HABILIDADES COMUNICATIVAS (5)

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TEFL Glossary

Part One: ESL/EFL Terminology

*This Glossary includes terminology from the course text Learning Teaching, Scrivener, Jim (2005).

Abstract Items Vocabulary concepts that cannot be shown visually, such as truth, upset, love, hate. (Contrast: ConcreteItems)

Academic language language used in the learning of academic subject matter in formal schooling context; aspects of language

strongly associated with literacy and academic achievement, including specific academic terms or technicallanguage, and speech registers related to each field of study.

Accent This can mean word stress - control has the accent on the second syllable but we use it to mean thepronunciation used by some speakers - a regional or class accent.

Acculturation The process of adapting to a new culture. This involves understanding different systems of thought, beliefs,emotions, and communication systems. Acculturation is an important concept for understanding S.L.A.,since successful learning is more likely when learners succeed in acculturating.

Active Vocabulary The words and phrases which a learner is able to use in speech and writing. (Contrast: PassiveVocabulary)

Activity Something that students do. A single task or exercise.

Adapted Materials Modified; usually refers to authentic materials that have been simplified for lower-level students.

Advanced A level of attainment where the learner has mastered most of the structures and functions of the languageand is able to move freely through several registers - there may be a working vocabulary of in excess of3000 words.

Aids to Teaching (a) Visual: Blackboard, whiteboard, overhead projector, realia, posters, wall charts, flipcharts, maps, plans,flashcards, word cards, puppets. (b) Electronic: Tape recorder, TV or video player, computer, CD Rom,language laboratory.

AmE American English

Antonym A word opposite in meaning to another. Fastis an antonym ofslow.

Applied Linguistics The study of the relationship between theory and practice. The main emphasis is usually on languageteaching, but can also be applied to translation, lexicology, among others.

Approach A broad term for language teaching that reflects a certain model or research paradigm - like a theory.(Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language, 2001)

Appropriacy Whether an item is suited to or appropriate for whom you use it with. For example, it is inappropriate to useslang when speaking to the President. (See Register)

Aptitude The specific ability a learner has for learning a second language. This is separate from intelligence.

ARC A Lesson Format Authentic Use, Restricted Use, Clarification and Focus. In 'Learning Teaching,' JimScrivener proposes a teaching sequence model which he calls 'ARC.' He suggests that any teaching

sequence could potentially have three elements to it: 'Authentic use,' 'Restricted use' and 'Clarification andfocus.'

'Authentic use' means exposure to or practice of real language use

'Restricted use' means controlled practice of language

'Clarification and focus' means drawing our students' attention to form.

Assessment standards Statements that establish guidelines for evaluating student performance and attainment of contentstandards; often include philosophical statements of good assessment practice (see performancestandards).

Attitudes Learners possess sets of beliefs about language learning, target culture, culture, teacher, learning tasks,etc. These beliefs are referred to as attitudes. They influence learning in a number of ways

Aural Pertaining to the ear.

Aural Comprehension: Understanding the spoken word.

Aural Discrimination: Distinguishing between spoken sounds, words, or phrases.

Authentic Exposure Exposure to language when it is being used naturally.

Authentic Language Real or natural language, as used by native speakers of a language in real-life contexts; not artificial orcontrived for purposes of learning grammatical forms or vocabulary.

Authentic Materials Unscripted materials or those which have not been specially written for classroom use, though they mayhave been edited. Examples include newspaper texts and TV broadcasts; actual materials from the realworld, such as newspaper articles, pamphlets, radio broadcasts, and student writing. Produced for nativespeakers, not for EFL students (Contrast: Graded Materials).

Authentic Output Students speaking or writing using the full range of language at their disposal. The language being usedhas not been restricted in any way by your instruction or course book.

