertiseto improvethe traineesowncompetence“.

4.2.1 Operation and MaintenanceThis is theperiodwhencompletedfacility is handedoverto thebeneficiarycommunitywhich now takesfull responsibilityfor the operationof thefacility and makessureitwill last for a long time To facilitate operationand maintenance,the projectidentifiesand trainsAreaMechanicsin eachzone Theseundertakebothpreventiveand repairworks asandwhenneeded.

31

4.2.2 Monitoring and EvaluationMonitoring andevaluationis consideredan essentialpartoftheproject Suchmeasuresareput in place to ensurejoint participatorymonitoringand evaluationof waterandsanitationfacilities TheEHAs work in the project areasand assistcommunitieswithwhateverproblemsthat arisewith regardto management,operationand maintenanceoftheproject

The abovediscussion outlined the variousstagesof theDanishproject developmentstrategy. As could be discerned from this discussion, the strategy recognizescommunityparticipationaskey to sustainablemanagement,which indeedit hassoughtto incorporatein all phasesof its activity However, in the context of water andsanitationproject specialemphasisneedsto beplacedon the involvementof womeninplanning and implementationphasessincethey havethe potential of being effectivemanagers Many rural water and sanitationprojects have failed in the past assustainableventuresdue to lack of effective, planning and managementpractices,compoundedby inability to adopt need-basedappropriatetechnologies. It is inrecognition of this that the Danida Rural Water project has carefully designeditselaborateplanning and managementstrategiesto embrace,inter alia: Information andData Collection; Feasibility and SocioeconomicStudies, Negotiation on Facilities;Operationand Maintenance;Monitoring and Evaluation. Each componentof itsstrategyanalogousto the recommendedWorldBankProjectCycle (Buam 1994 ibid)has a strong element of community participation. The inclusion of communityparticipation will in the long run render the project very sustainableif it can beimplemented

Another importantmeansby which communityparticipationis invokedin most phasesof theDanidaProjectcycle lies in theestablishmentofWatsancommittees,formed bythe communitiesthemselves,and chargedwith major roles Thesepave the way 1,osuccessfulproject implementation. One such role is the raising of funds towardsmeeting the cost of constructing, repair works, improvement, expansion orreplacementofpartstoolsormaintenanceandotherpertinentcostsassociatedwith theoperationandmaintenanceofthe facilities. Apart from involvementin thesetasks,thecommitteesalso plan and carry out healthand sanitationactivitiesto improvehealthconditionsin the communities Theyalsohelp to ensurethat work is doneon time andaccordingto the expectationsof the project staff. Experiencefrom project reportsindicatethat incorporationofsuchcommitteesin theprojectimplementationstrategyisa usefultool in attainingsustainableprojectmanagementThroughthework of the~~ecommunities,public participationis facilitatedfrom the inception of the project withreasonablysuccessfulresults.For example,a numberof waterand sanitationfacilitieshas alreadybeenprovided in some of the deprivedcommunitiesand the numberofapplicationsfor project assistanceis increasing Seemingly,the only major obstacletoproject adoption in most communitiesis lack of financial resourceson the part ofindividuals asdiscussionin section5 4 1 will elucidatefurther However,oncea moresuitablealternativeto financing project adoptionis arrivedat, greaterresults can beexpectedand projectgoalsshouldbewell on theirway to beingachieved.

32

CHAPTER FIVEDATA ANALYSIS, RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

5.1.0 IntroductionThe precedingfour chaptersof this reporttouchedon a numberof issueswhich areprimarily intendedto serveas explanatorybackgroundto the entire study. The issuesamong otherselucidatethe problemat stake, giving as a result the rationale andjustification of the study They also outline the objectivesof the study with specialfocuseson the Danish Government’sDevelopmentPolicies and Project Strategieswhichguidesits activities in theKpandoDistrict Against this background,the currentchapterprovidesan analysisofdatageneratedfrom thefield and discussesresultsof itsfindings in relationto the set objectivesofthe study To this end, it focuseson watersupply and sanitaryfacilities in the district vis-à-vis the distribution of the Danishprojectfacilities and what impact that could haveon water relateddiseasecontrol Itproceeds further to discuss problems of project delivery, public opinions andsuggestionsfor improved serviceprovision in the district. Lastly it examinestheproject’ssocio-economicimpactsandfutureprospectsin the district

5.1.1 Water Supply, Sanitation and Ancifiary Facilities in the ProjectCommunities

Thegeneralwaterand sanitationsituationin the KpandoDistrict can be consideredrelatively poor (section 2.3.2). Most communities in the study area do not haveadequatehygienicallysuitablewastedisposalfacilitiesandgooddrinking watersourcesthat enhancepublic health conditions Caughtup in sucha situation, communitieswithout accessto adequategoodportabledrinkingwaterresortto drawing waterfromunhygienic sourceslike rivers, streams,lakes or pondsto meet their basic dailyrequirements(table6). Yet, findings from the study confirmedthat, inadvertentlyorotherwise,thesevery sourcesofwaterfrom which theydrawwaterare abusedandnotproperlymaintainedin accordancewith any environmentalhealthstandards

~: ___£~~.. L ‘—4~E~ ~ t~. ___________.-‘ -ç ~ - .# __—_~t_~j’ -It- W~ _______ _______

~Z”~.Sc’... ~

L caa~J~.~ :c~” ~‘t~-C~ ~-~ . - -

‘~~r:Plate 1. An illustration of water sourceabuse In communities without adequate portable water facilities(Watsanews,1996)

33

As portrayedin plate 1 one oftenencountersasituationwherepeoplewashclothesandevenbathin the sourcesof waterthey rely on for their domesticusein communitieswithout any form ofplannedpotablewatersupply

Table 6 PercentDistribution of Water Supply Sourcein the Study Area

Sour Urd P Dlthlbu~-

- q Percent -_

(%)78 25 3

97 -—30

102 33 0

-—60 200

-—(Spnngsj)ams,Ponih,Casch,ne 38 120

3i~ IOU

Data Source: Author’s Questionnaire Survey, 1997NB: Totalsaregreaterthan sampleslze(240)becauseof multipleresponses

The picture becomesmore illustrative when one examineswateruseevenwithin thedomesticsetting Resultsfrom thequestionnairesurveycarriedout in the field suggestthat some membersof the community are either not respondingto the sanitationmessagebeing spreadby the project, or that thereare still some inhibiting factorswhichmakeadoptionof properhygienepracticesa little bit problematic For instance,results from the surveyalso revealedthat a substantialproportion of personalaridclotheswashingactivities takeplace in the home. However, lackof adequatewastewater disposalsystemsin the communitiesmakemajority of the peopledisposetheirdomesticwastewaterin the immediateenvironsoftheirhomes(tables7 and 8)

Table 7 Percent Distribution of Personal /Clothes Washing Places byCommunities

Name OfCommunity

En the Home Stream,River,or Lake

NeartheBorehole Total -.

Borne 24(100%)

24

IJzoanii 10(41 7%)

14(58 3%)

24

Torkor 6(25 0%)

18(75 0%)

24

Dzigbey 14(58 3%)

10(41 7%)

24

Peki-Agbateh 20(83.3%)

4(16 7%)

24

Peki-Dzakeh 16(66.7%)

8(33 3%)

24

Sanga 24(100%)

24

Tsiyenu 24(100%)

24

TsrukpeDukuma 24(100%)

24

Yordanu 4

(167%)20

(833%)24

TOT4L 166i&9~2%)

74(30.8%)

240(1UO%~

Data Source: Author’s QuestionnaireSurvey, 1997

34

Table 7 indicatesthat a relatively largeproportion (692%) of the respondents carryout their personaland clotheswashingactivitiesin thehomewith theremaining30 8%carryingout theirs at streams,lakes and rivers in the communities This distributionpattern means much and has implications particularly for domestic waste waterdisposal in the communities Table 8 illustrates in details the situation with wastewaterdisposal in homeswithin the study communities As could be seenfrom thattable, a patternis conveyed signifying clearly the extent and consequencesof lackorinadequatewastewater disposalfacilities in the communities For example,71 7% oftherespondentsindicateddisposingtheirdomesticwastewaterbehindtheirhousesandin the compoundssurroundingtheir homesdue to lack of appropriatedisposalplaces,whereasthe remaining28.3% disposetheirs either in the neighbouringbushesor indrainagepits andguttersin the communities

Table 8 Percent Distribution ofCommunities

Waste Water Disposal Places in Study

NAME OFCOMMUNITY

BehindtheHouse

SurroundingBushes

Drainage Pits!GutLera

SurroundingCompounds

TOTAL

Bwne 10(41 7%)

2(8 3%)

4(167%)

8(33.3%)

24

Dzow,Ji 8(33.3%)

4(16 7%)

12(50.0%)

24

Kpwulo-Torkor 6(25 0%)

18(75 0%)

24

Kpwtdo-Dzigbey 12(50 0%)

8(~333%)

4(16 7%)

24

Peki-Agbaieh 6

(25 0%)4

(167%)10

(417%)4

(16 7%)

24

Peki-Dzakeh 6(25 0%)

8(33 3%)

10(41 7%)

24

Sa.nga 6(250%)

4(167%)

14(583%)

24

Tsiyenu 6(25 0%)

6(25 0%)

12(50 0%)

24

Tsrukpe-Dukumah

16(66 7%)

6(25 0%)

2(8 3%)

24

Yordanu 14(58.3%)

4(16 7%)

6(25.0%)

24

TOTAL 90(37.5%)

28(11.6%)

40(16.7%)

82(34.2%)

240(100%)

Data Source: Authorss QuestionnaireSurvey,1997

Disposal of waste water into pits and gutters as practiced in communities likeYordanu, Tsiyenu and Peki-Agbatehis not in itself a bad practice comparedtothrowing it behindhousesetc However,without periodicdesilting of the guttersandpits this practicemight lose its advantageThere is thereforethe needfor WatsanCommitteemembersin thosecommunitieswherethepracticeis popularto ensurethatdesiltingbecomesan integral componentof theircommunalwork programmesif suchguttersand pits are to continue serving thosepurposesFurthermore,it is equallyadvisablefor communitiesadoptingthe useof pits asa placeofwastewaterdisposalto coversuchpits to avoid renderingthemaseventualmosquitobreedinggrounds

35

Nielsen and Rasmussen(1997)reported the prevalenceof malaria and mosquitoinfectionin somecommunitiescoveredin their study (including communitieswherepitandguttersystemsofwastewater is practiced)Possibly,neglectof suchprecautionaryor preventivemeasureslike desilting explain the prevalenceof malariacasesin thosecommunities Thereis thereforethe needfor amoreseriousattentionon suchissues

Refusedisposal andlatrinefacilities arealsoissuesofimportanceworth consideringinany discussionrelated to sanitationin project communities.The problemwith refiLseand latrines in the study communitiesdoesnot appearas seriousas experiencedinbigger urban communities However, existing facilities are equally inadequate andpeoples activities related to handling such facilities are improper in manyinstances(chapter2) Similar to what had beenpointed out earlier, lack of suitableplacesof refuse disposal in most of the communitieshas resulted in a practiceofthrowing refusein bushesbehindhouses Thereareinstanceswherecommunitieshavespecific placesasincineratorsfor depositingrefuse Howeversuchfacilities, uncoveredas they are, exposepeople living in such neighborhoodsto air and water relateddiseasesand assuchrequireattentionby Watsancommittees Addressingtheseissuesrequiresvery pragmaticeffortsbothon part of Watsancommitteemembersaswell asenvironmentaland health related officials. The project recognizes however thatintensive public education,andvideo shows areusefulworking tools in correctingsuchpracticesThereis thereforetheneedto carryout regularactivitiesin line with this ~brafar reachingimpactto be felt Furtherto this, projectfacilities providedin thedistrictneedto be promotedso that adoption rate amongcommunitiescan improve healthstandards.Thenextsectionwill describeprojectfacilities providedandhow that mightimpactonwater-relateddiseasecontrol in theDistrict.

