INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES TO ENHANCE … · ... (Both de Vries & Bus , 2014; Brabham, Murray &...

THEJOURNALOFTEACHERACTIONRESEARCH 31

JournalofTeacherActionResearch- Volume4,Issue2,2018,<practicalteacherresearch.com>,ISSN#2332-2233©JTAR.AllRights

INSTRUCTIONALSTRATEGIESTOENHANCEALPHABETKNOWLEDGEINKINDERGARTENLindaStanleyandMaidaFinch

SalisburyUniversity

AbstractThepurposeofthisactionresearchstudywastoinvestigatewhethertwonewinstructionalstrategieswouldimprovekindergartenstudents’recognitionoflettersandsounds.AccordingtotheNational

EarlyLiteracyPanel(2008),alphabetknowledgeisakeyfactorinfluencingreadingdevelopment.The

instructionalstrategiesincludedusinganalphabetbooktoidentifysoundsandlettersanddirectinstruction

andpracticeinhandwriting.Tenstudentswhowereunabletoidentifymorethantenupperorlowercase

lettersatthebeginningoftheschoolyearwereselectedtoparticipate.Significantimprovementsweremade

inletterandsoundrecognition.Resultsindicatethatstudentswhostrugglewithletterandsound

identificationinthebeginningofkindergartencouldbenefitfrommultiplelearningstrategiesinsmallgroups.

Keywords:teachingalphabetknowledge,teacheractionresearch,letteridentification,lettersounds,kindergarten,writingalphabetletters

Introduction

Alphabetknowledge,theabilitytoidentifylettersandsounds,andwriteletters,isoneof

themostimportantskillsstudentsneedastheybegintolearnhowtoread(McBride-Chang,

1999;Schatschneider,Fletcher,Francis,Carlson&Foorman,2004).WhenI1beganteaching

elevenyearsago,itwascommonformystudentstoenterkindergartenwithlittleorno

alphabetknowledge,andteachersinmydistricttaughttheseskillsduringtheschoolyear.

Morerecently,however,researchdemonstratesthatchildrenwhoattendpreschoolknow,

onaverage,14lowercaseand18uppercaseletterswhentheyenterkindergarten(Piasta,

Petscher,&Justice,2012).Childrenwhocannotrecognizeatleasttenlettersfaceagreater

riskoflowerliteracyachievementinfirstgrade(Piasta,Petscher,&Justice,2012).Clearly,it

1LindaStanleyistheclassroomteacherwhoconductedtheresearch.



hasbecomeimportanttohelpthesestudentslearntheirlettersandsoundsmorequickly

thanwepreviouslytaughtthem.

In2014,thekindergartenliteracycurriculuminmydistrictchangedwiththeadoptionofthe

EnglishLanguageArts(ELA)CommonCorestandards.Thekindergartenprogrambecame

morerigorous:childrenarenowexpectedtobeabletorecognizetheupperandlowercase

lettersandidentifytheircorrespondingsoundsbyDecemberinsteadofJune.Inthepast,

kindergartenteacherstaughttheseskillsoverthecourseoftheacademicyear.The

acceleratedtimelinemeansthatteachersshouldbeginconductingguidedreadingwith

leveledtextsinJanuarysothatbyMaystudentswillbeabletoreadatextwithtwotosix

linesofprintonapage.Theproblemisthatmanyofourstudentsstillbeginthe

kindergartenyearknowingfew,ifany,letters.Forexample,atthebeginningofthe2016-

2017schoolyear,40outof144studentsatmyelementaryschoolcouldnotindependently

writeoridentifylettersintheirfirstname.Thesestudentsareatriskforbecoming

strugglingreaders(Brookes-Gunn&Duncan,1997;Piasta,Petscher,&Justice,2012)

AccordingtotheNationalEarlyLiteracyPanel,therearesixfactorsthatinfluencereading

development.Oneofthesefactorsisalphabetknowledge,theabilitytoidentifyletter

namesandtheirsounds(NationalEarlyLiteracyPanel,2008).Sincealphabetknowledgeis

criticalforreadingsuccess,Idesignedastudytoexaminetheeffectofadditionalteaching

strategiestohelpmystrugglingstudentslearntheirlettersandsounds.

