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Lecture 06, 11 Sept 2008Biodiversity II

Conservation BiologyECOL 406R/506R

University of ArizonaFall 2008

Kevin BonineMary Jane Epps

Primack Ch3; Costanza EA 1997; Driessen 2004

Lab Fri 1230 Sep 12th west side BSEHat, water, sunscreen, close-toed shoesReadings on Course Website

506 meet at 1505h today

Upcoming ReadingsTues 16 Sept: see websiteThurs 18 Sept: Primack Ch4, Suzuki Link

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1a. Should conservation planners justify the value of biodiversity using instrumental or intrinsic terms? Why?

1b. How should we respond to the question of “What good is it?” (“it” being some ‘small, unimpressive plant’)

OR

First of Ten Possible Questions:

Q1 due Thursday 11 September by midnight

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Energy (one way)waste heat = entropy

Everything else cycles

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Resistancemaintain same state despiteongoing disturbance

Vs.

Resiliencereturn to original state quicklyfollowing disturbance

Ecosystem Integrity

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Solomon et al. 1993

Brassicaoleracea

Galapagos Finches

What is a species? 6

Aspidoscelis (Cnemidophorus)Species vs. Parthenospecies…

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Native Speciesvs.

Nonnative, exotic, alien

1. Indicator Species-migratory birds-amphibians

2. Keystone Species-top predators-key pollinators

Rana pipiensNorthern Leopard Frog

3. Umbrella Species

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Males (columns one and three) and females (columns two and four) of four cryptic species of Perichares in dorsal (left) and ventral (right) view

Burns J. M. et.al. PNAS 2008;105:6350-6355

© 2008 by The National Academy of Sciences of the USA

Cryp

tic

Spec

ies

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GROUNDSNAKE -Sonora semiannulata Maricopa County, AZHow Many Species??

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Red Wolf ?

Coyote

Hybridization and Introgression 12

Genetic Diversity

Alleles2 per indiv.# in population?polymorphic traits

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Hardy Weinbergand Heterozygosity

two alleles: p, q

(p + q)2 = p2 +2pq + q2

Under Hardy Weinberg EquilibriumHe = 2pq

Ho is observedIf p=0.6, q=0.4, then 2pq = 0.48 = He

Inbreeding, if Ho < He

Outbreeding, if Ho> He

BB, Bb, bb

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Fst = 0, or <0.01 indicate little divergence among pops.

Wright’s Fixation Index

Fst > 0.1 indicate much divergence among pops.

Hardy Weinberg Equilibrium, two alleles: p, qExpected heterozygosity = 2pq

Fst = (Ht-Hs)/Ht (H= heterozygosity)

Total PoolSeparate populations

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Equilibrium Heterozygosity (∆H = 0)

H* = 2Nm

H = heterozygosityN = population sizem = mutation rate

Therefore, smaller populations have lower equilibrium

heterozygosity

Assumption: reduced genetic variation in a population correlated

with reduced ability to adapt to changing environmental conditions. 16

Alphaspecies within a community

community- all populations occupying a given area at a given time- often broken into taxonomic groups or functional roles

1) Species Richness (# of species)2) Species Evenness (how many of each type?)

Shannon Diversity Index (richness and evenness)H’ = -∑i pi ln(pi), (i = 1, 2, 3 … S)

pi = proportion of total community abundance represented by ith species

Measuring Biodiversity- alpha - beta - gamma

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Van Dyke 2003

Shannon Index inTallgrass Prairie

(indiv spp abundancerelative to total abundance)

What if removed three species from B?