5.2.0 Water Supply Facilities and Caretaker ResponsibilitiesIn responseto waterand sanitation needs, the DanishProject provides a number offacilities (dependingon thepopulation)to communitiesaswell asindividualswho meetthe laid-down requirementsfor project assistanceThis section provides a brief

descriptionof themajorwaterand sanitationfacilities currentlybeingprovidedin thecommunities.It also goesfurther to examinethe spatialdistribution of thesefadilil.i esand how sucha distributionalpatterncould impacton waterrelateddiseasecontrol.

5.2.1 Water Supply Facilities-Three basictypesof watersupply facilities arecurrently being provided in the communities. They include Boreholes, SprrngCatchment and Rain Water Catchment facilities (see Community ManagementHandbook,appendix). Beneficiariesoptingfor boreholeshavethe chanceof choosingbetweenthosefitted with handpumps,electricpumpsorsolararray

36

5.2.2 Boreholeswith Hand Pumps (Ghana Modified Indian Mark IIHandPumps)

This type of facility is provided in communitieswithout any good spring but haveundergroundwater resources Usually, after successfullyassessingthe suitability ofthe chosensite for this facility, boreholesaredrilled into thegroundfrom wherewatercan be drawn by meansof a handpumpinstalled on it (Community ManagementHandbook,appendix) The Ghana Modified Indian Mark II is a typical deepwellhandpumpIt is a lever-actionhandpumpmadeof galvanizedsteel It haslight stainlesssteeldrop pipeswith connectingrods,andalsoabrasscylinder With thesecomponentpartsmadefrom metal substancesthat arenot susceptibleto corrosionthe livespanofthepump is estimatedto extendto about 12 yearsor more,providedpropercareandmaintenancework is carried out on it The project acknowledgeshowever thatcommunity caretakers are not always capableof canyingout repair works on theinstalledpumps In view of this, it providesspecialtraining to local mechanicswho areoften residentin the communitiesto takecareof any eventualrepairwork that mightcrop up. Notwithstanding this arrangement,caretakersare assigneda number ofresponsibilitiesto perform which are vital for the sustainanceof the facilities. In theparticular case of the handpumps the following, are the responsibilitiesexpectedofcaretakers.

• ensuring cleanliness at the pump sites and drains,• checking flow of water for signs of leakagein the foot valve or for less water in wells, greasing the

chain and other moving parts when necessary, and• ensuring that the apron and drains are repaired, and keeping records of repairs done by the

trained local mechanics

Apart from thesemajor assignmentscaretakersare alsomandatedto collectfees fromthe users;educatethem and report breakdowns and other serious problems to theWatsan committees for immediate action. Such an arrangementof designatingsomeoneascaretakerto performthe abovestatedduties in respectofthe handpumpsis laudableasit promoteseffectiveuseofthefacility and henceits durability Besidesthis, the constantinteractionof caretakersin the managementofthe facilities alsohasother advantages for the speedy innovation of the water facilities in accordancewithHagerstrand’sDiffusion Theory For instance, where Caretakerscan effectivelycollaboratewith Watsancommittee membersin the dischargeof their work, theenvironmental and hygiene awarenessbuilding messagescan spread through thesociety faster andultimatelypushup theprojectbeyondcategorythreeofthediffusioncycle(seesection1 2.0). But to achievethis, it is equally importantnot to neglecttheneed for a motivative elementwhich promotesdevotion to duty on the part ofcaretakers.This study did not investigatethe type or extentof motivation given tocaretakersto perform such duties. It assumesthat there is a well laid downarrangementto that effect. Otherwise,thenone would seriouslysuggestsomeform ofremunerationfor caretakerswho perform those duties Such an arrangementwillconstitutea very strong motivational factor, boost the morale of the caretakerandconsequentlyexcitehis devotionto duty With seriousconsiderationto theseissues,amaintenancestrategywith caretakersaskeyplayers,shouldhelpensuresustainableuseand managementoftheboreholefacilities

37

5.2.3 Gravity Flow PipedWater Supply SystemThis systemofwatersupply reliesusuallyon a spring or a streamasthemain souiceBy meansof gravity as the driving force, water is transportedto the communitiesthrough a network of pipelines (Community ManagementHandbook, appendix) Incommunities or villages where a well-protectedspring with a good water sourcelocatedon a high ground level exists, Gravity Flow Piped WaterSupplySystemisconsidereda suitablechoice By this system,water from a chosenspring flows downbill in pipesconnectedto big storagetanks Usually, asiltbox is built in thenetworktokeepdirt from flowing into the wastetanks From the wastetankswaterflows downbill by the force ofgravity throughthe pipesto standpipeslocatedin different partsofthe communities from where people can conveniently draw their water supplyHowever,like the Boreholeswatersupply system,Gravity Flow PipedWater Systemrequiresa numberof maintenanceactivities to ensure its efficiency To this end,community caretakersare chargedwith specific roles which must be carried out inrespectofthefollowing componentsofthewatersupply system

(i) StreamIntakes- Caretakersare expectedto checkdrains at the various intakepoints and repair themif necessary.Theyare also to ensurethat bye-lawsto protectcatchmentareasare followed by thecommunity;checkandrepairrip-rap below weir ifnecessary;and also check all concretestructuresfor leakage,cracks, and washirigaway of foundations.Addedto theseroles, caretakersarealso expectedto checkonthe sandfilters to seeif they areblocked,closethevalveon the delivery mainsaswellas clean the filter sand These activities are essentialto maintain water quality asundetectedcracks,leakagesetc might resultin contaminantsenteringthewatersupplysystem

(ii) Spring Catchments- A numberofrolesare equallydemandedin respectof springcatchmentsFor instance,the drainageditch abovespringsareto be checkedreguhulyand repaired Caretakersarealso expectedto ensurethat the bye-lawsgoverninguseof thefacilities are respected.Addedto this responsibility,caretakersareexpectedtocheckfor leakagesfrom the spring catchmentareaaswell assilt chambersfor signsofleaks, cracks,washingaway of foundationsetc. asmentionedin connectionwith theBoreholes

(iii) Reservoirs,Pipelinesand Standpipes- Here again, checkingon cleanlinessofvalves,potentialleakages,flow at tapsetc., areresponsibilitiesplacedon caretakerstoensurethat thefacilitiesarewell maintainedandfunctioningasexpected

5.2.4 Other Water Supply FacilitiesBesidesthe two mainwatersupply systemsdescribedabove,theprojectalso hassomeotherwatersupply systemswhich canbemadeavailableto communitieson request.TheseincludeHand-DugWells (with or without handpumps).This sectionpresentsadescriptionon how thesefacilities function and the specific caretakerresponsibilil.iesexpectedofthemto ensuretheirusefulness

5.2.5 Hand Dug Well without a Handpump- Thesearetypically constructedin areaswherethegroundwateris closeto the surface Theyarebuilt with simple toolsand lined with concreterings to preventthe walls from carving in after excavationis

38

complete Wherethe waterlevel is low or falls the wells are drilled deeperto ensureaccessibility The digging of the wells is doneusually by employingthe servicesofunskilled labourers However, skilled people are often contactedfor casting andplacing of the concreterings The wells have a concreteor a masonrywall aroundthemcalledtheheadwall Theyhavean apronand a drain which usuallyleadsinto asoakawaypit Thereis alsoa concretecoverslabwith a holethroughwhich watercanbe takenfrom thewell by meansof a bucketattachedto arope This waterfacility hasa cover which can be closed andlockedwhennot in useto preventmisuseor any formof abuse(Community Management Handbook, appendix)

5.2.6 CommunityHand-Dug Wellsfitted with HandpumpsIn situations where hand-dug wells reach down to depths of about 20 metersthey arefitted with low lift pumps such as the NIRA AF-85 Hand Pumpto facilitatedrawingof water(CommunityManagementHandbook,appendix) Thesepumpscanwork upto 12-15 meters depth At a water level of 10 meters, the pump can give about 33 litresor 9 gallonsper minute Most componentsaremadeof steel.But it also hasa risingpipe and a piston rod which are made up of avery strong plastic. The sparepartsofthis pump are made and sold in the Ghana Thus they are readily accessible andconsideredvery suitablefor useby rural communities.Theuseand maintenanceof thispump is relatively easyand doesnot posemuch problem Theremight be occasionswherethe cylinder would needrepairs However,this cansimply be doneby pulling itout throughthepumpbody

Certainpartsof the pump suchasthe sealingring, the collar bearing and the valvebobbin wear out in course of its use There is therefore a need for occasionalinspectionand replacement However,repairactivities relatedto theseare quite easyand requiresonly a few simple tools. To this end, the project in principle providesbeneficiarycommunitieswho opt for this facility with sets of tools to facilitate suchrepairworks after pumpsareinstalled Again, thesewater facility also requiresmuchneededcare similar to what is was discussedin respectof the earlier describedfacilities As suchcommunitycaretakersperformcaretakerand maintenanceactivitiesto ensurethat pumps are usedand handledproperlywithout any form of abuse Itbecomesclear from these discussionsthat the sole maintenanceand monitoringactivities in respectof the water facilities rest largely on caretakersIn a sense,asindicated earlier, this arrangementhas the advantageof ensuring that caretakerresponsibility lies in the handsof a particularpersonwho is accountablefor anynegligenceand misuse identified with the facility However, the weaknessin thisarrangementis that an attractive incentivemust be madeavailable to motivate theperson playing such roles In absenceof this thereis the likelihood ofhim/hergiving upthejob for anythingelsethatmight appearmoreattractivewith greaterincentives

5.3.0 Danida’s SanitationFacilitiesTo promotegoodsanitaryconditionsin thecommunities,theprojectprovideslow costandaffordablelatrinesfor householdsandinstitutions(schoolsandclinics) We discussbelow thetypesoflatrinefacilitiesprovidedin thecommunitiesandwherepossible,therelativeadvantagesanddisadvantagesassociatedwith each

39

5.3.1 SanplatLatrineThis is an exampleof a low costhouseholdlatrinewhoseconstructioncan becarriedout underthe supervisionof Watsancommitteesusing locally availablematerials(plate2) The beneficiaryprovides all the essentialconstructionmaterialsrequiredfor thisfacility and informs the Watsancommitteewho arrangesfor the constructionof thefacility Essentialmaterialsrequiredfor the constructionof this facility compriseasanplat, roofing sheets, cements and some reasonable quantity of assortedroofing/building nails Table 9 1 showsa summaryoftheconstructionmaterialsusuaLlyusedandtherespectivequantitiesrequiredofeach

Table 9.1 Materialsrequired for theConstructing a Sanplat Latrine

QuantIty

Sanpiat

1

Cement

1 Bag

RoofingSheets

2

RoofingNails

V2 lbs

AssortedNuhisi

2IbsRequired

DataSource: Watsanews(1995)-

ROOFINGSHEETS

LOGS

I

Plate 2 An illustration ofa SanpiatHouseholdLatrine

MUD BRICKS. DOOR

CEMENTFLOOI

SANPL~LT

PIT

40

Therearea numberof advantagesassociatedwith this latrine type. For instance,theconstructioncostis very low thus making it affordableandthe sandplatcanbe re-usedwhenthepit if full Besidesthese,thefacility alsoprovidesprivacyand it is odourfreeThereare neverthelesssome disadvantagesassociatedwith the facility For instance,the lifespanofthe facility is not very long comparedto others It is estimatedthat thepit canget full within 4 yearswhenusedby an averageoften personsin a house Inthat case,therewould be a needfor the userto move to a new site This movementcertainly implies that a newplot mustbe sought,which in itself constitutesproblemsparticularly in communitieswhereaccessto land is a difficult issue. Added to theseinconveniences,theuseof embeddedwoodin the installationofthe facility callsfor aconstantcheckon theirconditionsto ensurethatthey do not rot and predisposeusersto the risk of sinking into the pit as a result of collapse Finally, the facility is notsuitablein sandyor loosesoil areas,unlesssomefortification measuresareadoptedtostrengthenthe supportingsoil This againwill imply useofsomeextramaterialswhichwill add to the cost of construction.Whether the poor rural dwellers are able toaccomodatesuch addedcosts is an issue which deservesseriousconsiderationinrecommendingthis facility to beneficiarycommunities.In effect, caremust alwaysbetakento ensurethat suchaddedcostsdo not deterthemfrom adoptingthefacility

5.3.2 MozambiqueSlab TypeLatrinePlate3 An illustration ofa MozwnbiqueSlabTjqeLatrine

This type of latrine is similar to the sanplat in structural composition. The onlydifferenceis that theMozambiqueSlabTypeLatrinehasa beamring which servesasa

MUD UJ~S

VENT pip~

ROOFING

SHEET

DOOR

5L43

RDJGBEAM

PiT(BU~T SHAFE)

41

foundationfor theslab Theslab is madeof concreteto preventsurfaceandrain waterfrom running into the pit - a situationwhich usually causescollapseof traditionaltrenchandpit latrinesduring rainy seasons.In exceptionofa PVC pipe, the materialsusedin constructingthis latrinetypeare similar to that ofthe sanplat Table 9 2 detailsout materialsandquantityrequiredof eachin theconstructionofthefacility

Table 9.2 Materials Required for theConstruction of a Mozabique TypeLatrine

--Cement PVC-4’(100mm)Diameterpipe

GalvanizedRoofingsheet(3’x 8’)

RoofingNails Assorted Nails2’,3’, 4’

.