LiteratureReview

ImportanceofAlphabetKnowledge.Alphabetknowledgeiswidelyconsideredthestrongestpredictoroffuturereadingability(Hammill,2004;NationalReadingCouncil,1998;

Schatschneider,Fletcher,Francis,Carlson,&Foorman,2004).Forexample,kindergarten

studentswhoknowtheletternamesaremorelikelytoknowthecorrespondingletter

soundbytheendofkindergarten,comparedtootherkindergartenstudentswhodonot

knowthelettername(Huang,Totorelli,&Invernizzi,2014),andstudentswithstrongletter

andsoundknowledgearemorelikelytohavestrongreadingskillsandphonological

awarenessinfirstgrade(Evansetal,2006).

Althoughlittleisknownaboutthebestwaystoteachalphabetknowledge,researchby

Piasta,Purpura,andWagner(2010)suggestsinstructioninbothletternamesandsoundsis

preferredtolettersoundsonly.Furthermore,dailypracticeinalphabetknowledgehas

beenshowntobeeffectiveindevelopingemergentliteracyskillswithchildrenasyoungas

three(Elliott&Olliff,2008).Iwasinterestedtoseeifdailypracticeinletternamesand

soundwouldhelpmystudentsdevelopalphabetknowledge,whichprovidesthebuilding

blocksforreading.

InnovationinTeachingAlphabetKnowledge.Systematicandexplicitinstructioninalphabet

knowledgehasbeenahallmarkofearlyliteracyinstructionsincetheNationalReadingPanel

report(NPR,2000),butthespecificapproachestothistypeofinstructionhaveshifted.For



example,inthepast,teachingoneletteraweekwascommonpracticeinkindergarten

classrooms(Reutzel,1992).However,teachingoneletteraweekdoesnotprovideenough

timeforstudentstolearntheletterstheystrugglewithandwastestimeteachingletters

thatarealreadyknown(Stahl,2014).

Morerecentlyliteracyresearchershavecometorealizetheimportanceofdifferentiating

instructionbasedonstudents’alphabetknowledgeinsmall-groupformats(Stahl,2014).

Researchershavealsodebunkedthenotionthatalllettersneedequalattention(Stahl,

2014).Onestudyfoundchildrenweremorelikelytorecognizelettersintheirownnames,

lettersthatoccuratthebeginningofthealphabet,andletterswhosenamereflectsthe

sounditmakes(Justice,Pence,Bowles,&Wiggins,2006).Consequently,abetterpracticeis

toteachlettersinasmallgroup,usingstudent’sexistingalphabetknowledge.

Twoinstructionalstrategiesthatholdpromisefordevelopingstudents’alphabetknowledge

aretheuseofalphabetbooksandhandwritingpractice.Eachalphabetbookcoversasingle

letter,withthestudentreadingtheuppercaseandlowercaseletteronthefirstpageand

threepagesofthelowercaseletterontheleftpage,andapictureofsomethingthatbegins

withtheletter,alongwiththelabelofthepictureontherightpage.Thepredictableformat

ofthesetextsandtheirfocusonprinthelpsstudentsadvancethroughvariousstagesof

wordrecognition(Bradley&Jones,2007;Evans,Saint-Aubin,&Landry,2009).Whenusing

alphabetbooksintheclassroom,teachersshouldemphasizeletternamesandsoundsover

wordmeaningandselectbookswithsimpleillustrationsthatdrawthereader’sattentionto

theletteronthepage(BothdeVries&Bus,2014;Brabham,Murray&Bowden,2006).

