Handbook of Transport Geography

7/28/2019 Handbook of Transport Geography

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HANDBOOKOF

TRANSPORT GEOGRAPHYAND SPATIAL SYSTEMS

Edited byDAVID A. HENSHERInstitute of Transport Studies,University of Sydney

KENNETH J . BUTTONThe School of Public Policy,George Mason University

KINGSLEY E. HAYNESInstitute of Public Policy,George Mason UniversityPETER R. STOPHERThe School of Transport Studies,University of Sydney

JL.ELSEVIER2 0 0 4 rAm sterdam - Boston - Heidelberg - London - New York - Oxford

Paris - San Diego - San Francisco - Singapore - Sydney - Tokyo


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C O N T E N T S

Introduction to the series vChapter 1IntroductionKINGSLEY E. HAYNES, PETER R. STOPHER , KENN ETH J. BUTTON andDAVID A. HENSHE R 1

1. Introduction 12. Recent trends in analysis 23. GPS, GIS and other acronyms 44. Land use and transportation institutions 55. The Handbook 7

Parti. Transport and Geography 11Chapter 2Recent Developments in US Transport GeographyWILLIAM R. BLACK 131. Some definitions 132. Historical background 133. Transport geography today 164. Recent developments in the field 18

4.1. Deregulation 184.2. Activity analysis 194.3. Sustainable transpo rt 194.4. Environm ental justice 2 04.5. Economic development 2 14.6. Geograph ic information systems 2 24.7. Network design 2 35. Some concluding thoughts 246. Closure 24References 25

Chapter 3Institutions, Land Use and T ransportationROGE R R. STOUGH 271. Introduction 272. Theory and recent changes in land use and transportation 28


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Contents ixChapter 6Economic Development and Transport HubsKENNETH J. BUTTON 77

7778838383848485858788899495

97979899102104106

References 109

Chapter 8Connecting Mass Transit and EmploymentTHOMAS W. SANCHEZ 1111. Introduction 1112. Elem ents of travel dem and 112

2.1. Trip purpose 11 22.2. Trip timing 1 1 32.3. Trip origins and destinations 1 142.4. Trip mode 11 42.5. Available routes 11 52.6. Trip frequency 1 163. Work trip factors 116

1.2.3 .

4.

5.6.

IntroductionAirports as hubsRegional impacts of hub airport3.1. Primary effects3.2. Income multiplier effects3.3. Tertiary effects3.4. Perpetuity effectsEmpirical analysis4.1. Surveys and questionnaires4.2. Multiplier analysis4.3. Econom etric modelsInternational airline hubsConclusionsReferences

Chapter 7Transport and Spatial ClusteringJEAN1.

2.3 .4.5.6.

H.P. PAELINCKIntroductionPreliminary conceptsMarket approachNon-market approachSynthesisConclusions


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x Contents3.1. Distribution of trip times and day of week 1173.2. Direction of trip flows 1173.3. Modal availability 119

4. Other factors 1204.1. Network characteristics 1204.2. Network extensiveness 1204.3. Network connectivity 1214.4. Physical access - walking distances 1214.5. Vehicle ownership levels 122

5. Summary 122References 123

Part 3. Land Use and Transportation Modeling 125Chapter 9Overview of Land use Transport ModelsMICHAEL WEGENER 127

1. Introduction 1272. Existing urban land use transport models 128

2.1. Urban change processes 1282.2. Twenty urban models 1313 . Future urban land use transport models 1384. Conclusions 142Acknowledgment 143References 143

Chapter 10Integrated Land Use/Transport Model RequirementsERIC J. MILLER 1471. Introduction 147

2. A framework for integrated modeling 1473 . Design issues 151

3.1. Physical system representation 1513.2. Representation of active agents 1533.3. Representation of processes 1543.4. Generic design issues 1563.5. Implementation issues 157