AluminiumMosquito Net

QuantityRequired

2 Bags 1 3 ‘/,Ibs 2Ibs ‘/z yard

Data Source: Watsan News(1996)

This latrine type hasa deeperpit andis estimatedto takeabout5 yearsto get full fixan averageof 10 users Like the sanplat,the slab, roofing sheetsaswell asthe ventpipecanbe reusedon a newpit This is a cost effectiveelementthat savesusersfromspending extra resources on these materials when constructing a new facility Inadditionto this advantage,the facility equally providesprivacy and controlsflies andodour But asusual, thedisadvantagesassociatedwith this alsois that a newland hasto beacquiredfor a shift of facility whentheold pit fills up Againthis posesproblemsespeciallyin areaswhereeasyaccessto newplots is a difficult problem.Otherwise, itis a relatively appropriate facility worth recommending for use in localcommunities

5.3.3 RectangleSinglePit LatrineComparedwith the previously describedlatrine types, this one appearsto have alonger lifespanof about7’/2 yearsfor an averageof ten usersafterwhich it could bemovedto a newsite In termsof compositionthis latrinetype hasa rectangularbeammadeof concretewhich servesas a foundationfor the slabs and also preventsloosetop soils from cavinginto the pits(J)late4) Theslabsplacedon thebeamhelpspreventsurface/rain water from running into the pit to causecollapse of the facility ‘I’ hisfacility appearsto be an improvementuponthepreviouslydiscussedones However,ithasits associatedmeritsanddemeritsasoutlinedbelow

Merits• ventpipes,slabsandroofing materialscan bere-usedon a newpit• cover slabscan beremovedto checkconditionsofthepit.• flies and badodours often associatedwith traditional pit/french latrines are controlledin this

case• privacyisprovided.

Demerits• availability of landfor the constructionof a newfacility when old one fills up couldconstih4tea

problemin somecommunities• re-useof oldpit can not beguaranteed• costofconstructionisslightly higher

42

Thethreesanitaryfacilities describedabovearecosteffectiveanddesignedto suit localcommunities As notedearlier the current adoptionrate appearsto be quite low forfinancial and other reasons.However, it is envisagedthat the rate of adoption willincreasewhencommunitiesareableto securesuitablemeansofraisingfundsto payforthefacilities

Plate4 An illustration ofa RectangleSingle(VentilatedImproved)Latrine

5.4.0 SpatialDistribution of Project Facilities in the DistrictProjectfacilities are not uniformly distributed acrossthe district This distributionalpattern is accountedfor largely by the criteria set by project to be met by thecommunitiesand also to some extent,the weakfinancial positionof residentswithinthe project area. In principle, the project facilities are provided in the communitiesbasedon a demand-drivenapproach. However, a numberof activities includingfeasibility studies,trainingofWatsancommittees,designingoffacilities etc areequallyexpectedto be completedbefore the project starts in communities Thesebasicrequirementstake quite sometime to be met Consequently,distribution of projectfacilities aswell asactivitiesareat varyingstagesin communitiesasdiscussionsin thissectionportrays.

DOOR

43

As at the end time of the field study only threecommunities,namely Sanga,Tsiyenuand Peki-Agbateh(fig 2), havehad project facilities successfullyinstalledfor themThe first two arebenefitingfrom a springcatchmentwater supply facilities whereasthe latter(Peki-Agbateh)had beenprovided with an electricity-drivenpipedw~~rerfacility. Apart from these communities which are directly benefiting from projectfacilities, thereare someotherfour(4) communitieswhich havealsohadwhatcouldbetermedindirect assistancefrom the project ThesecommunitiesareDzigbe,Yordanu,Tsrukpe-Dukumahand Peki-Dzakeh In these communities, piped water supplyfacilities have previously been provided by the Ghana Water and SewerageCorporation(GWSC), World Vision International (WVI) and the EnvironmentalPresbyterianChurch(EPC) But owing to managerialproblems,the facilitiesceasedtofunction and had beenabandoned. However, through an arrangementbetweenIhecommunities as well as the original providers of those facilities the DanishWaterProjecthad takenover thosefacilities and through its Pump ConversionPrograrrunehaverevivedthemfor usein thecommunities

Currently,undertheHandpumpconversionprogrammefour(4)suchhandpumpshavebeenidentified and repairedto serve a populationof about 1200 people in Peki-Dzakeh Two out of the four identified in Tsrukpe-Dukumahhaveequally been re-activatedfor usein the community, and thosein Dzigbe and Yordanuhavealso beenrepairedto servetheir population Severalcommunitieshavealso beenearmarkedLtobenefit from the Handpump conversion programme(table10) Arrangementsareunderwaytowardsthis end, which whencompletedwill place thosecommunitiesalsoundertheHandpumpconversionprogramme.

Table 10 CommunitiesEarmarkedfor HandPumpConversion

NAME, ~ LWVILLAGE ~ :~:

W:OR1~1N~U~j.,V~NSTALLEK)BV~~

NO.OE ~P$:~EARM~REED ~:

•~~

R2~A~K8.::~ ~. •.

Dzigbe GWSC.i, EPC-1 2 300 Pump repaired(I)

- -—

- -—

- -—

-—

Fesi GWSC1, WVI-1 3

FesiResettlement

VRA4 1

Agbenoxoe GWSC-2 2

OldAbanu GWSC-2 2 -

- -—Daffor GWSC-4 4

Bame GWSC-1 I -

Dzewoe GWSC-I 1 -

Gadza WW1 1 - -—Dzoanti GWSC..2 2 - -—

- -—Agudzi GWSC-1 1

Gbefi-Hoeme GWS&3 3 -

Gbefi-Tornu GWSC-4 4 - -—

Sovte-Gboxome EPC-3 3 - - -—Kudzra GWSC4 4 - -—AvemeGboxome GWSC..1 1 - -—

- -—Dra GWSC2 2

Beme GWSC5 5 - -—

- -—

- -—

-

Danyigba GWSC2 2

Toveme GWSC4 1

Dzeme WVI-2 2

44

Tsome-sabadu WV12 2

Akukorme EPC-1 I - -

Dzana GWSC1,EPC1 2 - -

Wadamaxe GWSC-2 2 - -

Wuve GWSC2,EPC1 3

Tokorme GWSC-2, EPC1 3

Agata GWSC-2 2 - -

Agaanyigbe GWSC-2 2 - -

Gblenkor EPC-1 1 - -

Awate Todzi GWSC-4 4

AganwJDz~fadzi GWSC4 1 - -

VakpoDunyo WV12 2 -

Vakpo-Af eye EPC-1 1 - -

Dzogbati GW5C1 I - -

Yordanu WVI-1 1 300 Pumprepaired(1)BotokuTove~1 GWSC-3 3

BotokuSiama2 GWSC.4 4

Tsrukpe-Tota GWSC3 3

Dukuma GWSC-4 4 600 Pumprepaired(2)Wusuta-Resettl EPC-1 - -

Gboxome EPC-I 1

Anyafo GWSC-1 1 - -

Dzake - GW5C-2,WVI-2 4 1200 Pumprepaired(4)AvetiLe WVI-2 2 -

Todome EPC-1, GWSC-3 4WegbeKpalime WV12 2 -

Ahor GWSC-5 5

Tsate GWSC-1 1 - -

Dzemeni GWSC-2 2 - -

Tsanakpe GWSC-3 3

NB: (-) Implies no üath. Populationestimatesareonly available for the four(4)communitiescurrentlybenefiting from theHand pumpconversionprogramme.

At present, full scale project activities are underway in about thirty-eight(38)communities in the district at various stages. With the exceptionof Botoku andWusutaResettlementalmost all the communitiestargetedfor project assistancehavegonethroughthefeasibility studiesstageandhavehadWatsancommitteesestablishedin readinessfor full scaleproject activity. According to activities scheduledfor thecurrent year(1997),work on construction of facilities is expectedto have beencompletedin 10 out of the 38 communitiesrepresenting26.3%. And by the end ofJuneit is projectedthat work on constructionoffacilities would be completedin 14additional communities Thus, altogetherabout 24 communitiesshould by that timehavefacilities installedfor theiruse Theremaining14 communitieswhich arecurrentlyat theinitial phasesofthe projectplanningcycle will hopefullyby the end ofthe yearequallyhavetheirfacilities installedfor use(Table11)

45

Table 11 Percent Distribution of Planned Project Facilities in Communities inthe District During the Period January-June 1997

Typeof Facility Numberof Communfttesto beServed

Total Popuhitlon

Boreholeswith Handpumps 16 13,878

SpringCatchment 2 3,945

PipedGravity System 3 3,730

Solar Pumping 5 6,814

Electric Pumping 12 16,472

TOTAL 38 44,839

DataSource DanidaThstnctProjectFiles(1997)

With the presentwork schedulethereseemsto be greaterachievementin terms ofarealcoveragewhenwork proceedsuninterruptedaccordingto thescheduleThetotalpopulationout of the 38 communitiesexpectedto havebeenbenefiting fully fromwaterfacilities providedunderthe presentarrangementby Juneis 44,839. This figurerepresents34 5% of the total population of the entire district estimated at129 916(ibid,1995) Assumingthat this populationfigure ofthedistrict is reliable, theachievementof sucha level of watersupply coveragewithin the projectedperiod isquitea positiveandan encouragingsign whichjustifiestheprojectfunding.

By the sametoken, suchan achievementhasan implication for the prevailing heaLthconditionsofpeoplein thecommunities.For instance,with propereducationandgoodsanitary habits, adequatepotable water supply will reducewater related diseasesprevailing in the communities and the health status of people in the district willconsequentlyimprove

5.4.1 Problems Constraining Water Supply and Sanitation FacilityProvision in the District

The study discovereda few problemsconstrainingprojectmanagementin the districtHowever, theseproblemsare mostly associatedwith accessibility, facility usewithspecific referenceto currently existing facilities, as well as those affecting potentialusersFrom thestudy, accessibilityto facility was indicatedasa problemconfrontingfacility use However, it appearsto be a minor problem relating to very lèwcommunitieslike Peki-Dzakehand Torkor A substantialproportion of respondents(about68 3%) interviewedindicatedhavingno accessibilityproblemswith regardstolocationof currentproject facilitiy existing in their communities(table12) Thus, inexceptionof Torkor and Peki-Dzakehall theremainingeight(S)communitiessampledfor thestudyaresatisfiedwith the location ofthefacility and couldhaveeasyaccesstowaterat any time

46

Table 12 ProblemsConstraining Water Facilities in the Communities

1’~aine ofVlihiIgC

MressfbflftyProblem?

