Introduction to managent and leadership

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©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-116-1©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

JOHN R. SCHERMERHORN, JR.JOHN R. SCHERMERHORN, JR.

MANAGEMENTMANAGEMENT1212thth Edition Edition

Chapter 16Chapter 16

Motivation Theory and Practice


©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16-2

Planning Ahead — Chapter 16 Study Questions

1. How do individual needs influence motivation?

2. What are the process theories of motivation?

3. What role does reinforcement play in motivation?

4. What is the link between job design and motivation?



Chapter 16 Learning Dashboard

1. Individual Needs and Motivation1. Hierarchy of needs theory2. ERG theory3. Two-factor theory4. Acquired needs theory

2. Process Theories of Motivation1. Equity theory2. Expectancy theory3. Goal-setting theory4. Self-efficacy theory



Chapter 16 Learning Dashboard

3. Reinforcement Theory1. Reinforcement strategies2. Positive reinforcement3. Punishment

4. Motivation and Job Design1. Job simplification2. Job enrichment3. Alternative work schedules



Takeaway 1: Individual Needs and Motivation

Motivation—the forces within the individual that account for the level, direction, and persistence of effort expended at work




Needs– Unfulfilled physiological and psychological desires

of an individual – Explain workplace behavior and attitudes – Create tensions that influence attitudes and

behavior – Good managers and leaders facilitate employee

need satisfaction




Hierarchy of needs theory– Developed by Abraham Maslow – Lower-order and higher-order needs affect workplace

behavior and attitudes – Lower-order needs:

• Physiological, safety, and social needs • Desires for physical and social well being

– Higher-order needs:• Esteem and self-actualization needs

• Desire for psychological growth and development



Figure 16.1 Opportunities for satisfaction in Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs




Hierarchy of needs theory– Deficit principle

• A satisfied need is not a motivator of behavior

– Progression principle• A need at one level does not become

activated until the next lower-level need is satisfied




ERG theory– Developed by Clayton Alderfer – Three need levels




ERG theory– Any/all needs can influence behavior at

one time – Frustration-regression principle

• An already satisfied lower-level need becomes reactivated when a higher-level need is frustrated




Two-factor theory– Developed by Frederick Herzberg – Hygiene factors:

• Elements of the job context • Sources of job dissatisfaction

– Satisfier factors:• Elements of the job content • Sources of job satisfaction and motivation



Figure 16.2 Elements in Herzberg’s two-factor theory




Acquired needs theory– Developed by David McClelland – People acquire needs through their life

experiences – Needs that are acquired:




Acquired needs theory– Need for Achievement (nAch)

• Desire to do something better or more efficiently, to solve problems, or to master complex tasks

– People high in (nAch) prefer work that:• Involves individual responsibility for results • Involves achievable but challenging goals • Provides feedback on performance




Acquired needs theory– Need for Power (nPower)

• Desire to control other persons, to influence their behavior, or to be responsible for other people

• Personal power versus social power

– People high in (nPower) prefer work that:• Involves control over other persons • Has an impact on people and events • Brings public recognition and attention




Acquired needs theory– Need for Affiliation (nAff)

• Desire to establish and maintain friendly and warm relations with other persons

– People high in (nAff) prefer work that:• Involves interpersonal relationships • Provides for companionship• Brings social approval



Takeaway 2: Process Theories of Motivation

• Process theories of motivation …– How people make choices to work hard or not – Choices are based on:

• Individual preferences • Available rewards • Possible work outcomes

• Types of process theories:– Equity theory – Expectancy theory – Goal-setting theory




Equity theory– Developed by J. Stacy Adams – When people believe that they have been treated

unfairly in comparison to others, they try to eliminate the discomfort and restore a perceived sense of equity to the situation

• Perceived inequity • Perceived equity




Equity theory– People respond to perceived negative inequity by

changing …• Work inputs • Rewards received • Referent’s inputs or outcomes• Comparison points • Situation




Expectancy theory– Developed by Victor Vroom – Key expectancy theory variables:

• Expectancy — belief that working hard will result in desired level of performance

• Instrumentality — belief that successful performance will be followed by rewards

• Valence — value a person assigns to rewards and other work related outcomes




Goal-setting theory– Developed by Edwin Locke – Properly set and well-managed task goals can be

highly motivating – Motivational effects of task goals:

• Provide direction to people in their work • Clarify performance expectations • Establish a frame of reference for feedback • Provide a foundation for behavioral self-management




Goal-setting theory – Participation in goal setting

• unlocks the motivational potential of goal setting • management by objectives (MBO) promotes

participation • when participation is not possible, workers will

respond positively if supervisory trust and support exist




Self-Efficacy Theory – a person’s belief that he or she is capable of

performing a task– Capability directly affects motivation

• higher self-efficacy will have higher expectancy • self-efficacy is linked to performance goal setting




Self-Efficacy Theory – Enactive mastery

• person gains confidence through positive experience

– Vicarious modeling• learning by observing others

– Verbal persuasion• encouragement from others that one can perform a task

– Emotional arousal • high stimulation or energy to perform well in a situation



Takeaway 3: Reinforcement Theory

Fundamentals of reinforcement theory – Focuses on the impact of external environmental

consequences on behavior – Law of effect — behavior followed by pleasant

consequences is likely to be repeated: behavior followed by unpleasant consequences is not




Operant conditioning:– Developed by B.F. Skinner – Applies law of effect to control behavior by

manipulating its consequences




Operant conditioning strategies:– Positive reinforcement

• Increases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent presentation of a pleasant consequence

– Negative reinforcement• Increases the frequency of a behavior through the

contingent removal of an unpleasant consequence




Operant conditioning strategies:– Punishment

• Decreases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent presentation of an unpleasant consequence

– Extinction• Decreases the frequency of a behavior through the

contingent removal of an pleasant consequence




Successful implementation of positive reinforcement is based on

– Law of contingent reinforcement —• Reward delivered only if desired behavior is exhibited

– Law of immediate reinforcement —• More immediate the delivery of a reward, the more

reinforcement value it has




Schedules of reinforcement:– Continuous reinforcement administers a reward each

time a desired behavior occurs – Intermittent reinforcement rewards behavior only

periodically – Acquisition of behavior is quicker with continuous

reinforcement – Behavior acquired under an intermittent schedule is more

permanent – Shaping is the creation of a new behavior by positive

reinforcement of successive approximations to it

Introduction to managent and leadership

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