4. Evaluation criteria 1604.1. Credibility criteria 1604.2. Feasibility criteria 1624.3. Usability criteria 162


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Contents xi

5. Summary 164Acknowledgments 164References 165Chapter 11Lowry-type Land Use ModelsALAN J. HOROW ITZ 16 7

1. Introduction 1672. Land use model concept: urban form and land rents 1682.1. Urban form and land rents 16 82.2. Agglomeration 1693. Residen tial location models 1693.1. Basic form 16 93.2. Population segmentation 17 13.3. Measures of attractiveness 17 23.4. Land constraints 17 23.5. The exogenous workplace 1 7 33.6. Multimodal applications 1 734. Overview of the Lowry model 1734.1. Typical data requirements 17 54.2. Anticipated results and cautions 17 54.3. Calibration issues 17 64.4. Equilibrium conditions 17 64.5. Deterrence function parameters 17 64.6. Disutility and the value of time 1 7 74.7. Definition of basic employment 1775. Derivation of the Low ry-Garin model 1775.1. Adjustments to residential attractiveness 17 95.2. Adjustments to service attractiveness 1806. Iterating a land use model with a travel-forecasting model 1807. Critique 1818. Closure 182References 182

Chapter 12Econometric Models of Land Use and TransportationMARCIAL ECHENIQUE 185

1. Introduction 1852. Theoretica l foundations 1863. A general model of trade and location 188

3.1. Functional relationships 1 883.2. Spatial relationships 190


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Contents

4.5.

3.3. Estimation of spatial prices3.4. Changing functional relationships (variable demand coefficients)3.5. Modeling the transport systems3.6. Integra ted spatial system model3.7. Policy modelingApplicationsConclusionsReferences

192194195196199200201201

Chapter 13Introduction to Urban Simulation: Design and Development ofOperational ModelsPAUL WADDELL and GUDM UNDU R F. ULFARSSON 20 3

1. The context and objectives for urban simulation 2032. The design and implementation of an operational urbansimulation system 2052.1. Assess the institutional, political, and technical context 2 0 72.2. Assess the stakeholders, value conflicts, and public policy objectives 2 1 02.3. Develop measurable benchm arks for the objectives 2 1 22.4. Inventory the policies to be tested 2 1 22.5. Map the policy inputs to outcomes 21 32.6. Assess the model requirements 2 1 72.7. Make preliminary model design choices 2 1 92.8. Select the modeling approach 2 2 22.9. Prepare the input data 22 62.10. Develop the model specification 2 2 72.11. Estimate the model parameters 23 02.12. Calibrate the model system 2 3 12.13. Develop the software application 2 3 12.14. Validate the mode l system 23 22.15. Operational use 23 23. Conclusion 233Acknowledgments 233References 234

Chapter 14Evolutionary Approaches to Transport and Spatial SystemsAURA REGGIANI 23 7

1. Introduction 2372. Spatial choice and processes: the role of spatial interactionmodels 238


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Contents xiii2.1. Spatial interaction models: the analytical form 2 3 82.2. Spatial interaction behavior and choice behavior 2 3 93. Non-linear dynamic processes: the logistic form 241

4. Networks and complexity 2435. Network complexity 2455.1. Simple models for complex networks: niche models 2 4 55.2. Complex models for complex networks 2 4 65.3. Detecting complexity from data 2 4 76. Network resilience 2477. Em ergence and self-organized criticality 2497.1. The concepts of emergence and self-organization 2 4 97.2. The concept of SOC 2 5 0

8. Conclusions 251Acknowledgments 252References 252Chapter 15Transportation and Urban CompactnessHARRY W. RICHARDSON and CHANG-HEE CHRISTINE BAE 25 5

1. Introduction 2552. Implications of urban econom ic theory 2563. Historical evolution 2564. Interpreting data and the urban scale 2575. The dynamics of transp ortation , land use, and urban compactness 2586. Transit-oriented developments 2607. New urbanism 2618. Neighborhood types 2629. Intertem poral changes 26210. Dispersal and travel behav ior 26311. Information technology 26412. Internationa l comparisons 26413. Conclusions 265References 266

Chapter 16Com putable General Equilibrium Analysis in Transportation EconomicsJOHANNES BROCKER 26 9