Spedflc ProblemsConfrontingCurrenclPotentlal1:hers.

Yea ~o.

:::: 1 i::. ::‘:::::: . Nop~bI~Met j~ueuhig Ymsm f~1uwfio~ rand tudiacriml

11nateCollect

Bame 2(83%)

22(91 7

%)

2(8 3

i)__~

22(91 7%)

24

Dzoant, 14(583%

10417%

14563%

1041.7%

24

Torkor 16667%

8333%

12500

4164%

8333%

24

Dzigbe 4167%

20833%

283%

283%

2083.3%

24

Peki-

Agbareh

62501~

18750%

4167%

283%

18750%

24

Pek,.

Dzakeh

166670/

0

8333%

4167~

8333%

8333%

4167%

24

Sanga 4167

%

20833%

4167

%

20833%

24

Tsiyenu 2(83

%)

22(917

%)

62501%

18750%

24

Dukumah 8333%

16667%

8333!~___

16667%

24

Yordanu 4167%

20833%

62501%

18750%

24

TOTAL 1631.7%

16462.3%

041.7~

083.3% ~42

,4

020%

062.~%

083J’~e

16464.2%

340100%

DataSource:Author’s QuestionnaireSurvey,1997

With regardsto problemsencounteredin usingexisting facilities in the district, 64.2%of the respondentsindicatedhaving no problem in using the facilities This figureapparentlylooks encouraging However, the researcheris of the view that suchafigure couldhavebeendifferent if thesameinquiry hadbeenmadeby someoneelsenotcloselyassociatewith theprojectstaff It was suspectedthat most of the respondentshad some slight fearsgiving out answersto such questionsas the researcherwasalmost always accompaniedby project EHA’s who for most part assisted inadministeringthequestionnairesNevertheless,someofthe respondentsdaredexpresstheirviewswithout any hindranceTo thesegroup,problemsof distanceto facility, thelong queuingtime, finance, slow flow ofwater from pumps,indiscriminatecollectionof wateraswell as land for constructionof facility (in the caseof those individualscontemplatingopting for facilities in their homes) are the main problems closelyidentifiedwith theprojectin thecommunities Of theseenumeratedproblems,financialconstraintsseemedto the major issue representing24.5% of all responses Thisproblemrelatesto the chargeslevied onwaterdrawersaswell asto thosewishingtobenefit from projectassistanceasindividuals.

47

In a communitylike Dzoanti,thestudy revealedthat therewasno fixed chargeon thequantity of waterdrawnfrom their existing borehole While someof the respondentsindicatepayingabout1000 cedis(US$ 0 45)for about330 liters drawnin a day whichis approximately3 cedis/ litre, othersindicatepaying 800 cedis(US$036) for about196 litres which is approximately4 cedis/litre Thesamesituationseemsto prevail inBame and even Tsiyenu Such inconsistenciesin user fees is perhapsone reasonunderlyingoverdrawingof waternotedby somerespondentsasproblemsconfrontingtheirwaterfacilities. An equitablewaterpricing systemis very importantto encouragebeneficiariesto usewatersustainablyand economically The other financial problemrelatesto thosewho are interestedin having project facilities installedin their homesbut are constrainedby the cash deposit required as a pre-condition for projectassistance.

Concerningotherproblemsidentifiedapartfrom finance, the long waiting time whichone oftenencounterswasone issueraisedduring the study. This factortogetherwiththe indiscriminatewatercollection problemmentionedeachrepresented3.3% of thetotal responsesgiven. The last set of problemsworth mentioningrelatesto land forconstructionof a new facility as well as distanceto existing facilities But theseproblemsseemedquite insignificant, thus representing1.7 % and 3.3 % respectivelyOn thebasisofresponsesgiven aboutproblemsconfrontingproject facilities in all thesampledcommunities,Bameseemedto havethemostfavourableconditionsrelatingtotheirexistingfacilities. Inthis community,thestudy indicatesthat asmuchas91 .7% oftherespondentshaveno problemswith their facilities On the otherend of thescale,Peki-Dzakehseemedto havea wider rangeof problemsand recordsthe least score(16.7%)for a “no problem” responseOn thewhole, conditionsrelatingto useof thecurrent facilities in the communitiesseemsfavourableand suggestsa betterfuture ifeffortsaremadeto correctthe identifiedproblems.

5.5.0 Opinions/Suggestionsof Beneficiary Communities for ProjectPerformanceand Improved Services

Successfulparticipatoryprojectmanagementdoesnot only hingeon themerephysicalinvolvementofprojectbeneficiariesin projectactivities but goesbeyondthat. Plannersand Managersof projects who run their project activities without involving thebeneficiariesoftenrun into problems.Recentmanagerialexperienceson projectperformancein many countrieshave shown that rural people’sviews and opinionsaboutproject performance,their interestsand expectations,provide useful signalstoplanners and managerswhich when taken into serious considerationpromolessuccessfulproject management.The discussionsin this section covers viewpoints,opinionsand suggestionsput forward by beneficiarycommunitiesfor the attentionofprojectmanagement(Table13)

48

Table 13 Percent Distribution of Public Opinion and Suggestionfor ImprovedServiceProvision.

Public Opinions about the DanishProject

FrequencyDistribution

Percent (%)

Project activities/facilities are good andsuitablefor ourcommunities

107 43 5

Project increases sanitation and healthawarenessin ourcommunities

38 15 4

Pleasedwith facilities provided We needmore

52 21 1

Services are of great help to ourcommunities

35 14 2

Others 14 57TOTAL 246 100.0

Public Suggestionfoi ImprovedServiceProvisionExtension of Project beyond10yrs 21 8 1Increase Health / Hygiene Education,Training, HealthPost/ Clinic Provision

64 24 6

Provision tomeetfacility costsrhmugh userfees, paymentsby installment, small scaleloansetc.

113 43.5

Reducecostoffacilities/Jncreasesubsidy 36 13 8

IncomeGeneratingactivities beprovidedinpoorercommunities 19 7 3Others 07 2 7TO TM..

260 100.0Data Source: Author’s QuestionnaireSurvey, 1997NB Totalsaremore than samplesize(240)becauseofmultiple responses

5.5.1 Public Opinion about the Danish Water ProjectAlthough the presenceof the project in the district is fairly recent, a numberofviewpointshavevariouslybeenexpressedby respondentsduring the studywhich lendscredenceto the positive impact the project is making on the lives of peoplein thecommunities Responsesgiven to questionsposedon impressions,opinionsetc havebeenvery positive A greatproportion(about43 5%)oftherespondentshaveindicatedthat projectactivitiesand facilities beingintroducedin their communitiesaregood andsuitedto theirneeds.While the remainingothers acknowledgethat project activitiesareofgreathelp to themin the communitiesandfor which reasontheydemandmoreofsuchservices,othershavestatedquite clearlythat projectactivitieshavecontributedto increasehealth, personalhygieneand sanitation awarenessamongpeoplein thedistrict In fact responsesfrom individuals in communitieswherefacilitieshavealreadybeenprovidedreflects clearly this positive view For instance,a thirty five yearoldwoman(afarmerby profession)expressedher sentimentsin thesewords

‘The Danida people have done a goodjob bygiving us water This timeonedoesnot have to walkdistancesin search of water As for me. I am advisingeve,y communitywhere the project goes toaccept it so that they can stop suffering

49

Similar sentimentshave beenexpressedin communitieswho areyet to benefit fromthe project facilities People in such communities are interestedand yearningrorproject facilities although they haveconstrainingfactors For instancea 40 year oldladyfarmerofTsrukpeDukuma,said

we have heard all that the project is doing in communities who were able to afford money for thefacility Butwe here in this communitycould not have accessto thesefacilities until now because ofmoneyproblems We are begging Danida to consider we the poorer communities”

Such are the feelings of people in the communities Many, through informationdisseminatedby the projectstaffhaveheardabouttheproject. Theyare sick andtiredofgettingup earlyin themorningonly to set themselvesup on adistantwalk in searchof water As suchthey needproject assistanceTheir handicaphowever, is lack offunds which when securedcould makethem haveaccessto project facilities The~e,indeed,areencouragingsignsshowingthatthe project hasfuture in the district Morepeople are likely to adopt project facilities once they are able to discoversuitablemeansofmeetingfacility costs

5.5.2 Public Suggestionsfor Improved ServiceDeliveryGiven the positive impressionsbuilt by thepublic aboutthe DanishWater Projecttheyhavecomeup with numeroussuggestionswhich in theirjudgmentcouldgo a long wayto enhanceserviceprovision and also promotetheir interest (table 13) As clearlyindicatedin that table, about43 5% of thepeopleindicatedthat theironly setbacktoadoptingthe householdprojectfacilities is finance To this end, they are of the viewthat if project managementcan grant them a concessionto meet cost of projectfacilities by meansof installmentpayments,small loansschemesor by meansof u~erfees (in the particular case of the public facilities) many interested individuals/communitieswill adoptprojectfacilities Besidethis categoryof suggestions,13 ~%of the respondentsare also advocating an incrementin the currentlevel of subsidyprovidedby the project to assistbeneficiarycommunities This group acknowled~esthat the currentlevel of subsidyprovided reducestheir financial burdens However,theyareoftheview that furthersubsidizationbeyondthecurrentlevel would easethefinancial burden sufficiently for most peopleto adoptthe facilities Added to theseviews, someothergroupshaveadvancedsomemoreviews ofaddressingthe financialproblem This group which representsjust about 7 3% are advocating for theestablishmentof small-scaleincomegeneratingactivities along side project activil.i esfor small groupsto boost their economicstatus. This suggestionsis basedon thepremisethat sucha venturewill enhancethefinancial capability of the poorand thussolvethe issueof the lack of finance which currently appearsto be the main limitingfactorsto projectfacility adoption.

While the precedinggroupsconcentratetheir suggestionsaroundfinancial solutions,othershold different viewpoints For instance,someother 246%of the respondentsbelievedthat the project activities and performancein the district can be improvedthroughincreasedhealthandhygieneeducation,usingvideo showsto further promotepublic health awareness This opinion underscoresthe impact of the educationalactivitiescarriedoutby theEHA’s in thecommunities,at leaston thehealthawareness

50

front The very fact that people have been able to recognize increased healtheducational activities as a facilitating factor for effective project performance isevidenceof the fact that the level of awarenessin increasing This is illustration ofinnovationdiffusion oneexpectsin the contextofa projectlike this (fig 3) Therearesomeindividualswho alsobelievethat Danidashouldconsiderestablishinghealthpostsin thecommunitiesaspartoftheir projectactivities Thelogic behindthis is that somesuch action is necessaryto compensatefor the inadequatelevel of health facilityprovision in the communities It is acknowledgedthat suchan extensionof activityimposesan extrafinancialburdenon thedonor However,should it becomepracticableit couldconstituteamorecomprehensivehealthpromotingstrategy.

Thelastgroup’ssuggestions relateperhapsto thefearof losingmuch oftheperceivedbenefits of the project should the project assistanceend after the 10 year projectperiod This groupwhich represents8.1%pleadfor an extensionof theprojectperiodbeyond 10 years so that, morepeoplecanmanageto seek out alternativesourcesoffunding to enablethemgo in for the facilities Arguably, all thesearegood indicatorsof the relevanceof the projectin the district, and theytend to justify the investmentsbeing made in this project. There is therefore the need for policy makers andmanagementof the Danishprojectto reconsiderthesesuggestionsto seeif thereis away of addressingsomeof the suggestionsoutlined hereinto enhance the projectsimpact in the communities Notwithstandingall these,some respondentshave alsoidentified a few more practical issueswhich relate particularly to current managerialstrategyadoptedby theproject in thecommunities Someofthesearethat

• morepeoplebe trained in the repair ofBoreholesandconstructionoflatrine in thecommunities• existingwasteanddumpinggroundsin thecommunitiesbeimproved• health andhygiene educatorsbe trained in everycommunity who can solelybe responsiblefor

issues• public toiletsbeconstructedandplacedunder thecare ofthe eldersfor effectiveresponsibility• project deposits be collected/mobilizedduring the major crop harvestseasonssince that is the

periodoftheyearwhenmostofthepeoplemakesomeincomefrom saleoftheir crops

In summary,theserepresentarangeofsuggestionsput forwardby communitieswhichtheybelievecould help raisethelevel ofserviceprovisionin the district Someofthemundoubtedly cannot be met given currently existing policies which guide projectactivities in the district However some contain some elementsof substanceandrelevancewhich when consideredmore seriously could yield greater impacts andeffective project performancein the district It is thereforeappropriatefor projectmanagementto explorefurther into thosetheyconsidermoreplausibleto seehow besttheycanbe addressedto servenot only the immediateneedsofbeneficiaries,but alsothe long termgoalsoftheproject.

