Handbook of Vegetable Preservation and Processing, Second...
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629
26Production and Handling of Tomato with a High Nutrition Quality
Miguel A. Cruz-Carrillo, Cipriano Garcia-Gutierrez, Daniel Arrieta-Baez, Adolfo Dagoberto Armenta-Bojorquez, Jorge Montiel-Montoya, and María Eugenia Jaramillo-Flores
26.1 Introduction
The tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) with a production of 161,793,834 t in 2012, was the vegetable with the second highest worldwide production after potatoes (364,808,768 t). China being the coun-try with the highest production with 50,000,000 t, followed by India (17.5 million t), United States (13,206,950 t), Turkey (11,350,000 t), and Egypt (8,625,219 t). In 2011, globally presented a value of U.S. $725,685,929 (FAOSTAT Database 2014).
It is considered that the domestication of tomato started with the Aztec and Inca cultures where it was used as part of regular diet and its production and consumption grew at the same level as the popula-tion did. Nowadays tomato is sold fresh and also processed in several products like soups, pastas, con-centrates, juices, and ketchup. Several studies show its nutritional content as a rich source of lycopene, β-carotene, and vitamin C, some of which are maintained after its processing, providing important components for human health (Bergougnoux 2013).
AQ1
AQ2
ContEnts
26.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 62926.2 Tomato Nutritional Facts ............................................................................................................... 630
26.2.1 Tomato Properties ............................................................................................................. 63026.2.2 Husk Tomato .....................................................................................................................63126.2.3 Tomato Quality ................................................................................................................. 63226.2.4 Postharvest ....................................................................................................................... 634
26.3 Technology and Processing of Tomato Products .......................................................................... 63526.3.1 Tomato Ketchup ............................................................................................................... 637
26.4 Utilization of Agrowastes of Tomato Processing .......................................................................... 63826.5 Production and Handling of Tomato ............................................................................................. 639
26.5.1 Use of Biofertilizers in the Production of Tomato ........................................................... 63926.5.2 Use of Bioinsecticides for Plague Control in Tomato ...................................................... 639
26.5.2.1 Pest Management in Tomato............................................................................. 64026.5.2.2 Effectiveness of Native Isolates of Entomopathogenic Fungi against
Heliothis virescens ........................................................................................... 64026.5.3 Biological Control ............................................................................................................ 644
26.6 Conclusions ................................................................................................................................... 645Acknowledgment ................................................................................................................................... 645References .............................................................................................................................................. 645Websites Consulted for Insecticide Information .................................................................................... 647
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630 Handbook of Vegetable Preservation and Processing
26.2 tomato nutritional Facts
26.2.1 Tomato Properties
Tomato contains of 93.4%–94.5% water, 0.85%–4.6% sugar, 0.78%–0.88% protein, 0.2%–0.3% fat, minerals, mainly potassium, and is a rich source of other nutrients such as ascorbic acid (vitamin C) and antioxidants compounds of carotenoids family like lycopene and β-carotene (Table 26.1) (Rao and Agarwal 2000).
In addition, fresh tomato and its derivative products provide the following carotenoids: violax-anthin, neoxanthin, lutein, zeaxanthin, α-cryptoxanthin, β-cryptoxanthin, α-carotene, β-carotene, γ-carotene, δ-carotene, neurosporene, phytoene, phytofluene, cyclolycopene, and β-carotene 5,6-epoxide. The importance of carotenoids as antioxidants is that they can delay or control the oxidation of lipids or other molecules to inhibit the onset of reactions in oxidative chain (Yahia et al. 2007). The α-carotene, β-carotene, and β-cryptoxanthin have provitamin A activity to become retinal (Guil-Guerrero and Rebolloso-Fuentes 2009). Lycopene consumption prevents lung, prostate cancer, and digestive tract (Mourvaki et al. 2005). In the same way, tomato con-sumption has been associated with a lower probability of breast cancer (Zhang et al. 2009) also for head and neck cancer and helps to protect against neurodegenerative diseases (Freedman et al. 2008). Epidemiological studies have shown that lycopene acts to protect cells from the effects of oxidation and oxidative damage (Mourvaki et al. 2005). Sauces and puree may be of help to lower urinary tract symptoms of Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH) and may have anticancer properties (Polívková et al. 2010). Tomato consumption might be beneficial for reducing cardiovascular risk associated with type 2 diabetes (Shidfar et al. 2011).
It is known that the nutrient content and antioxidant activity of tomato may vary depending on variety and growing conditions (Guil-Guerrero and Rebolloso-Fuentes 2009). Tomato fruits that grow on organic substrates containing significantly higher contents of Ca and Vitamin C, present less Fe compared with the fruit grown in hydroponic medium, whereas the content of P and K does not vary in fruits grown either in an organic or in hydroponic substrate (Guil-Guerrero and Rebolloso-Fuentes 2009). It was found that wild tomato variety contains five times more ascorbic acid than MVs (Bergougnoux 2013). Guil-Guerrero and Rebolloso-Fuentes (2009) compared the nutrient composition and antioxidant activ-ity of mature fruits of eight varieties of tomatoes (Cherry, Pear, Daniela Long Life, Lido, pear, Bunch, Raf, and Rambo) that were grown in a greenhouse, and found that they varied mainly in the content of vitamin C as follows: 39 mg/100 g fresh weight (FW) in the variety Cherry Pera, and 263 mg/100 g FW in the Rambo variety. On the other hand, the values for the content of moisture, crude protein, available carbohydrate, and neutral detergent fiber were similar for the commercial varieties of tomatoes (Table 26.2) studied.
Table 26.1
Nutritional Value of Red Fresh Tomato (Composition in 100 g)
Proximate Minerals Vitamins
Fibers (g) 1.2–1.83 Calcium (mg) 7–10 Vitamin C (mg) 13.7–23
Sugars (g) 0.85–4.6 Magnesium (mg) 0–11 Choline (mg) 6.7
Protein (g) 0.78–0.88 Phosphorus (mg) 24 Vitamin A (μg) 42
Total lipid (g) 0.20–0.3 Potassium (mg) 237 α-Carotene (μg) 449
Water (g) 93.4–94.52 Sodium (mg) 5 β-Carotene (μg) 101–510
Energy (kcal) 18–34.67 Fluoride (μg) 2.3 Lycopene (μg) 2573–9490
Vitamin K (μg) 7.9
Lutein+ zeaxanthin (μg) 123
Sources: Adapted from Rao, A.V. and Agarwal, S., J. Am. Coll. Nutr., 19, 563, 2000; INCAP (Instituto de Nutrición de Centroamérica y Pamanamá), Tabla de composición de alimentos de Centroamérica, Menchú, M.T. and Méndez, H. (eds.), (3ª Reimpresión), Guatemala, 2012; Hernández Suárez, M. et al., Food Chem., 106, 1046, 2008; Pinela, J. et al., Food Chem. Toxicol., 50, 829, 2012.
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631Production and Handling of Tomato with a High Nutrition Quality
Furthermore, the content of microelements in the eight varieties analyzed presented a wide variation, probably largely influenced by agronomic practices, because the plants were grown under artificial sub-strate. High quantities for Zn, Fe, and Se were presented. It was also shown that the content of total carot-enoids (all-trans-lutein β-Carotene 9-cis-β-Carotene, Lycopene, and Lycopene isomers Neurosporene) as determined by HPLC was higher in red tomato, showing the greatest total carotenoid content as 583 mg/g dry weight (DW) in Cherry cultivar, with the higher lycopene content (350 mg/g), in all varieties. For the antioxidant activity determined by the technique of radical DPPH, the higher values were found for α-tocopherol, in the Lido and Raf varieties. The colorful varieties proved to be good sources of antioxidants in relation to the high content of carotenoids in mature stages (Guil-Guerrero and Rebolloso-Fuentes 2009).