1. Introduction 2692. A primer in CG E analysis 2703. Transportation in CG E analysis 2773.1. Goods transport 27 83.2. Passenger transport 2 8 03.3. Economic equilibrium and transport network equilibrium 2 8 1


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Contents

4. Extensions4.1. Imperfect markets4.2. Dynamics

5. An example: the spatial effects of trans-European road networks6. ConclusionsReferences

Part 4. Data

281281284284286287291

Chapter 17Spatial Data Issues: A Historical PerspectivePETER R. STOPHER 293

1. Introduction 2932. Traffic analysis zones 2943 . Traffic networks 300

3.1. Bus networks 3023.2. Micro-networks 303

4. Interactions between zones and networks 3034.1. Zone size and networks 3044.2. The use of a GIS as a network platform 3054.3. Network detail and zone size 306

5. Conclusions 307References 308

Chapter 18Linking Spatial and Transportation DataBRUCE D. SPEAR 309

1. Introduction 3092. GISs and transportation models - a US historical perspective 309

2.1. Origins of GISs 3092.2. Origins of transportation m odels 3102.3. Development of commercial software 3112.4. TIGER and GISs 3112.5. The Census Transportation Planning Package and GIS 312

3. Conceptual differences between GISs and transportation models 3133.1. GIS spatial objects and relationships 3143.2. Network objects and relationships 3163.3. Translating between linear spatial objects and networks 3174. Other transportation data structures 3204.1. Routes 3204.2. Linear referencing 3214.3. Matrices 323


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Contents xv4.4. Dynamic spatial objects 3 2 45. Conclusions 325References 326

Part 5. GIS Applications 327Chapter 19The R ole of GIS in Land Use and Transport PlanningHOWARD L. SLAVIN 3 29

1. Introduction 3292. GIS in land use planning 3302.1. Data development, presentation, and access 3 3 02.2. Data access 3 3 02.3. Urban information systems and urban analysis 3 3 43. GIS in land use modeling 3354. GIS in transport planning 3374.1. An overview of GIS-T functionality 3 3 75. GIS in travel-demand modeling 3445.1. GIS-T use in modeling: the linkage-integration debate 3 445.2. GIS-T application to modeling activities and components 3 4 66. Concluding remarks 355

References 356Chapter 20The Role of GIS in Routing and LogisticsJOHN C. SUTTON and JOHAN VISSER 3 57

1. Introduction : why use GIS in routing and logistics? 3572. GIS routing and logistics capabilities 3582.1. Vehicle routing/dispatching 3 6 12.2. Arc routing 3 6 12.3. Network flow and distribution analysis. 3 6 12.4. Location and allocation models 3 6 23. Logistics issues 3644. Public policy-making 3654.1. Freight modeling 3 6 74.2. Spatial studies 3 6 75. Real-time routing and logistics 3695.1. From static to dynamic information 3 6 95.2. Convergence of GIS and location aware technologies 3 7 06. Software 3706.1. GIS limitations 3 7 17. Conclusion 373References 374


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xvi ContentsChapter 21GIS and the Collection of Travel Survey DataSTEPHEN GREAVES 3 75

1. Introd uction 3752. U se of G IS in travel surveys 3763 . Ge ocod ing of survey data 377

3.1. Automated address matching and GIS 3 7 83.2. How the automated geocoding process works 3 7 83.3. Partial matches 3 8 03.4. Checking of geocodes 3 8 1

4. Developing the da tabases 3824.1. The reference databases 3 8 24.2. Developing the target database 3 8 34.3. Spatial bias and spatial stratification 3 8 8

5. Summ ary and future direct ions 389References 390

Chapter 22GIS and Network AnalysisMANFRED M. FISCHER 3 911. Introd uction 391

2. Netw ork representa t ion and GIS-T network da ta models 3922.1. Terminology 3922.2. The network data model 3 922.3. Non-planar networks and the turn-table 3 952.4. Linear referencing systems and dynamic segmen tation 3 9 62.5. Lanes and navigable data models 3 9 8