Handwritingisalsoassociatedwithimprovementinalphabetknowledge.Researchfinds

thatthemovementofhandwritinghelpsstudentslearntovisuallyrecognizelettersand

sounds(James&Engelhardt,2012;Longcamp,Zerbato-Poudo,&Velay,2005).Since

researchconcludesalphabetknowledgeisaprecursorforreading,itisimperativethat

incomingkindergartenstudentswhoarenotproficientinletterknowledgereceive

interventionstoassisttheminlearningtheirlettersandsounds.Idecidedtoincorporate

singleletteralphabetbooksandhandwritingpracticeinmysmallgroupinstruction.

Methodology

ResearchQuestions.Inordertoassiststudentsindevelopingalphabetknowledge,thisactionresearchprojectwasconductedwithstudentswhorecognizedfewerthantenupper

andlowercaselettersatthestartofkindergarten.Studentsweredividedintotwosmall

groupsandgivenadditionalinstructioninalphabetknowledge.Thisactionresearchproject

addressedtwoquestions:1)Willtheadditionofadailyletterbook,usedinasmallgroup,

helpstudentsgainletterandsoundidentificationbyDecember;and2)Willtheadditionofa

letterwritingstrategyallowthestudentstobetterrecognizetheletterandsound?



ParticipantsandSetting.Thisstudytookplaceinapublicelementaryschoolinaruraltown

ofthemid-Atlantic.Theschoolservesjustover500studentsingradespre-Kthroughtwo.

Thestudentpopulationattheschoolis55%White,27%Black,andseven%Hispanic.Over

halfofthestudentsqualifyforfreeorreducedmeals.Tenkindergartenstudentswhowere

unabletoidentifytenormoreuppercaseorlowercaselettersduringthefirstweekof

schoolwereselectedtoparticipateinthisstudy.HalfoftheparticipantswereBlack,four

studentswereWhite,andonestudentwasHispanic.Boysandgirlswereequally

representedinthisgroup.AllstudentswereEnglishspeakersandnonewereidentifiedfor

specialeducationservices.

DataCollection.Iassessedstudents’alphabetknowledgepriortobeginningthestudyinSeptemberandagainattheconclusionofthestudyinNovemberusingupperandlowercase

alphabetflashcards.Forletternaming,studentswereaskedtoidentifylowerand

uppercaselettersseparately.Followingthis,studentswereaskedtoidentifylettersounds

usinglowercaseletters.Inkeepingwithdistrictpolicy,studentsareaskedtoidentifyonly

thesoundsofconsonantletters.CopiesoftheassessmentscanbefoundinAppendicesA

andB.

SmallGroupInstruction.Participantsweredividedintotwosmallgroupstofacilitate

individualizedinstruction.Imetwiththegroupseverydayforatleast15minutesofguided

instructionaboutlettersandsounds.Thelettersthatwerechosenwerebasedonletters

thatthestudentsdidnotknowfromthepre-assessment.Ifollowedthecountycurriculum

thatliststheorderthatlettersandsoundsshouldbetaught.Eachstudenthadanalphabet

book(seeAppendixCforanexample),andIguidedthestudentsthroughthefollowing

process:

1. Studentspointtotheuppercaseletteronthecoverandreadit.

2. Studentstrackusingtheirfingertothenextlowercaseletterandreadit.

3. Studentsthenturnedthepageandusedapicturetoreadawordthatbeganwith

theletter.

4. Studentscontinuetoreadthebookwithonemorepageofreadingtheupperand

lowercaseletter,followedbyonemorewordandpicturethatbeginwiththeletter.

Afterreading,studentsdiscussedtheletternameandsound.Iaskedstudentsifanyofthe

studentshadtheletterintheirnameandencouragedthemtonameotherwordsthatbegin

withthatletter.Emphasisduringthefirstmonthwasplacedonletterrecognitionover

lettersound,asparticipantsneededtobeabletoidentifythelettertoproducethesound

ontheassessment.



Afterthealphabetbooks,studentspracticedwritingtheletterusingtheverbalpath,directionsforformingaletter(seeAppendixDforanexample).Imodeledwritingtheletterwhilestatingtheverbalpathasthechildrenwatched,andthenstudentstracedtheletterontheirletterbookastheyrepeatedtheverbalpathwiththeteacher.Finally,studentswrotetheletterwhilerepeatingtheverbalpath.