It is known that the amount and composition of phenolic compounds in foods are influenced by the genotype, storage conditions, extraction procedure, and environmental conditions, in the same way, the quantity and quality of any other phytochemicals in tomato fruit are influenced by genetic and environ-mental factors (Luthria et al. 2006). Luthria et al. (2006) studied tomato fruits collected when ripe and comparable in size; varieties Oregon Spring and Red Sun that were developed in high tunnels, which were constructed with two contrasting materials that one provided an atmosphere of solar radiation and UV while the other material blocking transmission of UV. Subsequently three phenolic acids were iden-tified: caffeic acid, p-coumaric acid, and ferulic acid by HPLC-DAD, caffeic acid being the predominant phenolic acid in the two tomato varieties developed in both conditions. The total concentration of these three phenolic acids in both varieties was approximately 20% + higher in the samples that were UV treated than those without UV treatment. Similar results were obtained for the amount of total phenolics when the tomato extract was analyzed using the Folin–Ciocalteu method. The results indicated that the content of phenolic in tomato was significantly affected by the spectral quality of the UV solar radia-tion. To understand the physicochemical changes during maturation, since the sugar content and color changes were related with the metabolized lycopene, Cheng et al. (2011), using the technique of chemical shift imaging (CSI) tool, for not to be destructive to the physiological analysis fruit and vegetables and corroborating by HPLC, analyzed the spatial distribution of sugar and lycopene during ripening from green to red, and obtained a consistent trend in the variation of sugar content, while the lycopene content increased significantly in the outer pericarp and the columella in red stage (Cheng et al. 2011).
26.2.2 Husk Tomato
Husk tomato (Physalis ixocarpa), botanical species native from Mexico, belongs to the Solanaceae fam-ily, its morphological characteristics are similar to tomato (S. lycopersicum) and it is used in the Mexican diet since the Aztecs. It is usually used in sauces in similar way to tomato. Fruits at different stages of development (E0: Stage 0, Bud; E1: Stage 1, very young fruit; E2: Stage 2, young fruit; E3: Stage 3,
AQ3
Table 26.2
Chemical Composition and Vitamin C during Ripening of Eight Varieties of Tomato (in 100 g of Fresh Fruit)
Cultivar Ripeness
Color Moisture
(g)
Crude Protein
(g)
Available Carbohydrate
(g) Lipids
(g)
neutral Detergent Fiber (g)
Ash (g)
E (kcal) E (kJ)
Vitamin C (mg)
Cherry, Pera, Racimo
Light red 93.3–96 0.56–0.91
1.16–1.91 0.20–0.49
0.78–1.25 0.78–1.25
8.9–12.6
37.4–52.8
82–174
Cherry, Pera, Rambo
Breakers 92.6–95.8
0.55–1.05
1.01–2.18 0.42–0.44
0.99–1.60 0.82–1.41
9.9–16.2
41.6–67.6
39–263
Daniela Larga Vida
Pink 93.9–96.0
0.75–0.96
1.26–2.04 0.28–0.67
1.10–1.27 0.75–1.14
10.4–15.7
43.7–65.8
62–155
Lido, Raf
Source: Adapted from Guil-Guerrero, J.L. and Rebolloso-Fuentes, M.M., J. Food Compos. Anal., 22, 123, 2009.
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632 Handbook of Vegetable Preservation and Processing
semi-ripe fruit; and E4: Stage 4, ripe fruit) do not show a significant variation in nutrient content; how-ever, the mature green tomato (E4) has the highest sugar and fiber content and lower total carbohydrates and proteins contents, whereas the very young fruit (E1) has the higher protein content. This probably is due to the biochemical, enzymatic processes present during fruit growth (Table 26.3).
26.2.3 Tomato Quality
Lycopene and β-carotene act as antioxidants and also are related to the color and quality perception (Heredia et al. 2009). During the ripening process, the fruit and vegetables undergo physicochemical changes that primarily affect its texture, flavor, color, and sugar content. The color change is the main indi-cator of maturity stages, which is related to the synthesis or degradation of lycopene (Cheng et al. 2011).
Tomato quality is not only related to the taste, texture, and appearance, but also other features such as the product’s ability to harvest, transport, and processing. The strength and resistance of the skin are the most important properties of the fruit in the characterization of the quality of processed tomatoes, espe-cially in the packaging industry (Arazuri et al. 2007). Batu (2004) studied the minimum acceptable value for the firmness and color of tomato from two varieties “Liberto” and “Criterium.” Two possible values for the minimum limit for fruit firmness were suggested: commercial value, which was related to very firm tomatoes having firmness values above 1.45 N mm and tomatoes suitable for consumption at home should have firmness values greater than 1.28 N mm. In order to determine the color, the most common method is measuring the difference in color using the Minolta Chroma meter model. The Minolta a*/b* were less variable for mature green and breaker stages. When the fruit reached Minolta a*/b*, from 0.60 to 0.95, in the light red stage, the fruits can easily be marketed. Red stage corresponded to too mature stage with Minolta a*/b* values between 0.95 and 1.21 (Batu 2004).
The tomato flavor results from a complex interaction between taste and aroma. The main constitu-ents of tomato taste are sugars, acids, phenols, and minerals, where sugars make a great contribution. The aroma of volatiles defines the unique flavor of tomato and a particular taste perception is the cul-mination of his unique sensibility and even a nostalgic experience. Consumers evaluate the sweetness of tomato, and sugar accumulation, together with acids, can be defined flavor intensity (Beckles 2012). The environmental conditions, cultivation and harvest type, are the most important factors taken into account in the development of new varieties with improved agronomic characteristics (Bergougnoux 2013). Cherry tomato varieties 818 and DT-2 ha, in especially 818 variety, have high contents of antioxidants, that is, lycopene, ascorbic acid, and phenols, which may be important to consider for germplasm improvement program (George et al. 2004). Moreover, the efficiency of the generation of new varieties is based on the availability of genetic diversity and heritability of the traits of inter-est. Often, many features can be enhanced simultaneously and introduced into the new array and most of them are controlled by several genes which can influence the environment. The organoleptic
Table 26.3
Proximate Composition of Growth Stages of Husk Tomato (P. ixocarpa)
Analysis E0 E1 E2 E3 E4
Dietary fibers (g/100 g) 2.013 ± 0.006 1.823 + 0.006 1.7 ± 0.017 1.243 + 0.123 2.157 + 0.006
Total carbohydrates (g/100 g) 4.04 ± 0.021 3.483 + 0.029 3.35 + 0.017 3.773 + 0.029 3.127 + 0.025
Sugars (g/100 g) 1.17 ± 0 2.317 + 0.023 2.46 + 0.015 2.71 + 0.04 2.993 + 0.023
Proteins (g/100 g) 1.453 ± 0.033 1.630 + 0.044 1.34 + 0.052 1.443 + 0.038 1.327 + 0.046
Fats (g/100 g) 0.28 ± 0 0.527 + 0.015 0.827 + 0.011 1.197 + 0.046 1.027 + 0.071
Saturated fats (g/100 g) <0.10 <0.10 <0.10 <0.10 <0.10
Ash (g/100 g) 0.647 ± 0.015 0.610 + 0.010 0.517 + 0.006 0.557 + 0.021 0.527 + 0.03
Moisture (g/100 g) 91.573 + 0.055 91.930 + 0.025 92.267 + 0.011 91.89 + 0.25 91.887 + 0.03
Sodium (mg/100 g) 7.507 + 0.006 7.480 + 0.030 7.413 + 0.055 7.487 + 0.025 7.513 + 0.03
E (kcal/100 g) 24.51 25.22 26.31 32.39 27.18
E (kJ/100 g) 103.84 106.53 110.78 136.05 114.26
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633Production and Handling of Tomato with a High Nutrition Quality
sensation is evaluated by sensory analysis. Traditional breeding usually starts from a cross between lines adapted species, or between an elite line and a wild species or species group close to as Solanum juglandifolium and Solanum ochranthum. The production of a new variety of crosses between two varieties can take 5–7 years, while the incorporation of new genes from wild relatives can take about 20 years. A list of the main features with potential for breeding and germplasm source is presented (Bergougnoux 2013) in Table 26.4.