3 . Vehicle routing within a netwo rk: prob lems and algori thms 4003.1. The traveling-salesman problem 4 0 03.2. The vehicle-routing problem 4 0 23.3. Constrained shortest-path problems 4 05

4. Concluding rem arks 407References 407

Part 6. GPS Applications 409Chapter 23Defining GPS and its Capabilit iesJEAN WOLF 411

1. Introd uctio n 4112. Th e Glob al Posi t ioning System 412


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Contents xvii2.1. Overview of GPS 4122.2. PVT determination 4142.3. Other GNSS 4162.4. GPS user technologies 4172.5. GPS receiver output 4172.6. GPS performance measures 4192.7. Standalone GPS position accuracy and augm entations 4232.8. Free satellite-based augmentation systems 4252.9. GPS mode rnization (or GPS III) 426

3 . GPS capabilities for transport 4273.1. Highway, transit, airport, and seaport traffic control and security 4273.2. E911 4273.3. Location-based services 4283.4. Combined measures of travel, physical activity, and health 4283.5. Mobile source emissions analysis and modeling 4303.6. Long-term travel studies 430

Appendix: Internet resources for GPS 430References 431

Chapter 24G P S , Location, and Household TravelPETER R. STOPHER 433

1. Introduction 4332. GPS as a solution 434

2.1. Types of GPS device 4352.2. W hat GPS can do 4382.3. What GPS cannot do 440

3 . Processing GPS data 4413.1. Problems with GPS data 4423.2. Accuracy of GPS 4433.3. Wearable GPS devices 444

4. The future of GPS 4454.1. Privacy 4474.2. Respo ndent burden 447


Chapter 25GPS and Vehicular TravelGEOFF ROSE 451

1. Introduction 451


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xviii Contents2. Key technology links and applications 4523 . Remote monitoring of vehicle location 4554. Arrival time information 4565. In-vehicle navigation 4576. Intelligent speed adaptation 4597. Advanced driver assistance systems 4608. Electronic payment and charging 4619. Unresolved issues 463

9.1. Map database related 4639.2. Hum an factor considerations 4649.3. Willingness to pay 4649.4. Managing privacy 4659.5. Public and user acceptance 465


Chapter 26Traffic Monitoring Using GPSCESAR QUIROG A 469

1. Introduction 4692. Measuring travel times, speeds, and delays using GPS 4712.1. Generating routes, checkpoints, and segments 4712.2. Linearly referencing GPS data 4732.3. Calculating segment travel times, speeds, and delays 4742.4. Calculating intersection delays 477

3 . Data management 4793.1. Architecture 4793.2. Linear referencing and computation of travel time 4823.3. Intersection delay 485

4. Summary 487References 487

Chapter 27Other Transportation Applications of GPSSHAUNA L. HALLMARK 489

1. Introduction 4892. Centerline mapping 4903 . Inventory management 4923.1. General 492

3.2. Mobile mapping systems 4934. Automatic vehicle location 493


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Contents xix4.1. In-vehicle navigation systems 4 9 44.2. Fleet management 49 44.3. Concept winter vehicle 4 9 5

5. Safety 4955.1. Crash location 49 55.2. On-bo ard crash notification systems 4 9 66. Locating environmentally sensitive features 4977. Summary 497References 498

Part 7. Spatial Cognition 499Chapter 28Cognitive M aps and Urban TravelREGINALD G. GOLLE DGE and TOMMY GARLING 50 1

1. Introduction 5012. Basic concepts 5012.1. Cognitive maps 5 0 12.2. Cognitive mapping 5 0 2

3. Transpo rtation issues 5023.1. Cognizing transpo rtation networks 5 0 23.2. Travel behavior 5 0 43.3. Path selection criteria 5 0 63.4. Navigation and wayfinding 5 0 63.5. Route learning 5 0 73.6. The role of trip purpose 5 0 83.7. Travel guidance 5 0 84. Inco rpora ting cognitive maps into travel choice models 509