Authentic Task A task which involves learners in using language in a way that replicates its use in the 'real world' outsidethe language classroom. Filling in blanks, changing verbs from the simple past to the simple present andcompleting substitution tables are, therefore, not authentic tasks. Examples of authentic tasks would be


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answering a letter addressed to the learner, arguing a particular point of view and comparing variousholiday brochures in order to decide where to go for a holiday.

Authentic Text A text which is not written or spoken for language teaching purposes. A newspaper article, a rock song, anovel, a radio interview and a traditional fairy tale are examples of authentic texts. A story written toexemplify the use of reported speech, a dialogue scripted to exemplify ways of inviting and a linguisticallysimplified version of a novel would not be authentic texts.

Auxiliary Verbs Forms of the verbs be, do and have which are used to create the different tenses in English:am/is/are/was/were eating/ being eaten; do/does/did eat; has/have/had eaten/ been eaten.

BackChaining The technique used to help students say a difficult sentence by breaking it down into smaller parts andpracticing saying those pieces starting with the end of the sentence and slowly building up again to thecomplete sentence.

Background Knowledge Existing knowledge that the language learner already has. In the second language comprehensionprocess, at least three types of backgrounds are potentially activated: (1) linguistic information, (2)knowledge of the world (ones store of concepts and experiences), and (3) knowledge of discoursestructures or how various types of authentic discourse (conversations, radio broadcasts, newspaperarticles, political speeches) are generally organized.

Behaviorist Learning theory This a general theory of learning, developed by B F Skinner. It sees learning as the formation of habits.Environmental factors (input, teacher, classroom, etc.) are seen as more important than the student'smental, internal factors.

BICS Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (everyday conversational language) There are two kindsof English proficiency that ESL students must learn. The first is basic interpersonal conversational skills(BICS) that ESL students need when they carry on face-to-face conversation in social settings. BICSEnglish is characterized as context-embedded since contextual cues are available to both speaker and

listener involved in the conversation, and it is cognitively undemanding.

Biculturalism Near native like knowledge of two cultures; includes the ability to respond effectively to the differentdemands of these two cultures.

Bilingual instruction Provision of instruction in school settings through the medium of two languages, a native and a secondlanguage; the proportion of the instructional day delivered in each language varies by the type of thebilingual education program in which instruction is offered and the goals of said program.

Bilingualism Being able to communicate effectively in two or more languages, with more or less the same degree ofproficiency.

Body language The gestures and mannerisms by which a person communicates with others.

Bottom-Up Mode (ofLanguage Processing):

The processing of language information is worked by the incoming language itself in this mode; theunderstanding of incoming language proceeds from sounds or letters to words, grammatical relationshipsand logical meaning, etc. The composite meaning of the message is arrived at based on the incominglanguage data (see more at Skills-Based; Contrast: Top-Down Mode).

BrE British English

CALP Cognitive/Academic Language Proficiency (abstract and academic language used by scholars andstudents) CALP English is characterized as context-reduced, as is found in written texts in content areassuch as math, science, and social studies. Due to its decontextualized nature, ESL students struggle tocomprehend what they read and to express what they know in writing. CALP English used in context-reduced academic learning demands high cognition on the part of the ESL student. (Compare: BICS)

CanE Canadian English

CBT Computer Based Test

Chunking: Putting small groups of words together into meaningful phrases.

Citation Form This is the way that a word is pronounced if you say it on its own; shown in a dictionary. This is oftendifferent from the typical in-sentence pronunciation in fluent connected speech.

Clarification A part of a lesson where students become clearer about language systems items, especially concerninghow they are formed, what they mean, how they are pronounced and how they are used.

Classroom Management The moment-by-moment decisions and actions concerning organization of the classroom and activities,e.g. seating and grouping arrangements, starting and stopping activities, dealing with unexpected

problems, etc.Closed Questions Questions which require a yes/no or one-word answer. (Contrast: Open Questions)

Cloze Exercise (Procedure) A type of gap-fill exercise where every fifth word (or sixth or seventh etc) is deleted from a text. The intervalbetween the deleted words should remain the same throughout the text. The student then supplies themissing words, often relying on contextualization for help.