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1.64 2.25a prop ln propxln b prop ln propxln

8.24 0.459053 -0.77859 -0.35741 1.21 0.057922 -2.84865 -0.1652.94 0.163788 -1.80918 -0.29632 2.84 0.13595 -1.99547 -0.271281.18 0.065738 -2.72208 -0.17894 2.23 0.10675 -2.23727 -0.238830.29 0.016156 -4.12546 -0.06665 0.81 0.038775 -3.24999 -0.126022.06 0.114763 -2.16488 -0.24845 1.82 0.087123 -2.44043 -0.212621.47 0.081894 -2.50233 -0.20493 1.02 0.048827 -3.01947 -0.147430.59 0.032869 -3.41522 -0.11226 1.63 0.078028 -2.55069 -0.199021.18 0.065738 -2.72208 -0.17894 0.61 0.029201 -3.53357 -0.10318

1.6 0.076592 -2.56927 -0.196784.48 0.214457 -1.53965 -0.330192.64 0.126376 -2.06849 -0.26141

17.95 1 -1.64391 20.89 1 -2.25177

drop top 3 drop bottom 3b prop ln propxln b prop ln propxln

1.21 0.099425 -2.30835 -0.229512.84 0.233361 -1.45517 -0.339582.23 0.183237 -1.69697 -0.31095

0.81 0.055441 -2.89243 -0.16036 0.81 0.066557 -2.70969 -0.180351.82 0.124572 -2.08287 -0.25947 1.82 0.149548 -1.90014 -0.284161.02 0.069815 -2.6619 -0.18584 1.02 0.083813 -2.47917 -0.207791.63 0.111567 -2.19313 -0.24468 1.63 0.133936 -2.01039 -0.269260.61 0.041752 -3.176 -0.13261 0.61 0.050123 -2.99327 -0.150031.6 0.109514 -2.2117 -0.24221

4.48 0.306639 -1.18208 -0.362472.64 0.180698 -1.71093 -0.30916

14.61 1 -1.8968 12.17 1 -1.97163

Site A Site B

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19Van Dyke 2003

Process and Pattern

1 Functional Types2 Functional Analogs

Increase either to increase biodiversity

Which to preserve?

Niche:Ecological role of a species in a community

~guilds

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Betaarea or regional diversity (beta richness)diversity of species among communities across landscape

gradient- slope, moisture, temperature, precipitation, disturbance, etc.

Whittaker’s Measure = (S/alpha) - 1

where S = # spp in all sites, alpha = avg. # spp/site

a) if no community structure across gradient = 0-broad ecological tolerances, niche breadth

b) 100/10 - 1 = 9 high beta diversity

Measuring Biodiversity- alpha - beta - gamma

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Beta Diversity

1) quantitative measure of diversity of communities that experience changing environmental gradients

2) are species sensitive, or not, to changing environments?are there species associations that are interdependent

(plants, pollinators, parasites, parasitoids)?

3) how are species gained or lost across a TIME gradient?

Succession, community composition, effects of disturbance

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Groom et al. 2006

Alpha and Beta Diversity Hotspots

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Gamma

rate of change of species composition with distance(geographic replacement; rate of gain and loss of species)

alpha rarity with increased number of species (fewer of each type)

beta rarity with habitat specialists

gamma rarity if restricted to particular geographic areas

Measuring Biodiversity- alpha - beta - gamma

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Gamma and Beta not same in Primacktext as I explained, but similar. 26

Van Dyke 2003

alpha

beta

gamma

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Missing?

Species role in ecosystem?Rarity per sePhylogenetic RepresentationEcological Redundancy

Edges vs. Interior (e.g., fragmentation)(spp richness increases, but are broad generalists, not interior habitat specialists)

All species are not equivalent (normative valuation?)

Measuring Biodiversity- alpha - beta - gamma

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Valuing Biodiversity

RI = (Di + Ui)(deltaPi/Ci)

D = distinctivenessU = utilitydelta P = enhanced probability of survivalC = cost of strategy

Direct limited funds…

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Hawaiian Silverswords

Adaptive Radiation & Endemism…

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Hawaiian Honeycreepers:

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http

://w

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bi/G

alap

agos

Page

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Darwin’s Finches

Galapagos, Ecuador

32Mountain Lion

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Cyprinodon macularius

Desert Pupfish

Photograph Courtesy of John Rinne

Desert pupfish declined due to the introduction and spread of exotic predatory and competitive fishes, water impoundment and diversion, water pollution, groundwater pumping, stream channelization, and habitat modification.