Analysis.Pre-andpost-assessmentswerecomparedtodeterminealphabetknowledgedevelopmentamongthestudents.Becausethestudentsdemonstratedsubstantialincreasesacrossallthreeassessments,pairedt-testswereusedtodetermineifthefindingswerestatisticallysignificant.However,giventhesmallsamplesize,cautionshouldbeusedininterpretingandgeneralizingtheresults.

Results

Theresultsofthealphabetletteridentificationpre-andpost-testofalphabetlettersareshowninTable1.ParticipantswereabletoidentifyagreateramountofupperandlowercaselettersinNovemberthanwhentheybegankindergarteninSeptember.Forexample,whileonaveragestudentswereonlyabletoidentifysevenuppercaselettersinthepre-assessment,byNovembertheywereabletoidentify22uppercaseletters.

Student3,whowasonlyabletoidentify3upperandlowercaselettersinSeptember,madethegreatestgainsinthegroup.Student3begantheschoolyearquietandshy,however,shewaseagertolearnandcametosmallgroupsreadytoparticipateinallactivities.Asherletterknowledgegrew,sodidherconfidenceintheclassroom.Student4,whomadetheleastgains,wasaseverebehaviorproblem.Thisstudentspentmuchofoursmallgrouptimerefusingtoparticipate,hidingunderthetable,orcausingothercommotions.Student4alsoreceivedotherinterventionswithanotherteacherintheschool,howevertheywerenotabletocomeasfarwithalphabetknowledgeasmostoftheothers.



Table1:UpperandLowercaseLetterAssessments

Student September

Uppercase

November

Uppercase

September

Lowercase

November

Lowercase

1 3 26 3 25

2 10 26 9 26

3 6 26 3 26

4 3 16 4 15

5 12 25 10 20

6 14 26 9 26

7 1 15 1 15

8 10 21 6 23

9 3 22 2 19

10 9 26 6 26

Mean 7.1 22.9 5.3 22.1

S.D. 4.48 4.31 3.2 4.53

Theresultsofthelettersoundidentificationpre-andpost-testareshowninTable2.ThedatashowthatparticipantswereabletoidentifymorelettersoundsinNovemberthanwhentheybegankindergarteninSeptember.Onaverage,studentsidentified14morelettersoundsinNovember.Student1showedthegreatestgrowthinidentifyingsoundsasthisstudentwasmotivatedtolearn.Student4madeverylittlegrowthinlettersoundsasthisstudentdidnotenjoybeinginsmallgroupsandwantedtoavoidouractivities.



Table2:LetterSoundsAssessments

Student September

Sounds

November

Sounds

1 1 20

2 4 20

3 0 21

4 0 2

5 0 16

6 2 17

7 0 12

8 0 13

9 0 14

10 3 21

Mean 1 15.6

S.D. 1.49 5.83

T-testresultsareshowninTable3.Therewasasignificantdifferenceinthemeanscoresforallthreeassessments.Thesignificantresultssuggestthechangeinstudents’scoreswasunlikelyduetochance,andmightbetheresultofthestrategiesimplementedinsmallgroups.

Table3:T-testResults

Pre-test Mean

(s.d.)

Post-test Mean

(s.d.) t-statistic

Uppercase letters 7.1

(4.48)

22.9

(4.3) 12.78***

Lowercase letters 5.3

(3.2)

22.1

(4.53) 12.46***

Letter sounds 1

(1.49)

15.6

(5.83) 8.86***

***p<0.001



Discussion

Resultsofthisstudyshowstatisticallysignificantimprovementinletterandsound

identificationaftersmallgroupinstructionwithalphabetbooksandhandwritingpractice.