Cognate In a technical sense, two words that have a common origin are cognates. Most often, cognates are wordsin two languages that have a common etymology and thus are similar or identical. For example, the English"kiosk" and the Spanish quiosco are cognates because they both come from the Turkish kosk. (Contrast:False Cognate)

Colligation A grouping of words, based on their functioning in the same type of syntactic structures, in contrast to asemantic relationship (or COLLOCATION ).


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Contextualized Sounds, vocabulary, and grammar presented within a meaningful context to facilitate learning.

Contrastive AnalysisHypothesis

According to this hypothesis, L2 errors are the result of differences between the learner's first language andthe target language, and these differences can be used to identify or predict errors that will occur.

Cooperative/CollaborativeGroup

A grouping arrangement in which positive interdependence and shared responsibility for task completionare established among group members; the type of organizational structure encouraging heterogeneousgrouping, shared leadership, and social skills development. See Cooperative Learning.

Cooperative Learning Learning that takes place when students of various abilities and backgrounds are placed together in pairs

and small groups to work on tasks with instructor supervision and support. The instructor assesses thegroups work, not the individuals. Activities in which students are involved in pair or small group work in acollaborative atmosphere with the teacher.

Core Series (Course book) A textbook or text series, which make up the main, or core, curriculum. The text usually integrates the fourskills plus grammar, and is used instead of individual skills texts. It aims to provide as much as possible inone book and is designed so that it could serve as the only book which the learners necessarily use duringa course. Such a book usually focuses on grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, functions and the skills ofreading, writing, listening and speaking: See supplementary materials.

Creating Interest (Engage,Setting Context)

Before working with a language concept, a reading text or listening excerpt, the teacher creates interest byasking students what they know about the topic, or doing an activity that makes the topic relevant to thestudents.

Cue Cards Cards with words or pictures on them which are used to encourage student response, or pair and groupwork.

Culture The sum total of the ways of life of a people; includes norms, learned behavior patterns, attitudes, andartifacts; also involves traditions, habits or customs; how people behave, feel and interact; the means by

which they order and interpret the world; ways of perceiving, relating and interpreting events based onestablished social norms; a system of standards for perceiving, believing, evaluating, and acting.

Deductive In a language classroom, a deductive approach means teaching learners rules and then giving themopportunities to apply them through practice. The role of the teacher is to present the rules and organizethe practice. The deductive approach is often thought of as a more traditional way of teaching: it is teacher-led and teacher-centered, at least at the presentation stage; it focuses initially on rules and then use; itoften uses input language which is adjusted to the learners and not authentic. These do not in themselveshave to be traditional ways of teaching, but they indicate a traditional approach. (Contrast: Inductive).

Denotation The literal meaning of a word, the "dictionary definition."

Derivation The process by which words are formed from existing words or bases by adding affixes, as singerfromsingorundo from do, by changing the shape of the word or base, as songfrom sing, or by adding an affixand changing the pronunciation of the word or base, as electricityfrom electric.

Detail Task (Questions) A task aimed at checking the comprehension of a listening or reading task. It requires the student toread/listen carefully and to understand the details of the text. (Contrast: Gist Task)

Dialogue Short conversation between two or more people, written, spoken, or acted out in class.

Diphthong A phoneme containing two vowel sounds, one gliding into the second.

Discourse Unit of language greater than a sentence: language in action or performance communicatively.

Discourse Types The four basic modes of writing: description, narration argumentation/persuasion, and exposition (seeExpository Writing).

Drill (Drilling) (a) The intensive and repetitive practice of the target language, which may be choral or individual (b)Activity which involves: students repeating sentences after the teacher, or students creating sentences withprompts from teacher (e.g., Repetition Drill, Substitution Drill, Q & A Drill).

EAP English for Academic Purposes - English language learning in preparation for academic study, usuallyfocusing on advanced reading, technical writing, and comprehending college lectures.