Healthy population of almost 10,000 fish inhabits this oasis. This last refuge of a unique fish is being actively managed.

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Cyprinodon macularius Quitobaquito pupfish (Endangered since 1986)

This tiny fish was once part of a widespread population, the range of which included the Colorado, Gila, San Pedro, Salt and Santa Cruz rivers and their tributaries in Arizona and California. The ancestors of the Quitobaquito and Sonoytariver pupfish are believed to have been cut off from their relatives in the Colorado River drainage about one million years ago.

The warm, slightly brackish water at Quitobaquitois ideal habitat for pupfish. Pupfish can tolerate salinity levels ranging from normal tap water to water three times saltier than the ocean. Therefore, they are well suited to desert environments where high evaporation rates create water with high salinity levels.

Although the water temperature at the spring is a constant 74°F, the water temperature in the pond fluctuates greatly during the year, from about 40°F or cooler in January to almost 100°F in August, especially in shallow areas... very tolerant of rapid temperature change and low oxygen content due to summer heat.

Desert PupfishFamily Cyprinodontidae

Photograph Courtesy of John Rinne

-1-1/4 inches longmax. age of three years

-females are gray and drabmales are bluish, turning bright blueduring spring breeding season.

-feed on insect larvae and other organic matter from pond bottom.

-prefer shallow pond depths, about12 to 18 inches deep.

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Anura ‘frogs’

Urodela salamanders

Gymnophiona caecilians

Mammalia

Testudines turtles

‘Lizards’

‘Lizards’

Amphisbaenia

Serpentes snakes

‘Lizards’

‘Lizards’

Rhynchocephalia tuatara

Crocodylia crocs etc.

Aves birdsSee Fig 2-1 (Pough et al., 2001)

To F

ishe

s an

d An

cest

or

Lissamphibia

Amniota

Diapsida

Reptilia

Tetrapoda

Lepi

dosa

uria

SquamataExtantHerp

Groups

Archosauria

Synapsida

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Rhynchocephalia

- evolved before dinosaurs

- world-wide distribution in Mesozoic

- most extinct at end Cretaceous (65mya)

Henry

Sphenodontidae- 1 extant genus (Sphenodon)- 2 extant species

- restricted to small islandsof New Zealand

- long lived

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Valuing Biodiversity

RI = (Di + Ui)(deltaPi/Ci)

D = distinctivenessU = utilitydelta P = enhanced probability of survivalC = cost of strategy

Direct limited funds…

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Costanza et al. 1997

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Lesser long-nosed bat (Leptonycteris curasoae) pollinating saguaro flower (Carnegia gigantea)

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Costanza et al. 1997

$33 trillion/yr (16-54)Global GNP = $18 trillion

[excluded non-renewable]

Gas regulation $1.3 trillionDisturbance reg. $1.8 trillionWaste treatment $2.3 trillionNutrient cycling $17 trillion

Marine Services $20.9 trillion(coastal $10.6 trillion)

Forests $4.7 trillionWetlands $4.9 trillion

EXTERNALITIES

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Costanza et al. 1997Table 1

42Costanza et al. 1997 Table 2

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Focus: Consequences of Ecosystem Change for Human Well-being

www.MAweb.orgMillen

ium

Ecos

yste

m A

sses

smen

t

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2004

DDTMalariaEcoimperialism

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?

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Valuing Biodiversity (Genetic, Species, Ecosystem, Processes/Services)Primack p. 47...