5. Conclusion 510References 511Chapter 29Spatial ProcessesRYUICHIKITAMURA 513

1. Introduction 5132. Trip-based studies and their limitations 5153. Trip-chaining analyses 5184. Classification approaches 5225. Simulation approaches 524References 528


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Chapter 30Mental MapsLISA WESTON and SUSAN HAND Y 53 3

1. Introduction 5332. W hat are mental maps? 5353. How do people create mental maps? 5364. How have men tal maps been used? 5405. How can transp ortation professionals use mental maps? 5436. Conclusions 544References 544Part 8. Geosimulation 547Chapter 31Geosimulation, Automata, and Traffic ModelingPAUL M. TORRENS 54 9

1. Introduction 5492. Recent developm ents in the research landscape 5493. The emerging geosimulation approach 5504. Autom ata as geosimulation tools 5525. Modeling vehicular traffic 5545.1. Spatial topology 5 545.2. Entity descriptions 5 5 55.3. Neighborhood definitions 5 5 55.4. Time 5 5 65.5. Rules 5566. Modeling pedes trian traffic 5576.1. Entities 5586.2. Spatial topology 5 5 96.3. Time 5596.4. Neighborhoods 5 5 96.5. Rules 5607. Conclusion 561References 562

Part 9. Networks 565Chapter 32Design and Analysis of Transport NetworksHAI YANG and XIAONING ZHANG 56 7

1. Introduction 5672. Form ulations of network design problem s 569


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Contents xxi2.1. General framework of the bi-level model in network design and analysis 5 6 92.2. The continuous network design problem (CNDP) 5 7 02.3. The optimal toll pricing problem (OTPP) 5 7 12.4. The signal-setting problem 5 7 13. Prop erties of the bi-level model and the solution algorithm 5733.1. Non-differentiability of the reaction function 5 7 33.2. The marginal-function-based solution algorithm 57 44. Applications in location choice, land use, and network capacity 5805. Conclusions 580References 581

Chapter 33Spatial Equilibration in Transport NetworksANNA NAGURNEY 58 31. Introduction 5832. Basic decision-making concepts and models 585

2.1. System optimization versus user optimization 5 8 63. Models with asymmetric link costs 5914. Multiclass, multicriteria traffic network equilibrium models 5994.1. Traffic network equilibrium conditions 6 0 35. Dynamics 6046. Summary and new directions 606Acknowledgments 606References 606

Chapter 34Traffic Assignment MethodsWILLIAM H.K. LAM and HON G K. LO 60 9

1. Introduction 6092. Ro ute choice principles 6103. Three traffic assignment models 612' 3.1. Deterministic UE model 6 1 2

3.2. Logit-based SUE model 6 1 33.3. Probit-based SUE model 61 54. Case study 6184.1. Model calibration 6 2 04.2. Model validation 6 2 15. Concluding comments 623Acknowledgment 623References 624


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xxii Contents

Part 10. Time Use 627Chapter 35Time Use and Activity SystemsANDREW S. HARVEY 629

1. Introduction 6292. Activity systems app roach 6293. Time use and travel behavior 6313.1. The time use perspective 6 3 13.2. Travel perspective 6 3 24. Time use measurem ent 6334.1. Time use data collection methodology and instruments 6 3 74.2. Activities and context 6 3 85. Time use analysis 6405.1. Unit of analysis 6 4 05.2. Activity measures 6 4 26. Advantages and challenges of the time use approach 6447. Conclusions 645References 645

Chapter 36Activities in Space and TimeHARVEY J. MILLER 64 71. Introduction 6472. Time geography 648

2.1. Activities in space and time 6 4 82.2. Space-time path and prism 6 4 92.3. The individual and space -time aggregates 6 5 12.4. Con trasts with time use and activity analysis 6 5 12.5. Time geography and transportation research 6 5 23. Information technologies and the new time geography 6523.1. Represen tation of space-time environments 6 5 33.2. New method s for data collection 6 5 53.3. New metho ds for data analysis 6 5 63.4. Extending time geography to cyberspace 6 5 74. Conclusion 658References 658

Au thor Index 661Subject Index 669

Handbook of Transport Geography

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