Echoing When a teacher (for no valid reason) repeats back everything the students say. Though usuallysubconscious, this increases TTT and makes lessons more teacher-centered.

EFF Equipped For the Future - The National Institute for Literacys standards based system reform initiativeaimed at improving the quality and outcomes of the adult literacy and lifelong learning delivery system. EFFstarts from the recognition that the skills adults need as parents, workers, and citizens go beyond the basic

academic skills that have traditionally been targeted by adult education programs.EFL English as a Foreign Language - English language learning learned in a non-English speaking

environment. English language programs in countries where English is not the common or officiallanguage. It is used in American university programs where international students study English althoughthe use of the word foreign is now avoided in some schools because of its xenophobic connotations.

ELA (a) English Language Acquisition (b) English Language Arts - K-12 national language arts standards forboth native and non-native speakers of English.

ELD English Language Development The progression of students learning English

Elementary Students at this level may have a vocabulary of up to 1000 words and will probably be learning orpracticing present simple and continuous tenses, past simple and present perfect, will/shall, 'going to'futures. They should be able to hold simple conversations and survive in everyday situations.


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Elicit To draw an item or example from students by asking questions or giving prompts.

Elision The loss of some sounds in connected speech. For example, in Good morning sometimes the /d/ sound iscompletely lost and the greeting sounds more like Gmorning.

ELL English Language Learner non-native English speakers learning English

ELT English Language Teaching - a more global term for ESL

ESA In How to Teach English [Longman 1998] Jeremy Harmer proposed a different three stage model, the ESAmodel: Engage, Study, Activate.

Engage - This means getting the students interested in the class. Engaging students is importantfor the learning process.

Study - Every lesson usually needs to have some kind of language focus. The study element of alesson could be a focus on any aspect of the language, such as grammar or vocabulary andpronunciation. A study stage could also cover revision and extension of previously taughtmaterial.

Activate - Telling students about the language is not really enough to help them learn it. Forstudents to develop their use of English they need to have a chance to produce it. In an activatestage the students are given tasks which require them to use not only the language they arestudying that day, but also other language that they have learned.

ESL (a) English as a Second Language: English language learned in an English-speaking environment (b) L2:English as a Second Language. The field of English as a second language; courses, classes and/orprograms designed for students learning English as an additional language.

ESOL English for Speakers of Other Languages: the preferred name for ESL in the adult and El-High sectors andin some U.S. states. Refers to learners who are identified as still in the process of acquiring English as anadditional language; students who may not speak English at all or, at least, do not speak, understand, andwrite English with the same facility as their classmates because they did not grow up speaking English(rather they primarily spoke another language at home).

ESP English for Specific Purposes: meets the needs of adult learners who need to learn a foreign language foruse in their specific fields, such as science, technology, medicine, leisure, and academic learning. IncludesEAP, EST, VESL and English for Business and Economics.

EST English for Science and Technology.

EVP English for Vocational Purposes

Expansion Providing synonyms, antonyms, alternative ways to say the same thing, contrasts in register, etc. forvocabulary and expressions. Providing contrasts and similarities when teaching structure (grammar).

Experiential Learning Learning derived from activities that are somewhat natural; activities where both the left (analytical) and theright (holistic) sides of the brain are engaged; where content is contextualized, skills integrated, andpurposes real. It also refers to how one applies generalizations from a concrete experience to newsituations, and to a route to social and moral development. Thus it is a messy model of second languageacquisition involving reciprocal development of cognition, socialization, and language.

Exponent An item that is an example of a particular function. For example, Could you make me a cup of tea,please? is an exponent of the function of making polite requests.

Expository Writing Writing that tries to explain something in the form of one or more of the rhetorical patterns of fact, process,classification, comparison/contrast, analysis, illustration, cause and effect, definition, and analogy (seeDiscourse Types).