Table 26.4
Main Agronomic Traits of Interest Available from Wild Tomato Species and Germoplasm Origen
Characteristics
Germoplasm source (Lycopersicum Name) (Bergougnoux 2013)
L. p
impi
nelli
foliu
m
L. h
irsu
tum
L. p
enne
llii
L. p
eruv
ianu
m
L. p
arvi
floru
m
L. c
hmie
lew
ski
L. c
hees
man
iae
L. e
scul
entu
m
L. c
hile
nse
L. c
hees
man
ii
Biotic stress Bacterial resistance * * * *
Resistance to fungi * * * * * * * *
Resistance to virus * * * * *
Resistance to insects * *
Abiotic stress Low temperature * *
Drought * *
Salt * *
Plant Branch number *
Male sterility *
Growth habit * *
Height * * * *
Self-pruning * *
Fruit Antiox. capacity *
Ascorbic acid *
Citric acid *
Color * * * * * *
β-carotene * * * *
Lycopene * * *
Orange *
Yellow *
Cracking * *
Diameter *
Shape * * * * *
Firmness * * * * * *
Sugars * *
Length *
Locule number *
Maturity * * * *
Ripening * * * *
Soluble solids * * * * *
Viscosity * * * * *
Weight * * * * * *
Yield * * * * * *
Jointless *
AQ4
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634 Handbook of Vegetable Preservation and Processing
26.2.4 Postharvest
Tomatoes are mainly harvested in orange and red stages (Farneti et al. 2012). Appearance and texture are two of the most fundamental factors affecting the quality of fresh-cut products (Domínguez et al. 2011). For agricultural products such as fruits, appearance and texture are two of the most fundamental factors affecting the quality of fresh-cut products (Domínguez et al. 2011). Lycopene and β-carotene as well as being antioxidants are related to the color and quality perception (Heredia et al. 2009). It has been shown that using storage temperatures below 12°C causes degradation of lycopene, reducing the quality of the fruit and its commercial value (Farneti et al. 2012).
Dhakal and Baek (2014) found that the simple single blue wavelength light is effective in extending the shelf-life of tomatoes by delaying softening and ripening, allowing the gradual development of red and accumulation of lycopene.
The cuticle of the fruit influences the modulation of development, especially the ripening and posthar-vest storage performance (Lara et al. 2014). The cuticular matrix whose main function is to reduce water loss and limit the loss of substances in internal tissues protects against physical, chemical, and biological damage and provides mechanical support (maximum stress, stress at break, or elastic modulus), to keep the fruit complete (Domínguez et al. 2011). Most of the mechanical actions that cause reduces in the quality of tomatoes are produced during harvest and transport (Arazuri et al. 2007). In the cuticle major biomechanical factors involved in storage strategies for postharvest preservation, are the resistance and stiffness, which decreases with increasing temperature, where at a given temperature structure shows a phase transition, which in the elastic modulus is dependent on the relative humidity and the water which is known to plasticize the cuticle (Domínguez et al. 2011).
The cuticle is the main barrier against biotic and abiotic environment in which the fruit is developed; therefore, its composition and structure has an important influence on the potential of postharvest stor-age. Table 26.5 shows a summary of the major cutin monomers fruit, to understand the role of the cuticle in fruit quality and postharvest storage (Gérard et al. 1992; Lara et al. 2014).
Table 26.5
Main Cutin Monomers in Cuticle of Different Fruits
Major Cutin Monomers Fruits
9(10),16-diOH C16:0 Black chokeberry, cloudberry; crowberry; raspberry; rowanberry; strawberry; rosehip; and sweet cherry
10(9,8),16-diOH C16 Black currant
9(10)(9,8)16-diOH C16 Black currant
9,16-diOH C16 Pepper and green pepper
10,16-diOH C16:0 Tomato, green pepper; and Lime
16-OH-10-oxo C16 Grapefruit; Lime
8,16-diOH C16 Cucumber
18-OH C18 Apple (unknown cultivar)
18-OH C18:1 Crowberry
9,10,18-triOH C18 Bilberry; lingonberry; sweet cherry; peach (melting and nonmelting); and Apple (cultivar Red Delicious)
9,18-diOH C18 Pumpkin
9-epoxy-18-OH C18 Pepper
9,10-epoxy-18-OH C18 Lingonberry; cranberry, bilberry; crowberry; pepper; and sea buckthorn
18-OH-9,10-epoxy C18:0 Black chokeberry; Apple (cultivar Red Delicious)
18-OH-9,10-epoxy C18:1 Black chokeberry
18-OH-9,10-epoxy-12-enoic C18 Apple (cultivars Golden Delicious and Red Delicious)
18-OH-9-enoic C18 Apple (cultivar Golden Delicious)
Mid-chain epoxy-tri-OH C18 Wild tomato
Sources: Adapted from Gérard, H.C. et al., Phytochem. Anal., 3, 139, 1992; Gérard, H.C. et al., Phytochemistry, 33, 818, 1994; Ray, A.K. et al., Phytochemistry, 6, 1361, 1995; Lara, I. et al., Postharvest Biol. Technol., 87, 103, 2014.
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635Production and Handling of Tomato with a High Nutrition Quality
The factors that limit the shelf-life of fresh tomatoes are senescence, respiration, and disease development. To retard the growth of fungi or senescence was used a treatment with ultraviolet (UV)-C radiation, and this treatment increased the content of ascorbic acid, phenolic compounds, and lycopene. On the other hand, for the postharvest decontamination of fruits, the nonthermal tech-nology like Pulsed Light (PL) has used. The mechanism of microbial inactivation by photochemi-cal effects was reported as induction of structural changes in DNA of bacteria, viruses, and other pathogens, avoiding cell replication with the advantages like rapid microbial inactivation in short time treatments and lack of residual compounds and flexibility. However, pulsed light caused a sub-stantial loss of weight and the acceptability of the product quality for the third day (Aguiló-Aguayo et al. 2013).
26.3 technology and Processing of tomato Products
Around the world, to produce canned tomatoes, ketchup, tomato juice, sauces, and many other products, 33,197 million t of tomato were processed in 2013 (WPTC 2014). To produce tomato paste, fruit passes through several steps such as washing, breaking, and removal of skin and seeds by sieving, concentra-tion, packaging, pasteurization, and finally stored. Heat processing for inactivation of microorganisms and softening the fruit pulp to separate the epicarp usually use temperatures above 90°C, whereby the inactivation of pectinolytic enzymes is raised. It is well known that pectin methylesterase and endopoly-galacturonase causes a reduction in viscosity and lipoxygenase participates in the production of aroma. In contrast, at temperatures below 70°C, the enzyme activity is maintained resulting in a lower viscosity and undesirable compounds. Other components that influence the viscosity of the final product (tomato juice, ketchup, soups, and pasta) are insoluble solids, these are comprised of cell wall components and proteins, same as in fruit determine the firmness (Bergougnoux 2013). Furthermore, for the production of tomato paste, the tomato is homogenized at high temperatures where ingredients like water, starch, and vegetable oil are used. The thermal treatment cause photochemical reaction with subsequent degrada-tion of antioxidant components, and thus the nutritional quality of the product is altered. Moreover, the presence of vegetable oil in sausage may allow lipid oxidation, contributing to the oxidation reactions (Chanforan et al. 2012).
Furthermore, the processing conditions may also induce the transition metal ions of the stainless steel equipment into the product. Consequently, carotenoids (E)-lycopene and (E)-β-carotene can easily be isomerized to the E–Z conformations, although a decrease in the total carotenoid content can indicate other routes of degradation such as oxidative process. In contrast, there are reports on the increase in total carotenoid concentration in the dry matter of tomato paste, which we have found a high rate of isomeriza-tion to (E)-β-carotene compared to (E)-lycopene (Chanforan et al. 2012).