51

5.5.3 The Impact and Prospectsof the Danish Water Project in the

Kpando District

IntroductionWe noted in discussionsunder section5 4 0 that the estimatedpopulation of iheKpandoDistrict asat thetime of launchingoftheprojectwas l29,9l6(opcit, 1995)Discountingtherateofincreasein populationweestimatehoweverthat 34.5%of thispopulation would haveaccessto facilitiesprovidedby the projectby Junethis year(i.ewithin2½yearsof operation since theprojectwaslaunched) On thebasisof this i-ateof coverage,and also holding all other factors constant,we hypothesisedthat theentiretyof the abovenoted total populationof the district would be coveredwithin7 25 yearsfrom the dateof initial launchingofthe project Thusby theend ofmarchoftheyear2001 almosttheentireofthe populationwould haveaccessto drinking watersupply Indeed,thispicturebackedby therateof progressimplies a lot andwould havesignificant implicationsfor thesocio-economicandhealthlives ofpeoplein thedistrictasdiscussedbelow

Socio-EconomicandHealth Impactsof theProjectSeveralsocio-economicimpactsareenvisagedfor the peopleofKpandoDistrict underthe currentrural waterand sanitationproject However, thesebenefitsand impactshold special relevancefor mothersand children who arethe main water collectorsincommunities as discussionsin this section will illustrate(fig 5) We noted indiscussionsin the earlier chaptersthat women aswell as children constitutea greatproportionofwaterdrawersin most Third World countries.This situation(positiveJistypical also for communitiesin the studyareawherewomenand childrenoccupysuichpositions It implies thereforethat all the difficulties one goesthroughin searchofwater in communitieswhereaccessibilityis difficult aswell asthe negativeeffectsofsucha situationarecloselyassociatedwith them. For instance,in communitieswherecleanpotablewateris not accessible,womenoftenhaveto getup earlyin themorr~ngand walk distancesto collect water from streamsand rivers which are often farremovedfrom theircommunities The consequenceis that many hoursare spent dailyon such activities which could have beenspent profitably on other activities It isagainst this backgroundthat the currentwaterproject launchedin the district and itsassociated activities are considered to have tremendous impacts in providing a betterquality ofpeoplein thedistrict

In theparticularcaseofchildren, successfulprovisionofpotablewaterin communitieswill imply that lesstime would bespentdaily on commutingdistanceson foot in searchof water With suchan advantage,latenessto schoolwhich in some casesresult indrop-out rateswill be lowered, and more devotion of time on educationcould bepromotedUndersuchcircumstances,childrencanconcentratetheirtime on educatiion,improve their educationalstatuswhich in the final analysisputs them in a betterpositionfor better future job prospectsand its associatedimproved quality of LifeAddedto this, one envisagesaswell that teenagepregnancywhich is oftenassociatedwith schooldropoutsresultingfrom latenessdueto watercollectioncould be reducedwith greaterconcentrationon education.

52

FIg 5 SOCIO-ECOWOMICIMPACTSASSOCIATEDWITH SAFEPOTABU~WATER SIWPZ~YffiTHEKPANDO DISTRICT

4-

Reduction ofWater RelatedDisease

ImprovedHealthStatus

Lower Daily Hours Spent on Water Search

More Timefor Economic Activities

ImprovedEconomic Status

‘I,BETTER QUALITY OF LIFE

The specialbenefitsto womenarenot too divorced from that describedfor childrenMuch like the children, it is envisagedthat womenwill also, underthe watersupplyscheme,enjoy the privilege of spendinglesser time and effort on water collectionInstead,with portablewaterfacility provision in the communities,many useful hourswhichotherwise would havebeenspenttravelingdistancesin searchofwaterwould bedevotedto their incomegenerating activities like trading, farming etc Devotion oftime to suchactivities will promotetheireconomicbase,bring additional incomethatcould facilitate a better quality of life for them It becomesevident thereforethat thelaunchingof the waterproject in the district provides many socio-economic benefitsfor beneficiaries It helps reducewater relateddiseases,improvethe healthstatusof

THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPACTOF SAFE AN])ACCESSIBLE

DRINKING WATER PROVISION

Special Benefitsto Children-Less Daily Hours Spent on WaterSearch’LowSchoolDrop-Out

-Concentration on Education-ImprovedEducatianal Status!BetterEmployment Opportunities

Special Benefitsto Mothers-Less Daily Hours Spent on Water Search-More Time Devoted toEconomic andotherActivities-ImprovedFinancial Status

53

beneficiaries,re-divertstime wastedon water searchinto more useful economicarideducationalactivities All these should culminate in enhancing the education arideconomic status of children and adults, andultimately promotea betterquality of lifefor people in theDistrict

54

CHAPTER SIXDISCUSSIONOF MAJOR FINDINGS

6.1.0 IntroductionThis study is intended to be a small-scaleevaluation carried out to sensitizemanagementofDanishWaterProjectaboutits perceiveddirectionandperformanceinthedistrict A benefit inherentin this sort of study is that findings documentedhereincan be comparedandcontrastedwith the projectmanagement’sown observed trends.This way, managementwould be in a better position to synchronize relevant findings,

to guide future strategyadjustments for a sustainable and effectiveservicedelivery inthedistrict While, the study setsout to achievethis objectiveby exploringa numberof issues,it recognizes thatsuchan evaluationstudyideally embracesabroadspectrumof issuesranging from technical to administrativeissues But owing to time andfinancial constraints the study limits itself to pertinent socio-economic andenvironmentalissueswhich impinge on managementand administrativeaspectsof theproject

Major issuescontainedthereforein this report include a generalappraisalof thesocio-economiccharacteristicsof the study area, focusingon environmental,water,sanitationconditions, and other public health conditions in the area With theseasrelevantbackground,the study examinesthe rationaleand objectivesof the DanishWater Project. It discussesproject facilities provided in the district; their spatialdistributionaswell asserviceutilization in the district At every level of discussion,attemptshavebeenmadeto incorporatesustainabilitydemandsand how that featuresin relevantcomponentsof the project activities In this regard, public participationwhich standsout asamajoraspectof sustainablewaterprojectmanagementwas dulyconsidered.Projectfacility usewithin the study communitieswas also investigatedtodetermine how associated behaviouralpatternsaffect sustainableprojectmanagementFinally, the study investigatedpublic opinions as well asperceptionsabouttheprojectand relatesit to its future sustainanceIn line with this, problemsconfronting theproject largely from the viewpoint of the public were also investigated.And, on thebasis of thefindings discovered,usefulrecommendationsweregivenon how to resolveproblemstowardsamoreeffectiveandsustainableservicedeliveryin thedistrict

6.1.1 Major FindingsA number of findings, most of which confirm the suitability ofapproachesadoptedbythe DanishWaterProjectwereunearthedby the presentstudy That notwithstanding,thereare someother pertinent issues whichdeservea critical look for a moreeffectiveprojectresultsor impactsto be felt Thefirst categoryof findings relateto perceivedproblems which in the opinion of community members, currently affect serviceutilization and in some other respectsfacility adoption in the district One of thehypothesisunderlyingthis study is thefinancialfactor is a majorconstraintto serviceutilization and adoptionin the district, rather than the low levelof educationamongcommunitymembers To assessthis, the structuredquestionnaireusedin the surveyexploredinto the diversity of problemsencounteredin the study area(section5 4 1)Meanwhile, results have indeedconfirmed finance as the most paramount factor(representing about 24 2 %) of all majorproblemsindicatedwhich currentlyconfront

55

and is likely to affect future facility use in the communitiesif not addressedearlyenough(table13) With theexceptionofPekiDzakeh,almostall respondentsidentifiedfinance asthe most critical factor affectingthem, althoughtheextentof perceptionoffinance as a seriousconstrainingfactor varies acrossthe communities An interviewsessionheldwith the District Engineerrevealedthat attemptshavealwaysbeenmadeto cushion financial burdenswith regards to facility provision Currently, projectfacilities are subsidizedto the extentthat communitiesarerequiredto meetonly 5% ofthe total cost of the facilities, whiles the project bearsthe remainingcost Table 14showsthe variousproportionsof cost which communitiesareexpectedto bearwii,hregardsto thevariousfacilitiesunderthe current5% subsidylevel

Tab’e 14 Cost Estimatesfor theWater Facilities Provided.

Type of Facility EstimatedCost S % proportion to be bornebjcommunities

BorehoLe+ Hwulpump 12 million cedis(USD5454) 600 000 cedis(USD273)

Borehole+ElectricPump 40 million CedIS(USD18181) 2 million cedis(IJSD909) -—

Borehole+SoiarArray 60 million cedis(USD27272) 3 million cedis(USD1364)

Spring/Rain Catchment 20 million cedis(USD9091) 1 million cedis(USD456) -—

SourceAuthor’sQuestionnaireSurvey,1997 NB CurrentExchangeRate.1USD= 2200Cedis

Indeed,provision of suchfacilities at sucha subsidizedprice is undoubtedlycheapWith some form of cooperationcommunities should be able to raise funds ~aappropriatemeansto financeat leastone of thesefacilities But given the pervadingpovertylevel, to think that mostindividualscanafford to pay for the provisionofthesefacilities at sucharateis quitefar from reality In thewakeofsuchapervasivepovertypeoplein suchrural communitiesplacedifferentvalueson money For instance,peopilemight find it somehoweconomicallyirrational to sacrifice as muchas600.000(LJS]D273)for aboreholewith a handpump.For mostruralwomen,suchan amountis morethan enough to provide them with about 12000 bags(5Okg)of rice which cancomfortablyput themin a retail selling businessand earnthemeconomiclivelihood inthelong run. This is the plight of the rural poor and it is also the factor that guideseconomicdecisionmakingespeciallywhenit comesto payingmoneyfor a facility suchaswater This doesnot, however,meanthattheydo not seetheusefulnessofhavingacleanpotablewater The cruxofthe issuerevolvesmorearoundvaryingvalues.