Directconsumptive and productive use

Indirectprocesses & services (~nonconsumptive)photosynthesis +, water & soil, climate, interrelationships (soil microbes & plants)amenity (Ecotourism), science & education

Option valuepotential to benefit humans in the future

Existence valuenow or for future generations

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ECOTOURISM

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ECOTOURISM

Downside?

?

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Figura 1Niveles de organización del concepto de biodiversidad

Option value?

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Adam Smith 1909 (voluntary transactions)Invisible Hand – “turning selfish, uncoordinated actions into increased prosperity and relative social harmony”

-Tragedy of the Commons-Externalities-Private Property

Market Failureresources misallocated: “a few individuals or businesses benefit at expense of the larger society” (Primack 2006)

ECONOMICS

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Economic Growth…

Wright and Nebel 2002

How is Economic Development Different?

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How is Economic Development Different?

Takes quality of life into account:life span, infant mortalityeducationhealth careenvironmental qualitypollutionclean air and waterpercent of population below poverty lineetc.

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“For poor women the only holidayis when you are asleep.”

Women:- Do 2/3 of the work- 10% of the income- own 0.01% of the property- 70% of the world’s poor- 2/3 of the world’s illiterate(page 87 Miller 2005)

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Over the past 50 years, the federal government has provided more than $500 billion in subsidies to the fossil fuel and nuclear industries, investing a fraction of that in energy efficiency and renewable sources of energy such as wind, solar and geothermal. As a result, coal, nuclear power, oil and gas provide more than 91 percent of our electricity needs in the U.S. This dependence on fossil fuels carries severe public health consequences, including asthma attacks, respiratory disease, heart attacks, and premature deaths. Moreover, fossil fuels, such as coal and oil, pollute the environment from the point of extraction to combustion in the form of global warming, acid rain, oil spills and runoff pollution. At the same time, nuclear power has left us with a nuclear waste problem for which no safe solution exists.

http://www.pennenvironment.org/PE.asp?id2=17700

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Killing the Natives, Chapter 3

U.S.: 4% global population25% fossil fuels>25% cars50% advertising spending

Goods vs. Bads

$80 billion on shoes, jewelry, watches$65 billion on higher education

Americans since 1950 have consumed more than all in history preceding

# indivs/house dropping in US

Jimmy Carter – malaise speech, reduce consumption…Reagan

Guy McPherson

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Science a la Joe CamelBy Laurie David, Washington PostSunday, November 26, 2006; B01