Atthebeginningoftheyeartheparticipantsstruggledwithletterrecognition.Duringthe

letteridentificationpre-assessment,threestudentsofferedsubstitutionsforthelettersthey

wereshown.Forexample,onestudentsubstituted3forE,9forP,RforF,bford,anddfor

b.Anotherstudentidentifiedsixoftheuppercaseletters(F,RB,P,K,Y)asE.Research

showsthatuntilchildrenarefamiliarwithletterforms,itiscommonforthemtomake

substitutionsorhaveconfusionsuchastheonesthestudentsmade(BothdeVries&Bus,

2014).

Inthefirstfourweeksofthestudy,studentscontinuedtostrugglewithrememberingthe

letterswepracticed.Eachafternoonwewouldreviewthealphabetbookandwhenshown

thecover,manystudentscouldnotidentifytheletter.Overtimethough,thestudents

beganlearningthelettersataquickerpace,andchosetore-readtheletterbooksduring

centertime,aswellasindependentlycompleteotheralphabetactivitiesandgamesthatwe

hadusedinwholegroup.

Atthebeginningofthestudymoststudentswereunabletoidentifyanylettersounds.

Duringthereadingoftheletterbooksthestudentsoftentriedtoreadthepictureswitha

wordthatdidnotbeginwiththeletter.Forexample,intheRrbooktherewasapictureofa

rabbitandthestudentswouldsaybunny.Atthestudy’sconclusion,studentswereableto

correctlyidentifymorelettersounds.Thestudents’performancewithtwolettersdeserves

mention.

Lettersound/w/wastheonlylettersoundthatallparticipantswereabletoidentifyatthe

endofthestudy.Sincew’ssoundisnotheardinitslettername,itissometimesaharder

soundtoidentify(Evansetal.,2006).Duringthepost-assessment,fourstudentsmadethe

wmotionwiththeirhandthatweusedinwhenpracticingthesounds.Thelettersoundthat

wasleastknownduringthepost-assessmentwasy.Letterycontainsthe/w/soundsoit

wasunderstandablefourstudentsconfusedtheylettersoundwith/w/.

Limitations

Theprocessourcountyusestoassessstudents’lettersoundknowledgemightaffectthe

results.Studentsareshownalowercaseletterflashcardandasked,“Whatsounddoesthis

lettermake?”However,ifthestudentsweregiventhelettername,theymightbeableto

identifythesoundbecausethispracticecanhelpstudentswiththelettersound(Evans,Bell,

Shaw,Moretti&Page,2006).Forexample,lettersb,p,andzbeginwiththelettersoundof

theirname.Afterthepostassessment,Ireviewedthesoundsthestudentscouldnot



identifyandaskedthem,“Whatsounddoes(letter)say?”Manyofthestudentswereabletoidentifythesound.

Anotherlimitationofthisstudyisthelackofacontrolgroup.Althoughthisstudyrevealedstatisticallysignificantimprovementinthestudents’abilitiestoidentifylettersandsounds,Icannotbesurethatthetwonewinstructionalstrategiescausedthesignificantdifferencebetweenpre-testandpost-testscores.Withoutacontrolgroup,itisnotpossibletostatewhatwouldhavehappenedwithouttheintervention.

Athirdlimitationisthatparentswereawareofthestudyandsomeexpressedinterestworkingwiththeirstudentsathome.Whileparentsupportishelpful,itisnotpossibletoknowhowmuchthisaffectedthestudents’progress.

Conclusion

Duringthisstudy,Ilearnedabouttheimportanceofearlyintervention.Mostofthestudentstookatleastfourweeksbeforebeginningtoshowprogresswiththeirletterandsoundidentification.Oncetheybegantoretaintheidentificationoflettersandsoundstheyprogressedmorequicklyidentifyingotherlettersandsounds.

Normallywithaclasssizeofatleast24students,Icreategroupsofsixtosevenstudentsforguidedreadinginstruction.InthisstudyIobservedhowstudentsarebetterabletoconcentrateinasmallergroupwithinstructiontargetedattheirneeds.Thesmallergroupsalsoledtomoreparticipationfromthesestudentsduringwholegroupcarpettime.Afterthestudywascompleted,theyfeltmoreconfidentandoftenraisedtheirhandstoparticipate.Icontinuetousethesmallergroupsformyguidedreadinginstruction,anditwillbeastrategythatItakeforwardinthefuture.