Georgé et al. (2011) compared the nutritional composition (carotenoids, polyphenols, and vitamin C) of red and yellow tomatoes, both fresh and subjected to thermal treatment as well as lyophilized. After subjecting to thermal processing, the yellow tomato showed a significant decrease in the content of β-carotene (44%), while the content of β-carotene and lycopene did not change in the red tomato. With the freeze-drying process it was found that, in both red and yellow tomatoes, the carotenoids content was significantly lower than fresh tomatoes. β-Carotene decreased 14% in the red fruit and 11% in yellow while the lycopene content decreased 47% in the red tomato. The content of vitamin C increased with the freeze-drying process and decreased with heat process-ing for both stages (Georgé et al. 2011).
However, there are studies reporting that the tomato processing had an overall positive effect on the contents of phenolic compounds. Components that increased were chlorogenic acid and glycosides of hydroxycinnamic acids, whereas rutin was not affected and naringenin largely was damaged. Chanforan et al. (2012) using HPLC-DAD-MS identified 57 phenolic compounds and alkaloids of the fresh tomato and products obtained by thermal processes (pasta sauces) including isomers naringenin (Table 26.6). Besides the aforementioned compounds also identified 28 identified carotenoids and carotenoid deriva-tives (Table 26.7).
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Table 26.6
Phenolic and Alkaloids Compounds Present in Fresh Fruit and Processed Products of Tomato
Compound Ff P1 P2 Fp s1 P3 s2
3-O-Caffeoylquinic acid * * * * * * *
4-O-Caffeoylquinic acid * * * * * * *
5-O-Caffeoylquinic-acid * * * * * * *
5-O-Caffeoylquinic acid (cis form) * *
Caffeic acid-dihexose * * *
Caffeic acid-hexose (I) * * * * * * *
Caffeic acid-hexose (II) * * * * * * *
Caffeic acid-hexose (III * * * * * * *
Caffeic acid-hexose (IV) * * * * * * *
Caffeic acid-4-O-β-d-glucoside * * * * * * *
p-Coumaric acid-4-O-β-d-glucoside * * * * * * *
p-Coumaroylquinic acid * * * * * * *
p-Coumaric acid-hexose * * * * * * *
3,4-Dicaffeoylquinic acid * * * * * * *
3,5-Dicaffeoylquinic acid * * * * * * *
4,5-Dicaffeoylquinic acid * * * * * *
Dihydrokaempferol-dihexose * * * *
Dihydroxyphenylacetic acid hexose * * * * * * *
Dihydroxyphenylpropionic acid hexose (tR 2.6 min) * * * * * * *
Dihydroxyphenylpropionic acid hexose (tR 2.9 min) * * * * * * *
Hydroxymethoxyphenylpropionic acid hexose * * * * * * *
Hydroxyphenylpropionic acid hexose * * * * * * *
Eriodictyol * * * * * *
Eriodictyol-hexose * * * * * * *
Esculeoside B (I) * * * * * * *
Esculeoside B (II) * * * * * * *
Ferulic acid-hexose * * *
Kaempferol-3-O-rutinose * * * * * * *
Lycoperoside F, G or esculeoside A (I) * * * * *
Lycoperoside F, G or esculeoside A (II) * * * * *
Lycoperoside H (I) * * * * * * *
Lycoperoside H (II) * * * * * * *
Naringenin * * * * * * *
Naringenin chalcone *
Naringenin-hexose derivative * * * * * * *
Naringenin-hexose (I) * * * * * * *
Naringenin-hexose (II) * * * * * * *
Naringenin-hexose (III) * * * * * * *
Naringenin-hexose (IV) * * * *
Naringenin-hexose (V) * * * * * * *
Naringenin dihexose * * * * * * *
Naringenin-7-O-glucoside (prunin) * * * * * * *
Phloretin-di-hexose * * * * * * *
Quercetin 3-O-(2″-O-β-apiofuranosyl-6″-O-α-rhamnopyranosyl-β-glucopyranoside)
* * * * * * *
Quercetin-dihexose * *
Quercetin–glucose–rhamnose–apiose–ferulic acid * * * * * * *
(Continued )
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637Production and Handling of Tomato with a High Nutrition Quality
26.3.1 Tomato Ketchup
The ketchup is made with fresh or processed tomatoes (tomato purees and pasta), plus spices and season-ings are added to give the characteristic flavor, also gums and starches as water-binding agents can be added to flesh, but its use depends on local regulations. Gums used in ketchup production provide a high consistency and low serum separation. Because of its low cost, corn starch is the most used, but can cause some problems in the quality as retrogradation.
The main parameters of the quality of ketchup are color, flavor, and flow properties. The rheological properties of ketchup depend on the amount of pectin, proteolysis and pectin fraction, pulp content, and homogenization process (Mert 2012).
The viscosity is an important quality parameter for consumer acceptance. For a consistent and desir-able quality in a paste ketchup of high quality, continuous monitoring and adjustment of process vari-ables (Bayod et al. 2008) are required. Consistency is considered a critical physical property, and linear viscoelastic properties and the elastic limit provide information on microstructure, which are important for handling, processing, and storage. Numerous studies on products made from tomato have demon-strated the relationship between the rheological properties and quality parameters, where to improve the rheological properties a hydrocolloid is added. The consistency of ketchup is improved using a homogenization valve. Often two-stage homogenization producing a bright and soft product is used. Moreover, by breaking up the fibrous structure of the tomato and reducing the average particle size, the final product quality is improved. In the homogenizing valve, the ketchup is forced through an opening of microscopic size, causing great turbulence and shear, in conjunction with compression, accelera-tion, reduction in pressure, cavitation, and impact, therefore disintegrate and disperse solids in tomato ketchup. In microfluidization, the fluid is forced to split into two microcurrents high speed collide with each other by causing fine particles (Mert 2012). In addition, in the process to prepare the paste, many structural changes occur which are reflected in the parameters studied (Bayod et al. 2008). Mert (2012) recommended microfluidizing as a novel method in processing ketchup, which compared the quality parameters of the ketchup through valve homogenization techniques and microfluidizing, where the dis-integration of solids proved to be more effective with microfluidization, also using high pressure micro-fluidization improved physical quality parameters were observed on lycopene content. Furthermore, the microfluidization at high pressures (above 1600 bar) resulted in small fibers and fibrils reduced moduli, elastic limit, and consistency Bostwick. George et al. (2004) recommended to pay attention to the cherry varieties (818, BR-124, and T-56) for use in processed products, because they had high content of soluble solids and titratable acidity.
AQ5
AQ6
Table 26.6 (continued )
Phenolic and Alkaloids Compounds Present in Fresh Fruit and Processed Products of Tomato
Compound Ff P1 P2 Fp s1 P3 s2
Quercetin–glucose–rhamnose–apiose-hexose * * * * * * *
Quercetin–glucose–rhamnose–apiose-p-coumaric acid * * * * * * *
Quercetin–glucose–rhamnose–apiose–sinapic acid * * * * *
Quercetin–glucose–rhamnose–apiose–syringic acid * * * * * * *
Rutin * * * * * * *
Rutin-hexose * * * * * * *
Sinapic acid-hexose * * * * * *
Syringic acid-hexose * * * * * * *
Syringic acid-hexose derivative * * * * * *
Tricaffeoylquinic acid * * * * * * *
Tricaffeoylquinic acid-hexose * * * * * * *
Source: Adapted from Chanforan, C. et al., Food Chem., 134, 1786, 2012.Note: Ff, fresh fruit of tomato; P1, tomato paste prepared with fresh fruit (Ff); P2, tomato paste (process a); Fp, tomato
pulp; S1, tomato sauce prepared with tomato paste (P2) and tomato pulp (FP); P3, tomato paste (process b); S2, tomato sauce prepared with tomato paste (P3).