So far, for most peopleeconomicsurvival is primary,with other issuesoccupyingasecondarypositionin daily lives In sucha circumstance,it might bemoreappropriatethereforeto encourageand concentrateenergieson communityfacility provision atleastfor the moment,while interestedindividuals seekout a more suitableway ofraising funds to meet costsfor suchfacilities Meanwhile, the generalbelief amoingcommunitymembersis that if projectmanagementcanaddressthe financiallimitaticnvia eg increasingthelevelofsubsidy;allowingpaymentfor facilities by installmentsor even implementingsomeform of income generationactivity alongside projectactivities, the crisescanbe reducedasthe services of theunemployedcanbe engagedin such projectsto enablethem improve their presentfinancial base and opt furfacilities with ease So far it appearsthe latter of the proposedstrategiessuggested

abovelies morein the interestof mostrespondentsAs suchit might benecessaryformanagementto givesomethoughtto it andseehowfeasibleit canbe

Equally related to the financial factor is the issue of unequalrates for wateruse(przcing)asfar asexistingBoreholesareconcernedAs indicatedin thediscussions,thereis a needfor devisingan alternativeandappropriatepricing systemto ensurethateveryonepays a fee proportional to the quantity of water drawn This could beachievedby enforcinga policy which allows eachand every communityto determinewhat amount people should pay for quantitiesof water drawn For instance, thevarioussizesof bucketsor bowls normally usedfor watercollection in the villagesshouldbe priceddifferently to correspondto volumeof watertheycancontain By thisarrangement,thepracticeof indiscriminatewater collectionfrom tapsas identifiedwithsome communitiescan be reduced.However, this strategycanwork out effectively,only if someoneis assignedthe responsibility of checkingwater drawn to ensurecompliance

Theissueofaccessibility(proximity)alsoreceiveda seriousexaminationin thestudyasit hasoften beenconsideredasone importantfactor influencingrural people’swaterusebehaviourpattern But, resultsfrom the presentstudy suggestratherthe contraryin the context of this Water project Infact, over half (55%) of the respondentsinterviewedindicatedclearly that theyhave easyaccessto existing water facilities inthe communities.However,sucha positive responseseemsto prevail more in somecommunitiesthanothers.Communitieswith thestrongestpositivepercentageresponseto easy accessibility are Yordanu, Sanga, Tsiyenu and Agbateh According to thesurveymostpeoplein thesecommunitiesspendlessthan30 minutesto accesswaterintheircommunities,althoughthe populationsof mostofthesecommunitiesarerelativelyhigherthanthat ofother villages Suchan accessibilitymight perhapsbe attributedtolocationofthe facility within points of easyreachwhich underscoresthe relevanceoflocational efficiency or proximity in waterpoint selection.Locatingwater points inplacesof easy accessin thesecommunitieshasa time saving advantagewith otherassociatedbenefitsaspeoplemight commituseful time savedinto otheractivities Onthe other hand,thelongestaccessibilitytime indicated was associatedwith Dzigbeyand Dzoanti In these communities, about 83% of the people indicated spendingbetween30 minutes and One Hour to get accessto water However, this timedurationby all standardscan still be consideredwithin appreciablelimits sinceit doesnot constituteanyseriousinhibiting factorto wateruse

Dueto policy andthe demand-drivenapproachadoptedasa working frame, facilitiesarenot distributeduniformly overthe district asonemight expect Many communitieshaveone, two or at mostthreewaterpointson which theydepend,which in practicaltermsis inadequate.As suchonewould expectand acceptsuchtime framesasnormal,giventhe populationsservedby thesefacilities and also the locationof the facilities inrelationto existinghousesIt is howeverexpectedthatwith time morefacilitieswill beaddedto currentlyexistingonesin theeffectedcommunitiesasmore suitablemeansoffunding facility provisionarediscoveredto enablecommunitiesopt for morefacilities.

57

Anotherissueofinterestto the authorwasto fmd out how thedistribution of projectfacilities couldhavean impacton waterandenvironmentalrelatedmorbidity patters.Itbecameclear from the study that project facilities are still to reach communiuiesidentifiedashavinghigh vulnerability to BilharziaandotherwaterrelateddiseasesForinstance, communities such as Agbenoxoe, Fesi and Todome which have beenidentified to have a close association with Bilharzia deserve more seriousattention(Nielsenand Rasmussen,1997) Strict adherenceto demand-drivenprincipleswhich necessarilyrelies on the expression of interest and initial initiative ofbeneficiariesmight meanthat suchcommunitieswould haveto live with their situationsuntil requirementsfor project assistanceare met Practically, such an event mightweakenthefundamentalgoalsofthe projectif suitablestepsarenot takento stimulateinterest of people in those communities in the project facilities Further to this,previousstudieshaveequallyreportedtheprevalenceof IntestinalHelminth infectionsin communities living around the shoresof the Volta Lake Yet, the behaviouralpracticesof children in the areascoveredby the presentstudy in terms of persorialhygieneis quite not satisfactory,giving causefor oneto suspectthe existenceof suchinfectionsin thesecommunitiesaswell Thereis thereforethe needfor the EHA’s tointensify theireducationalactivities in thesecommunities.Further to this, it would bemoreappropriateif an exploratorystudy canbeconductedinto theincidenceoftheseand otherwater related diseasesacrossthe entire district for the attention of theproject managementBesides,sucha study could serve as a useful epidemiologicaldatabasefor project planning The presentstudy did not delve into suchexploratorystudies But, it hopesthat at leastsomeform of monitoringmeasuresarebeingtakento discoveroccurringincidenceof such diseasesin the project area This way, oneexpectsthat in eventof any detectedtrait of the disease’sincidencein any communityproject managementcan collaboratewith the availableappropriatehealth institutionswithin the district to apply chemotherapictreatment and snail control(usingmolluscicidesandeffectiveenvironmentalmanagement)practicesasrecommendedbytheWorld HealthOrganization(WHO,1993)

Other categoriesofproblemsidentified in connectionwith waterfacility provision aredistance,queuing time, and the slowflow of water. However, thesearevery raresituationsprevailing in somefew communities.But, it will be equally importantfbrmanagementto look into theseissuesto see the extent of the problemfor furtheraction. Notwithstandingthese identified problemshowever, the general impressionconveyedby the study is that communities do not encountertoo many seriousproblemswith thewaterfacilitiesper se Thusany observedproblem is likely to relatemore to people’s behaviourin accessingthe water facilities - a situation that caneffectively be controlledby useof institutional and administrativechannels In fact,this position is further confirmedby asmuch as64.2% of respondentsindicating nothaving any seriousproblemwith the water facilities. But, this doesnot constituteenoughjustification for anyoneto relaxandassumethat all is well andwill continue1.0

remain as such The implementationof the project in the district is still in its earlystagesThuswithout consistenteffectiveactionto monitorthe occurrenceof thesearidsubsequentproblems,the pictureis likely to changeastheproject progressesits waytowardsthelater stagesof its implementation.

58

The final category of major findings identified in the study relate topublic/environmentalhealth behaviouralpractices of people in communities Itbecameevident from the study that althoughpublic educationalactivities are beingprovidedby the projectEHA’s throughtheir educationalactivities,peoplesperceptionof what constitutegood or hygienically appropriatepracticeis still very low in thecommunities This, togetherwith the alreadymentionedproblemof lack of adequatefacilities result in inappropriatepracticessuchasindiscriminatedumpingof waterandhouseholdwastein andaroundtheneighborhoodsofsomevillagesasindicatedin table8 and 9 There is therefore the need for a continuos intensive environmentaleducationalactivities to ensurethat the messageseepsdeeperto affect a changeinbehaviouralpractices.In this connection,it would be very rewarding if EHA’ssecondedto theprojectaregivenmuchthesameopportunitiesto attendshortcourses,conferencesand seminarsasoften astheir other staffcolleaguesdo to acquaintthemwith currentstrategieson how to get around educationalactivities and thus tackleidentified problemsmore effectively Water supply provision alone is not enoughtoaddressthe waterand sanitationcrises A well organizedand consistenteducationalprogrammesis neededin communities to sensitize vulnerable groups about theimportanceof good behavioural practicesthat relate to water use and personalhygiene Sucha measurewill facilitatethe diffusion innovationprocessof the projectfacilities. It is hopedthat findings documentedin this report will receivethe neededattentionto steertheprojectona strongersustainablecoursefor abetterquality of lifefor peoplein thedistrict.

59

CHAPTER SEVENRECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIoN

7.1.0 IntroductionThis sectionpresentsanumberof practicalapproacheswhich whenappliedcouldhelpcorrectsomeoftheproblemsidentifiedin thestudy.

7.1.1 Finance andLand FactorSincefinancehasbeenrecognizedclearlyasthemostpressingproblemlimiting projectbeneficiaries,it would be importantto reconsideran appropriatefinancing mechanismpertinent to eachcommunity, either through researchor consultativemeetingoii acommunity level, in the generalcontextofthe solutionsproposedby the communit~es(section5 5 0) But while doingthat, specialfocusneedsto be given alsoto devisingan equitablemeansof imposing fees (relatedmore to volume than fixed rates) forwater-use.This will helpcheckthepracticeofindiscriminatewatercollection identifiedin the affectedcommunities Addedto this, WatsanCommitteesshouldbevestedwithoverridingpowersto denyaccessto thosewho refuseto complystrictly with thetermsand conditionsunderwhich water facilities areto be used With regardsto the landproblem identifiedin somecommunitiesasa limiting factorto latrinefacility adoption,it would equallybe importantto arrangeconsultativemeetingswith communitychiefsand eldersto identify appropriatemeansof altering existing laws related to landacquisitionto favour those membersof communities who demonstrateinterest infacilitiesbut are constrainedby the land factor

7.1.2 Public/CommunityEducationThenegativebehaviouralpracticesobservedin communitiesasregardssanitationaridwater, calls for a more comprehensiveapproach to the environmentallpubticeducationalcomponentof the project activities To activatesuch an approachonemight considerthe involvement of local religious leadersin addition to the agentsofchangealready being used in the communities Recent experiencein typical ruralcommunities where religion usually dominatesand as it were vibrant suggest t h~atreligiousleaderscanequallyserveasuseful catalystsin educatingthe public By theirvery natureandoffice they assumeand exhibit authoritywhich by doctrinalteachings,their adherentsneither questionnor challenge This way, they can easily mobilizecommunities towards a common goal since their voices are often respected.Forinstance,within the NorthKigezi DioceseWaterProgrammein Rukungiri-Uganda,3nimpressiveimpact was witnessedby adopting this approach(IRC,1994) A similarorganizationalexperiencewas identified with the Yordanucommunity in the projectarea In this communityalmost every memberbelongsto theWhite CrossReligiousSect which dominatethe area And, becausethe churchleadersare all aligned to theWatsanCommittee,thereis aneffectiveorganizationalnetworkwhich greatlyfacilitateactivities of the project there Mwami(1995) arguesin favour of this strategybypointing out its two basic inherent advantagesfirst that, mobilizing communitiesthroughreligious leaderstends to be cheaper(cost-wise)than employing a separatemobilizer, second,that theresultantimpactsarebound to last longer sincethe churchasan institution is permanent,at leastin theforeseeablefuture

‘so

It might thereforebe importantto explorethe possibility of suchnetworkingin othercommunitiesto seehowtheapproachmight work out in favourofthe WaterProjectintheDistrict

7.1.3 Future ResearchandStudiesIn recognitionofthe fact that facility provisionalonewithout changesin attitudesandbehaviourof beneficiariesdoes not promote the successof water and sanitationprojects,Loung T V(1995)outlinedcertainsalientissueswhich areaswell vital for thefuture sustainability of the DanishWater and Sanitationproject and other relatedprojects Key amongtheserecommendationswhichrelateparticularlyto latrine facilityprovisionare

• periodicresearchto generate relevant informationfor sustainedbehaviouralchangeandfurtherimprovementin technologyandenvironmentalsafety

• mappingof top soil conditionsandgroundwaterlevel in the district to indicate geologicalandgeographicallocationswherepit lining is essential

• Further studiescould also be concentratedon developingpit lining technologiesusing locally

availablematerialsfor cost-effectiveness.

For instancein Bangladesh,burnt claysrings arebeingusedsuccessfullyfor pit liningas well as for the lining of dug out wells. Clay as a locally available material is inrelatively abundancein theKpandodistrict wheretheDanishWaterprojectoperatesItmight thereforebe necessaryfor managementto explore further into its use in theexisting technologiesto reducematerial cost involved in the latrine facility provisionConcerningenvironmentalsafety, a groundwater monitoring studyonpollution riskfrom pit latrine could be conductedto ensurethat existing technologiesin use incommunitiesarein conformity with acceptableenvironmentalstandards.