Teachersmustbeflexibleandwillingtotrynewinstructionalstrategiestodiscoverwhatworksbestwiththeirstudents.Forfutureresearchinteachinglettersandsounds,Iproposethatweaddtheflashcardswithpicturemnemonicstoassiststudentsinhavingavisualfortheletterandsound.Ialsorecommendteachersusemanyalphabetbooksasread-aloudsduringthefirstweeksofschool.Studentswhoarereadalphabetbookswithanemphasisonlettersandsoundsmakegreatergainsinletterandsoundknowledge(Brabham,Murray,&Bowden,2006).



AbouttheAuthors

LindaStanleyisateacheratFruitlandPrimarySchoolinMaryland,wheresheiscurrentlyteachinghertwelfthyearofkindergarten.LindarecentlyjustgraduatedwithherMastersinEducationCurriculumfromSalisburyUniversity.Email:[email protected]

MaidaFinch,Ph.D.isanassociateprofessoratSalisburyUniversityintheDepartmentofDoctoralStudiesinLiteracy,wheresheteachesclassesonresearchmethods,andquantitativeanalysis,andliteracytheory.Aformermiddleschoolteacherandliteracycoach,Maidalovesteachingandhelpingeducatorsthinkabouthowtouseresearchandtheorytoimprovetheirpractice.Email:[email protected]



References

Both-deVries,&A.C.,Bus,A.G.(2014).Visualprocessingofpicturesandlettersinalphabetbooksandthe implicationsforletterlearning.ContemporaryEducationalPsychology,39,156-163.Brabham,E.G.,Murray,B.A.&Bowden,S.H.(2006).Readingalphabetbooksinkindergarten:Effectsof instructionalemphasisandmediapractice.JournalofResearchinChildhoodEducation,20(3),219- 234.Bradley,B.A.,&Jones,J.(2007).Sharingalphabetbooksinearlychildhoodclassrooms.TheReading Teacher,60(5),452-463.Brookes-Gunn,J.,Duncan,G.(1997).Theeffectsofpovertyonchildren.FutureChild,7(2),55-71.Cooke,N.L.,Kretlow,A.G.&Helf,S.(2010)Supplementalreadinghelpforkindergartenstudents:Howearly shouldyoustart?PreventingSchoolFailure,54(3),135-144.Elliott,E.M.,Olliff,C.B.(2008).Developmentallyappropriateemergentliteracyactivitiesforyoungchildren: Adaptingtheearlyliteracyandlearningmodel.EarlyChildhoodEducationJournal,35,551-556.Evans,M.A.,Bell,M.,Shaw,D.,Moretti,S.&Page,J.(2006).Letternames,lettersoundsandphonological awareness:Anexaminationofkindergartenchildrenacrosslettersandoflettersacrosschildren. ReadingandWriting,19(9),959-989.Evans,M.A.,Saint-Aubin,J.,&Landry,N.(2009).Letternamesandalphabetbookreadingbysenior kindergarteners:Aneyemovementstudy.Childdevelopment,80(6),1824-1841.Gettinger,M.,Stoiber,K.(2008).Applyingaresponsetointerventionmodelforearlyliteracydevelopmentin low-incomechildren.TopicsinEarlyChildhoodSpecialEducation,27,198-213.HammillD.D.(2004).Whatweknowaboutcorrelatesofreading.ExceptionalChildren,70,453–468.James,K.H.,&Engelhardt,L.(2012).Theeffectsofhandwritingexperienceonfunctionalbraindevelopmentin pre-literatechildren.TrendsinNeuroscienceandEducation,1(1),32-42.Justice,L.M.,Pence,K.,Bowles,R.B.,&Wiggins,A.(2006).Aninvestigationoffourhypothesisconcerningthe orderbywhich4yearoldchildrenlearnthealphabetletters.EarlyChildhoodResearchQuarterly,21, 374-389.Huang,F.L.,Tortorelli,L.S.&Invernizzi,M.A.(2014)Aninvestigationoffactorsassociatedwithletter-sound knowledgeatkindergartenentry.EarlyChildhoodResearchQuarterly,29,182-192.Longcamp,M.,Zerbato-Poudou,M.T.,&Velay,J.L.(2005).Theinfluenceofwritingpracticeonletter recognitioninpreschoolchildren:Acomparisonbetweenhandwritingandtyping.Acta Psychologica,119(1),67-79.McBride-Chang,C.(1999).TheABCsoftheABCs:Thedevelopmentofletter-nameandletter-sound knowledge.Merrill-PalmerQuarterly,45(2),285-308.NationalEarlyLiteracyPanel.(2008).Developingearlyliteracy:ReportoftheNationalEarlyLiteracyPanel. Washington,DC:NationalInstituteforLiteracy.Retrievedfrom https://lincs.ed.gov/publications/pdf/NELPReport09.pdf