ExtensiveReading/Listening

Reading or listening to longer pieces of texts without pausing and worrying too much about details, usuallyfor pleasure.

Extensive Reading Reading on ones own; reading for diverse or general meaning; the bulk of the reading that native speakersdo in everyday reading. Activities include skimming, scanning, pre-reading, and evaluation.

False Beginners A low-level language learner who has previously studied the language but failed to achieve full mastery forthat level. When applied to materials, it implies the use of a faster pace in earlier texts, and the inclusion ofa quick review of concepts and language previously learned.

False Cognate A word that reminds you of one in your own language and misleads you into guessing that it has the sameor a similar meaning in the new language (e.g. ropa in Spanish means clothes, not rope). (Contrast:Cognate)

Feedback (a) The response learners get when they attempt to communicate. This can involve correction,acknowledgement, requests for clarification, cues (e.g., "mmm"). Feedback plays an important role inhelping learners to test their ideas about the target language (b) refers to a range of techniques employedby the teacher to facilitate responses from the students to an exercise or task.

Focus on Accuracy Practice of a specific language item, which has been presented to students. (Contrast: Focus on Fluency)

Focus on Fluency Speaking naturally without worrying too much about being 100% correct. Free speaking or writing. Whenstudents use all the English they know to communicate, rather than consciously practicing specificgrammatical structures recently studied in class. (Contrast: Focus on Accuracy)

Form The way an item is written or said (spelling/pronunciation). Form is also used to refer to the grammaticaloperation of items, as opposed to what they mean or how they are used. The structural components of


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linguistic items, i.e., the syntax (i.e., word order) and morphology (i.e. verb endings).

Frequency Used to describe the most commonly used words; how often a word (or lexical item) is used and heard incommunication

Function Words Function words (or structural/grammatical words) are words that have little lexical meaning or haveambiguous meaning, but instead serve to express grammatical relationships with other words within asentence, or specify the attitude or mood of the speaker. (Contrast: Content Words)

Communicative Function What you express through a piece of language; e.g., inviting, apologizing, or expressing regret.

Gap-Fill A written exercise in which students put the appropriate items into gaps left in a sentence or text (fill-in-the-blank). NOTE: Be careful not to confuse this with Information Gap.

Gist Task (Questions) A question/task asked to check students comprehension of the gist of a text. (Contrast: Detailed Task)

Gradable Opposite(Antonym)

Gradable opposites are antonyms that lie at opposite ends of a continuous spectrum of meanings;examples are hotand cold, slowand fast, and fatand skinny. These describe something which can bemeasured and compared with something else.

Graded Language/Speech Language (in a text, in oral instructions, etc.) which is simplified, but still exemplifies natural speechpatterns, so that a foreign learner of English can understand it.

Graded Materials Scripted materials or those which have been specially modified (or simplified) and written for classroomuse. Examples include course books, graded readers, grammar books and other content specific texts (forESL/EFL). Produced for non-native speakers (or ESL/EFL students). (Contrast: Authentic Materials).

Grammar The rules that govern the form/structure of a language. A theory or hypothesis, about the organization oflanguage in the mind of speakers of that language--the underlying knowledge that permits understandingand production of language.

Grammaring The ability to use grammatical structures accurately, meaningfully, and appropriately. This term, coined byDiane Larsen-Freeman, refers to the need to teach a fifth skill so that students can master not only theform of grammatical structures, but their meaning and their use as well.

Group Work Students work in small groups, rather than all together or individually. (Contrast: Open Class)

Guided Discovery Guided discovery, also known as an inductive approach, is a technique where a teacher provides examplesof a language item and helps the learners to find the rules themselves. In this lesson planning format,students get some examples, in a meaningful context, and then answer leading questions which arefocused on the target language about the examples. The point is not to guess the rules but to givestudents examples and clues which they have to think about in order to reach the end point of somegrammar rule.

Guided Writing Writing that serves to reinforce language principles and is controlled in order to reduce the possibility oferror.