7.1.4 Concluding RemarksThecontentand structureofthe project strategiesadoptedby the DanishWater andSanitationproject are very much in line with sustainabiitydemands.Public opinionabouttheproject is alsoremarkablyhigh and very encouragingBut, themost criticalissue discoveredfrom the presentstudy which needs seriousattention relatestofinance Objectively speaking, as alreadynoted in the preceedingdiscussions,thecurrentsubsidylevel on communitywaterfacilities which allows beneficiariesto payonly 5 % of costof facility is quite low. If this level of costhastruly beendeterminedin consultationwith communitiesas one would expect as an elementunder a publicparticipationstrategy,then it is a little bit doubtful if waterprovisionis thetop-mostpriority ofthe people.It is without doubtthatpotablewateris amongthepriorities ofthe peoplein the district But perhapsin the meantime,the first priority of somecommunitiesmight be somethingelsethanwater Onewondersif communitieshavegiven the correct signal to project plannerswhat their top-most priority is Forinstance,the inability of a community to pay a cost of 600 000 cedis (USD 273)representinga 5 % shareofthe estimatedtotal cost of aBoreholewith a Handpumpcastsa bit ofdoubt if theycould be ableto raisemoneyto sustainthe facility overalong time at theendof theprojectperiod

61

Ideally, one thinkssucha cost(if spreadover theentirepopulationof a village) shouldnot poseany difficulty. But, it is surprisingto notein thepresentstudy thatpeoplestillareexpectingan increasein thesubsidylevel thatcouldmakethempay somethingevenlower thanthe current5% share Really, theseobservationsare quite critical for thefuturesustainabilityoftheprojectand deservesa seriousconsiderationin futurepo]icyrevisions The World Bank and a numberexpertshavetakenkeen interest in theproblemsoffinancing rural/communitywatersupplies,particularly in thethird worLdAs partofthe interestand commitmentto seekingsolutionsto the problem,theWorldBank Water DemandResearchTeam(1993) conductedstudiesinto the determinantsand policy implications which affect water demandin Zimbabwe and some otherdevelopingcountries Their study pointed out that effectivepolicies and planning forwaterfacilities musttakeinto accountwhat rural clientswant and arepreparedto payfor if sustainabilityof the facility is the long-term goal. In view of this, they haveprovided insights into how to decide what level of service is appropriatefor aparticularcommunityand how the improved servicesshould be paid for The teamidentified four(4) broad categoriesof village situations, with appropriatepoliciesrangingfrom the provision of houseconnectionsat full cost at one extreme,to noimprovementin traditional suppliesat the other extreme.The four types of villagecategorieswith theirpolicy measuresareasfollows.

Village Category I : High willingnesstopayfor private connections;low willingnessto payfor public taps

Village CategoryII: Fewwilling topayfor thefull costofprivate connections;the majority willing topayfor thefull costofpublic taps

Village Category III: Householdsarewilling topayfor improvedservice,

but improvementis verycostly

Vifiage Category IV: Low willingnessto payfor improvedservices.

The World BankResearchTeamoutlinedparticularpolicy measuresworth applying incommunitiescharacterisedby such financial problemsdependinga scale. So far, itappearsthe problemwith regardsto inability to pay for servicesin the study ateacould be classified under category ifi and IV Thus, it might be important fixmanagementto determinewhich villages fall under the categoriesand to considerapplying policy measuresprescribedunder such categories.For instance, withincommunitieswherehouseholdsarewilling to pay for improvedservices,but considerimprovementcost asbeingtoo high, theBanknotesthatdevisinganappropriatepolicyis not easy It recommends,amongothers,that the dominantlevel of servicemust bepublic taps,with privateconnectionto the few householdswho arewilling to pay thefull cost The team also recommendsmetering of all private connectionsas beingessential It notes further that a tariff structurebe adopted,while cautioningat thesametime that applicationof sucha structureand otherwater regulationsshould bedesigned,not to discourageconnectedhouseholdsfrom selling water to neighbours.However, it adds also that in applying thesemeasureseffort should be made todiscouragebeneficiariesfrom profiting unduly from their connections. But, given Ihepovertylevel of mostpeoplein the studycommunity, it is difficult to determineat ~hisstage,whethertheserecommendationscan easilybe applied in communitiesclassified

62

undercategoryIll All the same,managementmight haveto investigatethe suitabilityoftheseprescriptionsto seehowtheycouldcontributeto solving theproblem

On the financing side, the team notesthat it is appropriatethat any policy measureadopted recognize first, that the sum of outside resources available to suchcommunitiesfrom bothinternalandexternalsourcesis insufficient to meetthe long listof their needsand, secondthat households’needswill bebestmet if they are able toallocatetheir limited resourcesto the projectstheyconsidermost important In otherwords, outside agenciesand donors should not take it upon themselvesto decidewhich projects(suchaswater) areof highestpriority for communities if subsidizeddevelopmentfundsareavailable,communitiesshouldthemselvesallocatesuchfundstotheneedstheydeemmostimportant.The presentstudydid not investigatethe extentto whichtheseissueswereappliedin communitiesalreadybenefitingfrom theproject’sassistanceIt assumedthat recognitionwasgiven to theseissues But, if theywerenottakeninto accountin previousactivities thenmanagementmayhaveto considergivingspecialattentionto investigatingsuchissuesin its futureplanningactivities

With regardsto communitieswhich indicatelow willingnesstopayfor improvedwaterservices(categoryIV) the Bank notesthat it is not feasibleto recoverthe costsofeither public taps or private connectionsprovided them A fundamentalproblem,undersucha conditionasobservedin theZimbabweancasestudy, is that peoplewouldpay very little for improved servicesboth in absolutetermsand as a proportion ofincome.Besides,it had beendeterminedthat in thosecommunitiestherearesimply nofinancially viable options for improving rural watersupply at the presenttime Thus,providingimprovedsuppliesis not likely to induceany substantialchangein economicactivity or any multiplier effect This situationconstitutesa big challengeand oftenputsproject plannersandmanagersin a dilema Often, the dominantresponseof manydonorsand governmentsin the pasthasbeento step in and subsidizeas is currentlyhappeningunderthe DanishWater Supply Programme.Severalpastexperienceswithwater projectshave shown that such a strategyhasbeena dismal failure as manyfacilities provided under this kind of subsidized arrangement in category IVcommunitieshavefallen into disrepair,and no one in those communitiescaresmuchaboutmaking themoperationalThebroken-downpumpsin thestudy areawhich arenow taken over by by the Danish Water Project under its current HandpumpConversionProgrammeareillustrationsoftheeventualresultofsuchsubsidization

Takingcognizanceofsuchpotentialdangersinherentin subsidizingwaterprojects,theimmediatetask would be ensuringthat current facilities being provided under theDanishWater doesnot suffer similar consequences.The World BankWater DemandResearchTeam,(1993)is of the view that, the most appropriatepolicy strategy incommunitiesconfrontedwith suchproblemsdescribedundercategoryIV villages is torecognizethat the communities are in the best position to decide how availablesubsidiesshouldbeused.Theexpertteamconcludesthat, improvedwaterservicesarenot a high a high priority in categoryIV communities Perhaps,theyhaveother,morepressing needs for clinics, schools, etc as was indeed reflected in some of thesuggestionsgivenby respondentsfor improvedservicesin thestudyarea(tablel3)

63

In subsequentproject planning activities, managementneedsto critically assessth’~seissuesandinvestigatemorecarefullythe willingnessof communitiesto pay for facilitiesasa reflectionoftheir interest All theseare partoftheadaptationofproject’s dema-iddriven strategyto suit socio-economicconditions mentionedlater in this sectionHowever, if after having consideredall theseissuesin consultationwith communili esduring theplanningstageand a communitystill fails to demonstrateconvincingly theirwiffingnessto pay, theunpalatableconclusion~in thewordsof theWorld BankTeam)wouldbe to deferprovisionand improvementin watersupplyuntil theyarewanted Inthemeantime,in suchcommunitiesthe project should concentrateavailableresourceson higher-priority needs But where it becomesquite clear that, economic Lifeimprovementis thetop-mostpriority of communitiesnotwilling to adoptthefadiiti Cs,thenthereis theneedto seriouslyconsiderinstitutingsomeform ofvillage level small-scaleeconomicactivitiesto assistthepoorestofthepoorin someofthe communitiesSuch an activity could, for instance,be a small scalevegetableirrigation fanning incommunitiesliving alongthe shoresoftheVoltaLakeor any activity bestsuitedto theprevailing socio-economicconditionsof thevillages. As notedabove,it might also bemore appropriate to adapt the demand driven policy to reflect the existingsocioeconomicconditionsofparticularcommunities For instance,the demanddrivenapproachcouldbe applied less rigidly in communitiesliving aroundthe shoresof theVolta Lake where thereare evidenceof prevailing water relateddiseases.In thosecommunities, if possible, the project could allow some degreeof flexibility in itsdemand-drivenapproachby rathertaking a greaterinterestin exciting the drive ~indinterestin the peoplethere Rigid adherenceto the demand-drivenprincipleswithoutsomedegreeof flexibility in suchcommunitiesmight meanthat theywill becut out ofserviceandthe diseaseswouldcontinueto prevail,thuserodingoneof thefundamentalgoalsoftheDanishWaterProject.

Effectiveplanning andconsequentsustainabilityof a projectdependsalso on the storeof new informationconcerningchangingtastes,and interestsof beneficiaries To thisend, there is the need for project managementto consider making Continuousevaluationandresearchadynamiccomponentof its strategiesThis will enableit keepto pacewith future changingtrends which will certainly unfold as the projectprogressesFor instance,an important future researchinto morbidity and mortalitypatternsin the rural communities could help determinehow much influence thepresenceof theproject’sexistencein theDistrict is having on suchindicators Suc]h afinding would provide some further sense of direction and focus to projectmanagementin its future planning activities. Lastly, since it is envisagedthat theproject will be handedover to local managementafterthe project periodthereis theneed to place emphasison local manpowerdevelopmentto ensure its effectivemanagementafterthe projectperiod It hopedthat findings documentedin this reportwill be given dueconsiderationfor a more effectiveproject planningand management.In themeantime,one could concludeon the basisof findings in the study, albeit therelatively early stageof the project, that it hasall the potentialsof becominga verysustainableprojectin theKpandoDistrict

64

BIBLIOGRAPHY

APPAWU et al 1994): SpeciesComposition and Inversion Polymorphismof theAnophelesgambiaeComplexin someSitesof Ghana WestAfrica Acta Trop

BUAM. W.C(1994): TheProjectCycle. IBRD/World Bank.Washington,DC

BERENDT .N AN]) RASMTJSSEN(1997): Appraisal of the Health Situation inSelectedVillagesin theVolta Region-Ghana

BRUTLAND(1987): Our CommonFuture. World Commissionon EnvironmentandDevelopment

CAIRNCROSSet at (1985):Evaluationfor Village Water SupplyPlanning IRC TheHague,Netherlands

CHAVA .F. AND NACHMIAS D. (1996): ResearchMethods in the SocialSciences

CHIT KY AND VANDERBURG J.A(1976):Techniquesfor EstimatingDensitiesofBalinus truncatusrohlfsi and its Horizontal Distribution in the Volta Lake GhanaBulletin WHO 54

CENTER FOR OUR COMMON FUTURE(1994): The Earth’s Summit Agendafor Change.-A PlainLanguageVersionofAgenda21 andotherRio Agreements.

DERBAN L.K.A. (1975): SomeEnvironmentalHealth ProblemsAssociatedwithIndustrialdevelopmentin Ghana

DISEASE CONTROL UNIT,KPANDO DISTRICT(1995):UnpublishedData

ECHIEVERRIA ET AL(1993): Flies as a Source of Enteric Pathogenin RuralVillagesin Thailand. Appi Environ.Microbiol 46(1)

GHANA ENVIRONMENTAL ACTION PLAN. VOL.1(1989): EnvironmentalProtectionCouncilWorking Document,Ghana

IIRC(1994): TowardsBetterWater ResourcesManagementA CatalogueofPoliciesand StrategiesofExternalSupportAgencies

KHIEN NWE Oo et at (1989): CarnageofEntericBacterialPathogensby Housefliesin Yangon.MyanmarJ DiarrhoealDis Research7(3&4)

65

KLUMPP AND CHU K.Y(1977): Ecological Studies of Bulinus rohlfsi - theIntermediateHost of Schistosomahaematobium in the Volta Lake. WHOBulletin55(6)

KRYGER CONSULTS (1995): Volta Rural Water Supply and SanitationProjectDanida/GWSCDistrict Profile Kpando

LOUNG. T.V(1995): SanitationandHygiene-Bangladesh’sAction SustainabiityofWater Supplyand SanitationSystems(ed).ITP/WEDCPublication,1996

McGRANAHAN G. AND SONGSOREJ. (1994): Wealth, Health and the UrbanHouseholds: WeighingEnvironmentalBurdensin Accra,JarkataandSaoPaulo.