NationalResearchCouncil.(998).Preventingreadingdifficultiesinyoungchildren.Washington,D.C:National AcademyPress.NationalReadingPanel&NationalInstituteofChildHealthandHumanDevelopment.(2000).Reportofthe NationalReadingPanel:Teachingchildrentoread:Anevidence-basedassessmentofthescientific researchliteratureonreadinganditsimplicationsforreadinginstruction:reportsofthesubgroups. Retrievedfromhttps://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/pubs/nrp/Pages/report.aspx.Piasta,S.B.,Purpura,D.J.,&Wagner,R.K.(2010).Fosteringalphabetknowledgedevelopment:Acomparison oftwoinstructionalapproaches.ReadingandWriting,23(6),607-626.Reutzel,D.R.(1992).Breakingtheletter-a-weektradition:Conveyingthealphabeticprincipletoyoung children.ChildhoodEducation,69(1),20-23.Schatschneider,C.,Fletcher,J.M.,Francis,D.J.,Carlson,C.D.,&Foorman,B.R.(2004). Kindergarten predictionofreadingskills:Alongitudinalcomparativeanalysis.JournalofEducationalPsychology, 96(2),265-282.Simmons,D.C.,Coyne,M.D.,Kwok,O.M.,McDonagh,S.,Harn,B.A.,&Kame'enui,E.J.(2008).Indexing responsetointerventionalongitudinalstudyofreadingriskfromkindergartenthroughthird grade.JournalofLearningDisabilities,41(2),158-173.Stahl,K.A.D.(2014).Newinsightsaboutletterlearning.TheReadingTeacher,68(4),261-265. Vadasy,P.F.&Sanders,E.A.(2010).Efficacyofsupplementalphonics-basedinstructionforlow- skilledkindergartenersinthecontextoflanguageminoritystatusandclassroomphonicsinstruction. JournalofEducationalPsychology,102(4),786-803.Vadasy,P.F.,Sanders,E.A.(2012).Two-yearfollow-upofakindergartenphonicsinterventionforEnglish learnersandnativeEnglishspeakers:Contextualizingtreatmentimpactsbyclassroomliteracy instruction.JournalofEducationalPsychology,104(4),987-1005.



AppendixA:LetterNameAssessmentForm



AppendixB:LetterSoundsAssessmentForm

Directions: Show a lowercase letter flashcard to the student and ask them: “What sound does this letter make?” Record accurate responses and note substitutions or confusions.

Letter Accurate Substitution or confusion

h

m

t

p

q

c

w

b

x

v

j

s

g

n

y

k

z

r

f

l

d

Score



AppendixC:Fountas&PinnellLetterIdentificationBooks



AppendixD:VerbalPathfortheFormationofLetters

INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES TO ENHANCE … · ... (Both de Vries & Bus , 2014; Brabham, Murray &...

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