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638 Handbook of Vegetable Preservation and Processing
26.4 Utilization of Agrowastes of tomato Processing
The processing industry from tomato generates large amounts of waste annually, known as “tomato pom-ace,” which has no commercial value and were supplied as food for animals (livestock). Tomato pomace consists primarily of seeds and skin of the fruit, which represent 4% of the weight of processed toma-toes. Toor and Savage (2005) found that for the tomato varieties Excel, Flavourine, and Tradiro grown in hydroponic medium and greenhouse, the skin and seeds provided, on average, 53% of total phenolics, 52% of total flavonoids, lycopene, 48%, ascorbic acid, 43%, and total antioxidant activity, 52%. So removing the skin and seeds in both fresh consumption and cooking at home or in processing, a significant percentage of the contribution of these components is lost. On the other hand, to give added value to these agrowastes applying cold pressure has been extracted lycopene from seeds and tomato skin, obtaining seed oil enriched with lycopene (Zuorro et al. 2013). Also these agrowastes, when subjected to a sequential enzy-matic hydrolysis of pectin, cellulose, and hemicellulose, it is possible to isolate the cuticle of the fruit of tomato, which is composed of an insoluble biopolyester in organic solvents, known as cutin, found within a complex waxes waterproof, and on its inner surface is interacting with the cell wall. Cutin consists of
AQ7
Table 26.7
Carotenoids in Fresh Fruit and Tomato Processed Products
Compound Ff P1 P2 Fp s1 P3 s2
Lutein monoester * * * * * * *
1,2-Epoxy-phytoene * * * * * *
Phytoene * * * * * * *
Phytofluene * * * * * * *
Isomer of phytofluene * * * * * * *
Isomer of ζ-carotene * *
(13Z)-β-Carotene * * * * * *
(E)-β-Carotene * * * * * * *
ζ-Carotene * * * * * * *
Di-(Z)-lycopene (TR 57.16 min) * * *
Di-(Z)-lycopene (TR 57.58 min) *
Di-(Z)-lycopene (TR 57.65 min) *
(15Z)-Lycopene *
Di-(Z)-lycopene (TR 57.91 min) * * * * * *
Di-(Z)-lycopene (TR 58.10 min) *
(5Z,13′Z)-Lycopene *
Di-(Z)-lycopene * *
(5Z,15Z)-Lycopene *
(11Z)-Lycopene *
(13Z)-Lycopene * * * * * * *
(5Z,13′Z)-Lycopene * * *
1,2-Epoxy-lycopene * * * * * * *
(9Z)-Lycopene * * * * * * *
(5Z,9′Z)-Lycopene * * * * * *
(7Z)-Lycopene *
5Z,5′Z)-Lycopene * * * * * * *
(E)-Lycopene * * * * * * *
(5Z)-Lycopene * * * * * * *
Source: Adapted from Chanforan, C. et al., Food Chem., 134, 1786, 2012.Note: Ff, fresh fruit of tomato; P1, tomato paste prepared with fresh fruit (Ff); P2, tomato paste (process a); Fp, tomato
pulp; S1, tomato sauce prepared with tomato paste (P2) and tomato pulp (FP); P3, tomato paste (process b); S2, tomato sauce prepared with tomato paste (P3).
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639Production and Handling of Tomato with a High Nutrition Quality
hydroxylated long chain fatty acids and sometimes ethoxylated of families 16 and 18 carbon atoms, linked by ester bonds (Heredia 2003).The monomers of cutin tomato have been obtained by alkaline hydrolysis with 1.5 M KOH–MeOH (Osman et al. 1999). From that alkaline hydrolysis, it is possible to isolated the main monomer tomato cuticle, 10,16-dihydroxyhexadecanoic acid, from which has been successfully syn-thesized monomers such as 16-hydroxy-10-oxo-hexadecanoic and 7-oxohexa-decanedioic acids, for obtain-ing aliphatic biopolyesters as bioactive materials for applications in the medical field (Arrieta-Baez et al. 2011) and have also been obtained oligomers by enzymatic methods, from 10, 16-dihydroxyhexadecanoic acid and its methyl ester derivative methyl-10,16-dihydroxyhexadecanote, opening a new platform design of bioactive and biodegradable polymers, with physical, chemical, and biological properties focus on bio-medical applications (Gómez-Patiño et al. 2013).
26.5 Production and Handling of tomato
The physiological process of fruit ripening, lycopene accumulation, red coloration indicating full maturity also presenting important biochemical reactions, such as the accumulation of sugars and volatile compounds as well as cell wall degradation, resulting in the loss of firmness and consequently reduced shelf-life. Being a climacteric fruit, ripening begins by increased respiration and ethylene biosynthesis (Bergougnoux 2013).
The inadequate agronomical handling of the crop has an impact in the environment and after-harvesting quality of the fruit. The world’s yield of food comes from intensive agriculture, which is based on the application of agrochemicals; vegetables are the crops where more fertilizers and pesticides are used, due to the high volume of food produced and the succulence of the fruit that make them more susceptible to plagues and diseases. Big quantities of fertilizers based on nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium are applied in tomato in higher doses that those recommended by research centers.
26.5.1 Use of biofertilizers in the Production of Tomato
Mineral fertilizers present collateral effects adverse to the environment and health. This requires the development of new biorational options, such as biofertilizers (Rabie and Humiany 2004). It is essential to assume a strategy of nutrient supply to the crops by the means of an intelligent combination of inor-ganic and biologic fertilizers, all within the sustainability framework, to reduce damages in the environ-ment, human, and animal health. The attainment of biofertilizers along with growth biostimulators and vegetable performance constitutes basic cornerstones that lead to an adequate and economically reason-able use of the different agricultural productive systems (Fundación Produce 2006).
The growth promoter bacterium (GPB) has received a great deal of attention for its potential to stim-ulate the development and health of vegetables. The GPB are distinguished in two groups: the first includes strains of species with the ability to synthesize substances that promote the plant’s growth by fixing atmospheric nitrogen and solubilizing iron and inorganic phosphorus, improving the plants toler-ance to stress by drought, salinity, toxic metals, and excess of pesticides.
The second group includes the bacteria capable of diminish or prevent the harmful effects of patho-genic microorganisms (Bashan and Holguin 1998; Lucy et al. 2004).
In the evaluation of 46 isolated natives of the bacterium Bacillus spp. in the production of tomato seedlings in greenhouse, strains of Bacillus were found with biomass yield (foliage dry weight) similar to the one obtained with chemical fertilization (Armenta-Bojórquez et al. 2009).
In the production of tomato fruits in the field (Armenta-Bojórquez et al. 2011), got fruit yields similar to the ones obtained with synthetic fertilization (40.22 t ha−1) compared with the production obtained with liquid compost supermargo enriched with Bacillus cereus (40.88 t ha−1); this compost is a fine alter-native in the organic production of the tomato crop.
26.5.2 Use of bioinsecticides for Plague Control in Tomato
The tomato is attacked by over 200 pests and diseases (Bai and Lindhout 2007), some of which are 8 microorganisms for bacterial diseases (Pseudomonas syringae pv. Tomato; Clavibacter michiganensis
AQ8
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640 Handbook of Vegetable Preservation and Processing
spp. Michiganensis; Xanthomonas campestris pv. Xanthomonas vesicatoria, Xanthomonas perforans, and Xanthomonas gardneri; Erwinia carotovora spp. Carotovora; Pseudomonas syringae pv. Syringae); 26 for fungal diseases (Alternaria alternata f.sp. lycopersici; Alternaria alternate; Stemphylium bot-ryosum; Pleospora tarda; Stemphylium herbarum; Pleospora herbarum; Ulocladium consortiale; Alternaria alternate; Alternaria solani; Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. radicis-lycopersici; Fusarium oxys-porum f.sp. lycopersici; Botrytis cinerea; Botryotinia fuckeliana; Phytophthora infestans; Fulvia fulva Oidiopsis sicula; Leveillula taurica; Pythium aphanidermatum; Pythium arrhenomanes; Pythium debaryanum; Pythium myriotylum; Pythium ultimum; Verticillium albo-atrum; Verticillium dahliae; Sclerotinia sclerotiorum; and Sclerotinia minor); 11 virus diseases (Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV); Curly top, Potato virus Y; Tomato bushy stunt virus; Tomato mosaic virus (ToMV); Tomato mottle gemini virus; Tomato spotted wilt virus; Tomato yellow leaf curl; Tomato yellow top virus; Tomato chlorosis virus; and Tomato infectious chlorosis virus), 2 viroids diseases (Tomato bunchy top viroid and Tomato planta macho viroid), 2 Mycoplasma like organisms (MLO) (Aster yellows MLO and Tomato big bud MLO), and 4 nematodes parasitic (Meloidogyne spp.; Belonolaimus longicaudatus; Paratrichodorus spp.; and Trichodorus spp.) (Bergougnoux 2013).