At hundreds of screenings this year of "An Inconvenient Truth," the first thing many viewers said after the lights came up was that every student in every school in the United States needed to see this movie.The producers of former vice president Al Gore's film about global warming, myself included, certainly agreed. So the company that made the documentary decided to offer 50,000 free DVDs to theNational Science Teachers Association (NSTA) for educators to use in their classrooms. It seemed like a no-brainer.The teachers had a different idea: Thanks but no thanks, they said.In their e-mail rejection, they expressed concern that other "special interests" might ask to distribute materials, too; they said they didn't want to offer "political" endorsement of the film; and they saw "little, if any, benefit to NSTA or its members" in accepting the free DVDs.Gore, however, is not running for office, and the film's theatrical run is long since over. As for classroom benefits, the movie has been enthusiastically endorsed by leading climate scientists worldwide, and is required viewing for all students in Norway and Sweden.Still, maybe the NSTA just being extra cautious. But there was one more curious argument in the e-mail: Accepting the DVDs, they wrote, would place "unnecessary risk upon the [NSTA] capital campaign, especially certain targeted supporters." One of those supporters, it turns out, is the Exxon Mobil Corp.That's the same Exxon Mobil that for more than a decade has done everything possible to muddle public understanding of global warming and stifle any serious effort to solve it. It has run ads in leading newspapers (including this one) questioning the role of manmade emissions in global warming, and financed the work of a small band of scientific skeptics who have tried to challenge the consensus that heat-trapping pollution is drastically altering our atmosphere. The company spends millions to support groups such as the Competitive Enterprise Institute that aggressively pressure lawmakers to oppose emission limits.It's bad enough when a company tries to sell junk science to a bunch of grown-ups. But, like a tobacco company using cartoons to peddle cigarettes, Exxon Mobil is going after our kids, too.And it has been doing so for longer than you may think. NSTA says it has received $6 million from the company since 1996, mostly for the association's "Building a Presence for Science" program, an electronic networking initiative intended to "bring standards-based teaching and learning" into schools, according to the NSTA Web site. Exxon Mobil has a representative on the group's corporate advisory board. And in 2003, NSTA gave the company an award for its commitment to science education.So much for special interests and implicit endorsements.In the past year alone, according to its Web site, Exxon Mobil's foundation gave $42 million to key organizations that influence the way children learn about science, from kindergarten until they graduate from high school.And Exxon Mobil isn't the only one getting in on the action. Through textbooks, classroom posters and teacher seminars, the oil industry, the coal industry and other corporate interests are exploiting shortfalls in education funding by using a small slice of their record profits to buy themselves a classroom soapbox.NSTA's list of corporate donors also includes Shell Oil and the American Petroleum Institute (API), which funds NSTA's Web site on the science of energy. There, students can find a section called "Running on Oil" and read a page that touts the industry's environmental track record -- citing improvements mostly attributable to laws that the companies fought tooth and nail, by the way -- but makes only vague references to spills or pollution. NSTA has distributed a video produced by API called "You Can't Be Cool Without Fuel," a shameless pitch for oil dependence.The education organization also hosts an annual convention -- which is described on Exxon Mobil's Web site as featuring "more than 450 companies and organizations displaying the most current textbooks, lab equipment, computer hardware and software, and teaching enhancements." The company "regularly displays" its "many . . . education materials" at the exhibition. John Borowski, a science teacher at North Salem High School in Salem, Ore., was dismayed by NSTA's partnerships with industrial polluters when he attended the association's annual convention this year and witnessed hundreds of teachers and school administrators walk away with armloads of free corporate lesson plans.Along with propaganda challenging global warming from Exxon Mobil, the curricular offerings included lessons on forestry provided by Weyerhaeuser and International Paper, Borowski says, and the benefits of genetic engineering courtesy of biotech giant Monsanto."The materials from the American Petroleum Institute and the other corporate interests are the worst form of a lie: omission," Borowski says. "The oil and coal guys won't address global warming, and the timber industry papers over clear-cuts."An API memo leaked to the media as long ago as 1998 succinctly explains why the association is angling to infiltrate the classroom: "Informing teachers/students about uncertainties in climate science will begin to erect barriers against further efforts to impose Kyoto-like measures in the future."So, how is any of this different from showing Gore's movie in the classroom? The answer is that neither Gore nor Participant Productions, which made the movie, stands to profit a nickel from giving away DVDs, and we aren't facing millions of dollars in lost business from limits on global-warming pollution and a shift to cleaner, renewable energy.It's hard to say whether NSTA is a bad guy here or just a sorry victim of tight education budgets. And we don't pretend that a two-hour movie is a substitute for a rigorous science curriculum. Students should expect, and parents should demand, that educators present an honest and unbiased look at the true state of knowledge about the challenges of the day.As for Exxon Mobil -- which just began a fuzzy advertising campaign that trumpets clean energy and low emissions -- this story shows that slapping green stripes on a corporate tiger doesn't change the beast within. The company is still playing the same cynical game it has for years.While NSTA and Exxon Mobil ponder the moral lesson they're teaching with all this, there are 50,000 DVDs sitting in a Los Angeles warehouse, waiting to be distributed. In the meantime, Mom andDad may want to keep a sharp eye on their kids' science homework.laurie@lauriedavid.comLaurie David, a producer of "An Inconvenient Truth," is a Natural Resources Defense Council trustee and founder of StopGlobalWarming.org.