MOH(1994): The Health Sector in Ghana Facts and Figures Ministry of Health.December1994

MWAMI J(1995) : Spring Protection-SustainableWater Supply. SustainabiityofWaterand SanitationSystems(ed)ITP/WEDCPublication,1996

ODEI M.A(1972): Some Preliminary observationson the Distribution of BilharziaHastSnailsin theVolta Lake. Bull. de’l INFANT XXIX IV SerieA No 3

ODEI M.A(1973): Observationsof someWeedsof MalacologicalImportancein theVolta Lake Bull. de’l INFANT XXX IV SerieA No 1

ODEI M.A(1994): Health Opportunities in Water Resources Development.Ecological and Economic Problems Associated with the Volta Dam-Hea]thImplications

PAPERNA 1(1969): Acquatic Weeds,Snails and Transmissionof Bilharzia in theNew Man-MadeVoltaLakein GhanaBull de’l INFANT XXX1 SeneA No.2

ROSENDAILL A.S(1995): Demand Driven Approachesfor Sustainabilr.~y.SustainabilityofWaterand SanitationSystems(ed)ITP/WEDCPublication,1996

ROGERSR.M (1983): Diffusion ofInnovations NewYork FreePress

TWUMASI .P.(1986): Social Science Researchin Rural Communities. GhanaUniversitiesPress.Accra

VOLTA REGIONAL HEALTh ADMINISTRATION(1994): Volta RegionalHealthAdniniistrationAnnualReport

VRWSSP(1995): CommunityManagementHandbook.Nov. 1995

WALSH .A. (1990): Statisticsfor theSocial Scienceswith ComputerApplications

66

WATSANEWS (1996): A QuarterlyPublicationof the Volta Rural Water SupplyProject Ho-Ghana

WORLD BANK (1989): Sub SaharanAfrica from Crises to Growth A long termperspectivestudy

WORLD BANK WATER DEMAND RESEARCH TEAM (1993): “The Demandfor Water in Rural Areas Determinantsand Policy Implications” The World BankResearchObserver,vol.8no. 1 (January,1993)pp.47-70

WHO(1993): The Control of Schistosomiasis.SecondReport of the WHO ExpertCommittee TechnicalReportSeries830. World HealthOrganizationGeneva

67

APPENDIX.

68

HYPOTHESESAs indicatedin section1.1.0, a numberof factorshave beenpredictedas having aretardingeffect on project receptionin rural communities. Among them are lack offinance,lack of information(education)on the part of rural people,and severalothersocio-economicand cultural factors Often, writers point to finance, educationandpopulation(family size) assomeof the commondeterminantsin rural waterdemandAlso, othersconsiderfamily sizesasdirect correlatesofdomesticwateruseHowever,the presentstudybelievedthat it might not necessarilyfollow. Evenwhere it follows,the strengthofthecorrelationmight vary from onecommunityto another.This impliesthat other factors also do havea role to play in altering sucha correlation In thecontext ofthis study, hypothesisesthat thereis no suchcorrelation. And that, evenwheretheyexistsit is soweak

This way, the study had beenguided by two main hypotheses~First that, there is aweakcorrelation betweenfamily size andwater consumption. Second,that lackoffinancial capability constitutes the most important obstacle to projectfacilityadoption than low level of education on the part of individuals in the studycommunities It therefore examinedthe two in eachcaseto determinewhere thegravity ofthe problemslies for appropriateaction Presentedbeloware resultswhicheither confirmsor disprovesthe two statedhypothesesin the context of the presentstudy

TESTOFHYPOTHESES

BYPOTILESIS 1:That, “there isa weakcorrelationbetweenfamily size andwaterconsumption.”

By using Spearman’sRankedOrderCorrelationCoefficient(Walsh,1990 p.206),datageneratedfrom the field study on the two parameters were computedto establishjustificationor refutationoftheabovestatementasoutlinedbelow.

RAW DATA FOR THE TWO PARAMETERS RANKED DATA

1~MULYSIZE(S)

~

NUMBER(X)

WATER.CQNS1JM~.M

NIJMBER(Y)

x Y D(X-Y)

J)2

(X-Y)’

Lessthan5persons

70 UptoSOlUTeS

46 2 3 -1 1

5-7persons 98 51-150litres 54 1 2 -1 18-IOpersons 62 151-250

litres66 3 1 2 4

11 +persons 02 251-350litres

26 4 4 0 0

ThThL 232 j9~ ~u

DATA SOURCE: AUTHOR’S QUESTIONNAIRESURVEY, 1997

69

By applying Spearman’sRanked Order Correlation Coefficient(rs) and substitutirLgcomputedvaluesinto the equation~

r~= 1 r6x~LnnM

r~= 1— = ir~1=i— 0.4L4(42~1)J L~’~)J L6o J

Therefore, Correlation Coefficient(r~)= 0. 4

The abovecalculated correlationcoefficient value(r~) = 0.4 (usually assessedon ascale ranging from +1 to -1) reflects, in deed, a relatively weak but positiverelationshipbetweenFamily Size andDaily WaterConsumption.Thus, on thebasisofthis weacceptthe hypothesis. But, a weakpositivecorrelationsuggeststhat althoughthereis sucha relationshipbetweenfamily size and domesticwateruse, theyarenotvery importantissueswhich mustbe takenintoaccountin projectplanningin thestudyarea,at leastin thepresenttime. Thus, otherissuesmight bemorecritical

HYPOTHESIS2:

That, “lack offinancial capabilityconstitutesthemostimportantobstacletoprojectfacilityadoption”

It hasnotbeenposibleto testthis hypothesisquantitatively.However, responsesfromthe questionnairesurveyhas given proof of finance as one of the limiting factorsinfluencing facility adoptionin the study area.Thehigh percentageresponsegiven 10theimportanceoffinance asa limiting factor to project facility adoptionin Table 13lendscredencein supporttheaboveassertion.

70

SAMPLES OF STRUCTURED QUESTIONNAIRESUSED FOR THE FIELD SURVEY

71

DIVISION OF LAND & WATER RESOURCESROYAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY(KTH

)

STOCKHOLM

TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION PROJECT MANAGEMENT IN RURAL GHANA ACASE OF THE DANISH WATER PROJECT IN THE KPANDO DISTRICT”

QUESTIONNAIRE FORTHE GENERAL PUBLIC

SECTION A

(1) Name of Village/Community

(2) Sex (Male/Female)

(3) Age (4) ReligiousAffiliation/Specify

(5) Educational Status (i.) None

(ii) Elementary

(iii) Secondary/Commercial/Technical

(iv) Higher(specify)

(6) Occupation

(7) Marital Status (I) Married (ii) Single

(iii) Seperated (iv) Widowed

(8) No. of Children (state number)

(9) No. of Dependants(state number)

(10) Ethnicity (i.) Ewe (ii) Hausa

(iii) Akan (iv) Other(specity)

72

SECTION B

(11) For how long have you been living in this village/community ?

(12) Where do you obtain your water supply ?(tick those applicable)

(i.) Tap Water (ii.) Stream / River (specify)

(13) If Tap / Borehole, who installed it, and when was it done?

(14) Who collects water normally in the family?

(15) When is water collected (i.) Morning (ii) Afternoon

(iii) Evening (iv) Other(specify)

(16) How much time does one spend to get access to the water source chosen in Q12?

(17) How much water do you collect in a day?

(18) How much do you pay (price per litre)?

(19) What is water normally used for in the community ‘

(20) Where does your personal / clothes washing take place?

(I) House (ii) Inside/Close to the Stream

(iii) Near the borehole (iv) other(specify)

(21) (I) If your choice of water source is a borehole/tap, how long (distance) does it take youto get there?

(22) Where do you throw your waste water ‘~

73

(23) (a) What type of places of convenience do you have in your locality?

(i) KVIP (ii) Pit latrines

(iii) Free-range (iv) Other(specify)

(b) (i) Which of these places of convenience do you use most ~

(ii) Why’

(24) For the place of convenience mentioned in Q 23 (b),

(i) Do you have an idea who constructed it ? Y es/No

(ii) If yes, who are they ?

(25) (a) Do sanitary/health workers visit your locality (home) ? Yes / No

(b) (i) If yes, who are they ‘~

(ii) Where do they come from ?

(iii) How often do they visit ?

(26) (i) What ailments (sicknesses) are common in your locality?

(ii) Which of these ailments affect children most in the community?

(iii) What do you think are the causes of the above indentified ailment(s)?

(27) (a) Have you heard about the DANIDA Water and Sanitation programme ? Yes / No

(b) If yes, do you patrionize their services? Yes / No

Give reasons

74

(28) (i) Do you have any problems gaining access to the Danida Water and Sanitationfacilities ? Yes/ No

(ii) If yes, what problem(s) prevent you from gaining access to their facilities?

(29) What are your opinions about the services provided by the Danida Water Project?

(30) (i) What strategies can you suggest to Danida to adopt for people to use theirfacilities?

(ii) What other suggestions can you give for the improvement in services provided bythe project in your area/community?

75

DIVISION OF LAND & WATER RESOURCESROYAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY(KTH

)

STOCKHOLM

~TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION PROJECT MANAGEMENT IN RURAL GHANA ACASE OF THE DANISH WATER PROJECT IN THE KPANDO DISTRICT”

QUESTIONNAIRE FOR THE DISTRICT PROJECTENGINEER/ ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICER

SECTION A

(1 )Name of Engineer I Administrator

(2) Sex (Male/Female)

(3) Age (4) ReligiousAffiliation/Specify

(5) Educational Status

(6) Position

(7) Ethnicity

SECTION B

(8) When was the project launched officially in the district ?

(9) What categories of staff do you have? (please indicate staff category/number of staf inthe space provided below

STAFF CATEGORY NUMBER ON STAFF

76

(10) Which outreach villages / communities are currently receiving Danida ProjectAssistance ? (please specify)

(i) (ii)

(iii) (iv)

(11) What are the criteria used in selecting beneficiary communities ?

(12) Below the under-stated heading, specify types offacilities provided by the project in the

beneficiary communities:

A: SANITARY FACILITIES B: WATER SUPPLY FACILITIES

(i) 0)

(ii) (ii)

(13) How much does it cost to provide the facilities?

(14) Who or what group of persons qualify as beneficiaries of the facilities?

(15) Who decides the choice / suitability of the project facilities for beneficiary?

77

(16) List the various components of your project cycle

(17) For each of the project cycle components stated above, list (where applicable) the formof community involvement in them.

(i) (ii)

(iii) (iv)

(18) Who provides land for the Iocation(construction) of project facilities?

(19) What priority needs do you consider relevant for the efficient running of the DanidaWater Project in your district?

(20) (a) Outline the major problems confronting smooth operation of the project in thedistrict?

(b) What are some of the possible solutions to the problems outlined above?

78

ILLUSTRATIVE SKETCH PICTURES OF SOMEWATER SUPPLY FACILITiES PROVIDED UNDER

THE DANISH RURAL WATER SCHEME

79

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C2

x200CC)

m

-ninQ.

3

-n030~

Q.

.tJ

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0-4

mElim-o‘ii(-I

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0

C

~rn0(1)

z

rnEn~0

InI-)

-I011

-4

mz

mEn

za

GRAVITY FLOW PIPED WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM(With A Spring As Source)

-:- ~i’ -‘~.-~

- -

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(Ii010

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mrq inE~i-

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