The tomato is attacked during its growth and phenological development for a variety of phytopha-gous insects, highlighted the complex larvae of the order Lepidoptera, consisting of fall armyworm Spodoptera exigua (Hübner), fruit and Heliothis zea (Boddie), pinworm Keiferia lycopersicella (Walsh), and fruitworm Heliothis virescens (Fabricius). Trumble and Alvarado (1993) reported from Sinaloa that in absence of chemical control the damage in tomato caused by S. exigua and Heliothis spp., ranging between 11% and 17%. Studies conducted by Brewer et al. (1990) indicate that the number of applica-tions required to control these pests is several times 29–40 per crop cycle. The international regulation on pesticide residues in tomato, and the increased tendency of pests to develop resistance to chemical pesticides, necessitates finding ecological strategies to control pests affecting tomato crops.
26.5.2.1 Pest Management in Tomato
Spraying insecticides is suggested when multiple eggs are viable for plant and/or the first larvae dam-age fruit. For armyworm, recommended primarily for the management of this pest biological insecticides based on Bacillus thuringiensis as Dipel® and Biobit® at a rate of 1.0 kg/ha and baculovirus NPV zea (Gemstar®) at the dose suggested by the manufacturer, when appear small third instar larvae and juveniles. Among synthetic insecticides may be used, diflubenzuron (Dimilin®), chlorpyrifos (Lorsban®), cyhalothrin (Karate®), methomyl (Lannate®), chlorfenapyr (Sunfire®), benzoate emamectin (Proclaim®), and meth-amidophos (Tamaron®) at the dose indicated on the label. The fruitworm has a more varied and abundant enzyme complex than the corn earworm, making it more difficult to control with insecticides, especially selected very fast populations resistant to pyrethroid insecticides, so a general measure is not recommended to use insecticides of this group until after the middle of crop development and preferably only once (Cortez 2005). Currently control of major pests (leafminer larvae, worms, moths, aphids, prawns, bugs, and cicadas) that attack tomato crop, the following insecticides and bio-insecticides (Table 26.8) are used.
26.5.2.2 Effectiveness of Native Isolates of Entomopathogenic Fungi against Heliothis virescens
Results of an experimental study on pest control of tomato using five products are shown in Tables 26.9 and 26.10 (extrapolated to ha−1), where the larvae mortality, losses, and commercial production are presented.
The evaluation of biorational insecticides showed that the best treatments for the larval mortality at the field level were the Bt (Versa), pyrethrins (Abatec), and nematodes (Capasanem) which got a level above 23% (Table 26.9).
The application of B1 Beauveria bassiana in field by starts having effect 120 h after application, which is probably due to the slow infection mechanism of the fungus causing mortality in insects. This is a disadvantage against chemicals that cause a quick death, but compared to chemical insecticides, they do not generate resistant in insect populations.
AQ9AQ10AQ11
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641Production and Handling of Tomato with a High Nutrition Quality
Tab
le 2
6.8
Inse
ctic
ides
and
Bio
inse
ctic
ides
Use
in T
omat
o C
rop
Pest
s
Pro
duct
n
ame
Act
ive
Ingr
edie
nt
Con
cent
rati
on
Pla
gue
Dos
e D
ange
r
Chl
orpy
rifo
s (L
orsb
an)
Act
ive
ingr
edie
nt: C
hlor
pyri
fos:
O
,O-d
ieth
yl p
hosp
horo
thio
ate
and
O-3
,5,6
-tri
chlo
ro-2
-pyr
idhy
l ph
osph
orot
hioa
teC
ofor
mul
ants
c.s
.p.
48%
(80
g/L
)
100%
(1
L)
Tom
ato
mot
h (C
opit
arsi
a de
colo
ra)
and
cut
wor
ms
(Epi
noti
a ap
orem
a)A
phid
s: A
phis
cra
cciv
ora,
Aph
is fa
bae,
Aul
acor
thum
so
lani
, Lea
f min
er la
rvae
(L
irio
myz
a hu
idob
rens
is),
B
eetl
e (E
pica
uta
pilm
e), a
nd B
lack
cut
wor
ms
0.8–
1.2
L/h
aH
arm
ful
Difl
uben
zuro
n (D
imili
n)A
ctiv
e in
gred
ient
: Difl
uben
zuro
n:
N-[
(4-C
hlor
ophe
nyl)
carb
amoy
l]-2
, 6-
diflu
orob
enza
mid
eIn
ert i
ngre
dien
ts:
Dilu
ents
, ant
ifoa
ms,
bio
cide
, thi
cken
er,
disp
ersa
nts
and
rela
ted
com
poun
ds:
• So
dium
diis
opro
pyl n
apht
hale
ne
sulf
onat
e•
Sulf
uric
aci
d, m
ono-
C10
-16-
alky
l es
ters
, sod
ium
sal
ts
22%
(25
%a )
78%
<10
%
Pin
wor
m (
Tuta
abs
olut
a)25
0–50
0 g/
haH
arm
ful:
slig
htly
to
xic,
dan
gero
us
for
envi
ronm
ent,
pote
ntia
l ca
rcin
ogen
ic e
ffec
t, an
d ve
ry to
xic
to
aqua
tic o
rgan
ism
s
Cyh
alot
hrin
(K
arat
e)A
ctiv
e in
gred
ient
:L
ambd
a-cy
halo
thri
n: (
S)-α
-cya
no-3
-ph
enox
yben
zyl-
(Z)-
(1R
,3R
)-3-
(2-
chlo
ro-3
, 3,
3-tr
ifluo
ropr
op- 1
-eny
l)-2
,2-
dim
ethy
lcyc
lopr
opan
e ca
rbox
ylat
e an
d (R
)-α-
cyan
o-3-
phen
oxyb
enzy
l (Z
)-(1
S, 3
S)-3
-(2-
chlo
ro-3
, 3,
3-tr
ifluo
ropr
op-1
-eny
l)-2
, 2-
dim
ethy
lcyc
lopr
opan
e ca
rbox
ylat
eC
ofor
mul
ants
c.s
.p.
5% (
50 g
/L)
100%
(1
L)
Aph
id: M
yzus
per
sica
e, A
phis
gos
sypi
i, A
phis
faba
e,
Aph
is c
racc
ivor
a, A
ulac
orth
um s
olan
i, C
apit
opho
rus
spp.
, Cav
arie
lla
aego
podi
, Mac
rosi
phum
sol
anif
olii
, R
opal
osip
hum
pad
i, C
haet
osip
hon
frag
aefo
lii,
Bre
vico
ryne
bra
ssic
ae, a
nd A
cyrt
hosi
phon
pis
umL
eaf m
iner
larv
ae: L
irio
myz
a sa
tiva
e an
d L
irio
myz
a hu
idob
rens
is.
Lea
fhop
per:
Par
atha
nus
exit
iosu
s an
d E
mpo
asca
cu
rveo
la.
Trip
s: F
rank
linie
lla c
estr
um a
nd T
hrip
s ta
baci
.B
eetl
es: N
aupa
ctus
spp
. and
Pan
tom
orus
spp
.C
utw
orm
s: A
grot
is s
pp.,
Cop
itars
ia s
pp.,
Hel
ioth
is s
pp.,
Spod
opte
ra s
pp.,
Man
duca
sex
ta, M
elitt
ia c
ucur
bita
e,
Plu
tella
xyl
oste
lla, a
nd T
rich
oplu
sia
ni.