Conservation, Economics, and Education

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Brennan and Withgott 2005

EXTERNALITIES

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Internal Market Costsvs.

Externalities-External to Market Forces

-Noise-Pollution-Acid rain-Erosion-Global Warming-Eutrophication-Disease-Asthma-Birth Defects-Behavior and Intelligence

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Conservation, Economics, Sustainable Development

That which seems to be wealth may in verity be only the gilded index of far reaching ruin.

-John Ruskin, 1883

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Miller 2003

VanDyke, 2003

Genuine Progress Indicator

Index of Sustainable Economic Welfare

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Brennan and Withgott 2005

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What is the purpose of the economic system?-to what end all of this wealth? Ultimate value beyond market?

1-NeoClassical Economics (growth always good)

2-Environmental Economics (catch-all term, think cyclically)

3-Steady-State Economics (John Stuart Mill 1700’s, Herman E. Daly)- in = out- ‘Virtue and character higher goals than material wealth.’

4-Sustainable Development (Lester Brown)- do away with many subsidies- replace income tax with environmental tax

Stocks and Flows, EntropyUtility vs. Throughput

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ThroughputNicolas Georgescu-Roegen

~”a Cadillac now means fewer human lives later”

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Economic Growth vs. Development-efficiency, sophistication, utility

-Producer Pays/Polluter Pays-Dramatically less waste (packaging, scrubber sludge)

-Taxation/Subsidies

-Government strategies and regulation-Stable, democratic government required?

Product itself

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Nonrival goods(air to breathe)

or

Nonexclusive goods (UV protection from ozone)

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Wright and Nebel 2002

C: ~$436 billion

B: >$6.8 trillion

1:16 -> C:B

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nomadic Maasai

(Hill et al. 2004)

Private Property?

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Wright and Nebel 2002

2nd Law of Thermodynamics

Throughput

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Wright and Nebel 2002

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Vs.Positive

DISCOUNT RATE

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Herman DalyFormer Environmental Economist with WorldbankProfessor at U. Maryland

Utility vs. ThroughputUtility not measurable; it is an experience

Circulatory system vs. digestive system(perpetual motion machine)

Wealth vs. Ilth (accumulation of goods vs. bads)

Micro vs. Macro economics(MR=MC vs. endless)

If resources infinite then price = 0, but if pay for resources then can redistribute wealth

“SATISFICING”

Development vs. Growth

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http://www.steadystate.org/Index.html

Center for the Advancement of the

Steady State Economy

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Warren Buffett: Tax Inherited EstatesBy LAURIE KELLMAN – 14 Nov 2007

Billionaire Warren Buffett told the Senate Finance Committee on Wednesday that Congress should keep the estate tax rather than repeal it and help a few rich Americans like him."I think we need to ... take a little more out of the hides of guys like me," Buffett told the panel.One of the world's richest men and biggest philanthropists, Buffett has been outspoken against efforts, mostly by Republicans, to repeal or reduce the federal tax on inheritances. Democrats argue that a repeal would amount to a huge windfall for the nation's wealthiest families.Estates worth up to $2 million this year and next will be exempt from the federal estate tax. Portions of estates above that threshold will be taxed at 45 percent.In 2009, the exemption level rises to $3.5 million, and by 2010 the estate tax will be repealed — but only for a year.Unless Congress changes the law, it comes roaring back in 2011 with an exemption threshold of only $1 million and a top tax rate of 55 percent.Buffett said inheritance taxes preserve a measure of meritocracy, and with it opportunity, by recycling portions of great wealth through public coffers."The resources of society I don't think should pass along in terms of an aristocratic dynasty of wealth," Buffett told the panel. "I believe in keeping equality of opportunity as much as you can in this country."…Committee Chairman Max Baucus, D-Mont., citing information from the IRS, said that of nearly 2.5 million deaths in 2004, about 19,300 estates paid the estate tax. 76