Bee
tle:
Epi
caut
a pi
lme
Mot
h: T
uta
abso
luta
, Pht
hori
mae
a op
ercu
lell
a, a
nd
Plu
tell
a sp
p.G
reen
sti
nk b
ug: N
ezar
a vi
ridu
la
150–
200
cc/h
aH
arm
ful (C
onti
nued
)
K21711_C026.indd 641 4/29/2015 11:46:52 PM
642 Handbook of Vegetable Preservation and Processing
Tab
le 2
6.8
(con
tinu
ed )
Inse
ctic
ides
and
Bio
inse
ctic
ides
Use
in T
omat
o C
rop
Pest
s
Pro
duct
n
ame
Act
ive
Ingr
edie
nt
Con
cent
rati
on
Pla
gue
Dos
e D
ange
r
Lan
nate
Act
ive
ingr
edie
nt: M
etho
myl
: S-
Met
hyl-
N-(
(met
hylc
arba
moy
l)ox
y)
thio
acet
amid
eIn
ert i
ngre
dien
ts: D
iluen
t, di
sper
sant
an
d re
late
d co
mpo
unds
90%
(90
0 g/
kg)
(29%
a )
10%
Lea
fhop
per:
Em
poas
ca s
pp.
Tom
aro
pin
wor
m: K
eife
ria
lyco
pers
icel
laC
abba
ge lo
oper
: Tri
chop
lusi
a ni
Fru
itw
orm
: Hel
icov
erpa
zea
Salt
mar
sh c
ater
pill
ar: E
stig
men
e ac
rea
Arm
y w
orm
: Spo
dopt
era
exig
uaW
hite
fly: B
emis
ia ta
baci
, Gen
nadi
us, o
r Tr
iale
urod
es
vapo
rari
orum
Fle
ahop
per:
Epi
trix
spp
.Tr
ips:
Fra
nkli
niel
la s
pp.
250–
500
g/ha
Toxi
c an
d po
llute
th
e m
arin
e en
viro
nmen
t
Sunfi
reA
ctiv
e in
gred
ient
: Chl
orfe
napy
r:
4-B
rom
o-2-
(4-c
hlor
ophe
nyl)
-1-
(eth
oxym
ethy
l)-5
-(tr
ifluo
rom
ethy
l)
pyrr
ole-
3-ca
rbon
itrile
Cof
orm
ulan
ts c
.s.p
.
24%
p/v
(24
0 g/
L)
100%
p/v
(1
L)
Tom
ato
mot
h: T
uta
abso
luta
200–
300
cc/h
a (2
0–30
cc
/100
L
agua
)
Har
mfu
l
Proc
laim
Act
ive
ingr
edie
nts:
Em
amec
tin B
enzo
ate:
4″-
epi-
met
hyla
min
o-4″
-deo
xyav
erm
ectin
B1
benz
oate
(co
uld
be m
ixed
with
a
min
imum
of
90%
and
max
imum
of
10%
of
4″-e
pi-m
ethy
lam
ino-
4″-
deox
yave
rmec
tin B
1a a
nd B
1bIn
ert i
ngre
dien
ts
5% (
50 g
/kg)
95%
(95
0 g/
L)
Lar
val s
tage
:To
mat
o m
oth:
Tut
a ab
solu
taC
utw
orm
s: S
podo
pter
a sp
p., A
grot
is s
pp.,
and
Hel
ioth
is s
pp.
Pota
to m
oth:
Pht
hori
mae
a op
ercu
lell
a.L
eaf m
iner
: Lir
iom
yza
spp.
Arm
y w
orm
: Spo
dopt
era
exig
ua
200–
400
g/ha
Slig
htly
toxi
c, to
xic
to fi
sh a
nd a
noth
er
aqua
tic o
rgan
ism
s.
Toxi
c to
bee
s.
Cou
ld b
e to
xic
to
bene
fic o
rgan
ism
Tam
aron
Act
ive
ingr
edie
nt: M
etha
mid
opho
s (O
,S-d
imet
hyl p
hosp
hora
mid
othi
oate
)In
ert i
ngre
dien
ts: S
olve
nts,
em
ulsi
fier,
and
rela
ted
com
poun
ds
48.3
% (
600
g/L
)51
.70%
Lea
fhop
per:
Eut
etti
x te
nell
us1–
1.5
L/h
aV
ery
toxi
c,
neur
otox
ic, a
nd
toxi
c to
ani
mal
s lik
e fis
hes
(Con
tinu
ed )
K21711_C026.indd 642 4/29/2015 11:46:52 PM
643Production and Handling of Tomato with a High Nutrition Quality
Tab
le 2
6.8
(con
tinu
ed )
Inse
ctic
ides
and
Bio
inse
ctic
ides
Use
in T
omat
o C
rop
Pest
s
Pro
duct
n
ame
Act
ive
Ingr
edie
nt
Con
cent
rati
on
Pla
gue
Dos
e D
ange
r
Bio
inse
ctic
ide
Bio
bit
B. t
huri
ngie
nsis
, spp
. Kur
stak
i, st
rain
A
BT
S-35
1, f
erm
enta
tion
solid
s,
spor
es, a
nd in
sect
icid
al to
xins
Oth
er in
gred
ient
s
58.2
% (
32%
,a 54%
a )41
.80%
Loo
pers
Hor
nwor
ms
Tom
ato
frui
twor
mC
abba
ge m
oth:
Plu
tell
a xy
lost
ella
Cab
bage
Whi
te B
utte
rfly:
Pie
ris
bras
sica
eSa
ltm
arsh
cat
erpi
llar
Pin
wor
mA
rmyw
orm
sVa
rieg
ated
cut
wor
m
0.25
–0.5
0 kg
/ca
l (kg
/ha)
Slig
htly
toxi
c
Dip
elB
acil
lus
thur
ingi
ensi
s, s
pp. K
urst
aki
Iner
t ing
redi
ents
6.4%
(10
.3%
,a 32%
a )
93.6
0%
Fru
itw
orm
s: H
elio
this
spp
. and
Hel
icov
erpa
zea
Arm
ywor
ms:
Spo
dopt
era
exig
uaTo
mat
o m
oth:
Tut
a ab
solu
taVe
geta
ble
cutw
orm
s: C
opit
arsi
a co
nsue
taC
abba
ge lo
oper
: Tri
chop
lusi
a sp
p.So
ybea
n lo
oper
: Rac
hipl
usia
spp
. and
Pse
udop
lusi
a in
clud
ens
500–
1000
g/h
aSl
ight
ly to
xic
Gem
star
Poly
hedr
al o
cclu
sion
bod
ies
(OB
s) o
f th
e nu
clea
r po
lyhe
dros
is v
irus
of
Hel
icov
erpa
zea
Iner
t ing
redi
ents
>2
billi
on O
Bs/
mL
(0
.64%
)99
.36%
Cor
n ea
rwor
m: H
elic
over
pa a
rmig
era
Cot
ton
boll
wor
mTo
bacc
o bu
dwor
mN
ativ
e bu
dwor
m (
Hel
icov
erpa
pun
ctig
era)
375–
750
mL
/ha
Mod
erat
e ey
es o
r sk
in ir
rita
tion
a T
he p
erce
ntag
e va
ry d
epen
ds o
f tr
adem
ark.
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644 Handbook of Vegetable Preservation and Processing
The efficiency of the Bt-based (Versa) insecticide is probably due to the activity of δ-toxins that act in the postsynapse nerve impulse causing a mortality effect immediately.
The best treatments in reducing the percentage of fruit damaged by H. virescens were Bt (Versa) and pyrethrins (Abatec), showing averages below the recommended threshold, which is 3.25% for industrial tomato, while Nematodes (Capasanem) presented 5.9%. Although there were no significant differences within the three treatments, Nematodes (Capasanem) presented a percentage above the recommended threshold. When analyzing the performance results, we can see that the best treatment was Versa, with 16,900 t ha−1, while the results obtained with two native isolates (B1 and B2) were 13,200 and 16,200, respectively. In one cut fruit, there was no significant difference in the control and what is considered a good average per hectare at Sinaloa city. If pests and diseases are controlled with chemical treatments, which generate negative consequences to the environment and health, such as the development of resis-tance to chemicals, it is necessary to develop new chemicals. In addition to increased production costs, regulation on its use is becoming stricter (Bergougnoux 2013).
Biological insecticides prepared from entomopathogenic fungi are considered as promising candidates because of their low environmental impact, as well as for having some unique advantages among ento-mopathogens (bacteria, viruses, and entomopathogenic nematodes). They are able to infect the host by contact and adhesion of the spores to the buccal wall, membrane, or through intersegmental spiracles, so that ingestion of the microorganism is unnecessary and being for this reason useful for the control of important pest tomato compared to chemical insecticides.
26.5.3 biological Control
The activity of natural enemies, predators, and parasitoids is favored when conventional insecticide applications are not made. The first generations of fruitworm are controlled naturally by beneficial insects, but with the first spraying of insecticides natural biological control is removed. In this case,
Table 26.10
Tomato Fruit Damage and Yield in Five Treatments Tested against H. virescens in Field
treatment % in Damaged Fruit Commercial Production (t ha−1)
Capasanem (Nematodes) 5.9 ab 14.800 ab
B1 8.5 b 13.200 b
B2 10.2 c 16.200 a
Abatec (Pyrethrins) 3.2 a 16.400 a
Versa (Bt) 1.8 a 16.900 a
Control 13.8 c 11.100 c
Note: The average of three replicates per treatment is presented in each column. Different letters indicate significant differences between treatments according to Tukey’s test (p ≤ 0.05).
Table 26.9
Effectiveness of Five Treatments, of Larvae H. virescens in 3 Days
treatment
time in Hours
24 48 72
B1 0.00 c 2.33 c 6.66 c
B2 0.00 c 3.00 c 6.33 c
Capasanem® (Nematode) 2.00 bc 9.33 b 23.33 b
Abatec® (Pyrethrins) 3.00 ab 4.66 c 32.33 a
Versa® (B. thuringiensis) 5.00 a 16.66 a 39.66 a
Control 0.33 c 2.33 c 2.66 c
Note: The average of three replicates per treatment is presented in each column. Different letters indi-cate significant differences between treatments, according to Tukey’s test (p ≤ 0.05).
Data: Expressed as percentage of mortality.
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645Production and Handling of Tomato with a High Nutrition Quality
it would be very appropriate to use any of the biorational insecticides mentioned (Bt or Baculovirus) because it does not directly affect beneficial insects.
The proper use of parasitoids and predators (at the time required for release) may be sufficient for the effective control for fruitworm, especially if the crop is set to the recommended planting period.
26.6 Conclusions
In this chapter, important aspects of the production and handling of high nutrition quality tomato pro-duce were presented. The inadequate handling of the crop has been negative impact in the environment and after-harvesting affecting the quality of the fruit. The nitrogen-based fertilizers produce nitrates and constitute the better-known inorganic contaminants, the ones that pollute the groundwater the most and perhaps the ones that generate the more health risks. For this reason, the biofertilizers as the promoter bacterium (GPB) and bioestimulators has received a great deal, also the biorational insecticides (Bt or Baculovirus and nematode), biological insecticides prepared from entomopathogenic fungi, and natural enemies are too considered as promising candidates for the control of important pest tomato compared to chemical insecticides.
This work also shows the importance of tomato from the economical and nutritional point of view as well as the demand of this fruit for consumed both fresh and processed, and due to it is a rich source of vitamins and minerals, outstanding the potential health benefits of lycopene. Finally, the chapter shows the experimental work results realized in several commercial food companies in studies focused in the tomato-processing formulation and quality norms of tomato paste, ketchup sauce, and tomato puree.
ACknowLEDGMEntMiguel A. Cruz-Carrillo is grateful to PIFI, CONACYT for a graduate scholarship (244190). Cipriano Garcia-Gutierrez and María Eugenia Jaramillo-Flores are SNI, Cipriano Garcia-Gutierrez, Daniel Arrieta-Baez, Adolfo Dagoberto Armenta-Bojorquez, Jorge Montiel-Montoya, and María Eugenia Jaramillo-Flores are EDI/IPN and COFAA/IPN fellows. Financial support: SIP-20131019; SIP20120464; and SIP-20144632.
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websites Consulted for Insecticide Information
Biobit http://pdf.tirmsdev.com/Web/135/7794/135_7794_LABEL_English_pdf?download=true. http://www.tqc.com.pe/wp-content/uploads/2011/11/biobit_hoja.pdf. http://www.tqc.com.pe/wp-content/uploads/2011/11/ficha_Biobit.pdf.Dimilin http://www.abcam.com/Diflubenzuron-Dimilin-ab142288.html. http://www.agroquimicos-organicosplm.com/dimilin-2l-666-3#inicio. http://www.kenogard.es/Web/MSDS/32145.pdf.Dipel http://www.bayercropscience.cl/upfiles/etiquetas/Eti_web_Dipel.pdf. http://blog.bayercropscienceco.bayerbbs-hosting.com/blog/2013/07/dipel%C2%AE-wg/. http://www.kenogard.es/Web/MSDS/87413.pdf.Gemstar http://www.agrian.com/pdfs/Gemstar_LC_Label1.pdf. http://www.sipcam.com.au/Label/sipcam/Gemstar_LC_Label.pdf.Karate http://www.syngenta.com/country/cl/cl/soluciones/proteccioncultivos/Documents/Etiquetas/
KarateZeon.pdf.
AQ15
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648 Handbook of Vegetable Preservation and Processing
Lannate http://www2.dupont.com/DuPont_Crop_Protection/es_MX/assets/downloads/MSDS/insecticid.as/
LANNATE%20SP.pdf. http://www2.dupont.com/DuPont_Crop_Protection/es_MX/products/Insecticidas/Lannate/index.html#tabs.Lorsban http://www.sag.cl/sites/default/files/Lorsban%204E%2005-04-2012.pdf.Proclaim http://www.syngenta.com/country/cl/cl/soluciones/proteccioncultivos/Documents/Etiquetas/
Proclaim.pdf.Sunfire http://www.sag.gob.cl/sites/default/files/sunfire_07-09-2012.pdf (February, 2014).Tamaron http://www.afipa.cl/afipa/bayer/msds/Tamaron_600_SL.pdf. http://www.ecured.cu/index.php/Tamar%C3%B3n. http://www.pro-agro.com.mx/prods/bayer/bayer78.htm.
Author Queries
[AQ1] Please check the chapter author name “María Eugenia Jaramillo-Flores” for correctness.[AQ2] Please check if the reference citation “FAOSTAT Database (2014)” can be changed to “FAO
(2014).”[AQ3] Please provide complete details for references “Luthria et al. (2006) and Cortez (2005).”[AQ4] Please provide the significance of “*” in Tables 26.4, 26.6, and 26.7. [AQ5] Please check if the sentence “In microfluidization...” conveys the intended meaning.[AQ6] Please check if the sentence “Mert (2012)...” conveys the intended meaning.[AQ7] Please check if the edit made in the sentence “Toor and Savage (2005) …” conveys the intended
meaning.[AQ8] Please check if the sentence “The physiological process...” conveys the intended meaning.[AQ9] Please check if the spelling “Capasanem” could be changed to “Capsanem” here and elsewhere
in the text.[AQ10] Cross reference to Table 35.9 in the sentence starting “The evaluation of biorational insecti-
cides...” has been changed to “Table 26.9” as per the text. Please check for correctness.[AQ11] Please check if the sentence “The application…” conveys the intended meaning.[AQ12] Please check if “Acknowledgment” section conveys the intended meaning.[AQ13] Please check the edit made to reference “FAO (2014)” for correctness.[AQ14] Please provide in-text citation for references “García and Medrano (2006), Hajek and Leger
(1994), and SIAP (2014).[AQ15] Please provide title for “WPTC (2014).”[AQ16] Please provide accessed date, year, title, and author/owner of the site for all URL IDs provided
under “Websites Consulted for Insecticide Information.”
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