Holistic Concerned with interacting wholes, or complete systems, rather than with the treatment of parts.

Homograph Words that are spelled the same but differ in meaning. The pronunciation may or may not be the same.

Homonym Words that are spelled the same and may be pronounced the same but have a different meaning.

Homophone Words that are pronounced the same, but has a different spelling or meaning.

Ice-Breaker Activities to help students and teachers get to know each other at the beginning of a course.

Illustrating/showingMeaning

Using a picture, mime, text, situation story, definition, etc. to show the meaning of a language item during apresentation (teaching) stage in a lesson plan.

Inductive In a language classroom, an inductive approach involves getting learners to discover rules and how theyare applied by looking at examples. The role of the teacher is to provide the language the learners need todiscover the rules, to guide them in discovery if necessary, and then to provide more opportunities topractice. The inductive approach is often thought of as a more modern way of teaching: it involvesdiscovery techniques; it seeks in some ways to duplicate the acquisition process; it often exploits authenticmaterial; it has learners at the centre of the lesson; and the focus is on usage rather than rules. (Contrast::Deductive)

Inferential/InterpretiveQuestions

Questions that go beyond the literal meaning and decoding process.

Inflection = Intonation (NOTE: This use of the word inflection is specific to American English and will bemisunderstood by most speakers of other varieties of English.)

Information Gap An activity in which students use language to give and get information to/from each other.

Integrated Model ofLanguage Teaching

An instructional model that includes many kinds of instructional integration as well as integration of recenteducational research, theory, and practice from first and second oral language acquisition literature, andfirst and second language literacy development literature.

Integrated Series A series that includes all four skills: listening, speaking, reading, and writing, and often a grammar scopeand sequence. (Often a core series).

Interactional View ofLanguage

The interactional view of language sees language primarily as the means for establishing and maintaininginterpersonal relationships and for performing social transactions between individuals. Here are some ofthe areas of research in this view of language: interactional analysis, conversational analysis, ethno-


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methodology, Target of language learning. The target of language learning in the interactional view islearning to initiate and maintain conversations with other people. Some of the language learningapproaches and methods based on this view of language are: Strategic interaction, communicativeapproaches. Adapted from Richards and Rodgers 1986.http://www.sil.org/lingualinks/languagelearning/PrepareForLanguageLearning/TheInteractionalViewOfLanguage.htm

Integrated Lesson A lesson Involving a combination of the four skills of listening, speaking, reading, and writing as well asgrammar.

Intensive Reading Reading for detailed meaning; reading word for word followed by comprehension and discussion questions.It often involves intensive evaluation of the structure and vocabulary of the text. Careful and detailedreading of (or listening to) a section of a text or speech.

Interaction Patterns The direction of communication between students and teacher: S-T, T-S, or S-S.

Intonation Meaningful changes of voice pitch in a word, phrase or sentence. The music part ofpronunciation/phonology. Americans often refer to intonation as inflection.

Intrusive Sounds Extra sounds that appear in fluent, connected speech to help link two words, e.g., when saying sea air,speaker might add a /j/ sound between the words.

Inverted Questions Questions which require the answer Yes or No; e.g., Did she go? Is he here? Inverted questions areoften called Yes/No Questions. (Contrast: Wh- Questions)

Jigsaw Activity An activity that involves different groups of students (or individuals) doing one thing per group. When theycome back together (or re-group) they can report back and compare (or put together) what they havelearned (or discovered).

L1 Language 1 (native language)

L2 Language 2 (the target language)

Language Acquisition Unconscious learning of picking up of language. A term used to describe language being absorbedwithout conscious effort; i.e. the way children pick up their mother tongue. Language acquisition is oftencontrasted with language learning. The internalization of rules and formulas which are then used tocommunicate in the L2. For some researchers, such as Krashen, 'acquisition' is unconscious andspontaneous, and 'learning' is conscious, developing through formal study.

Language Systems A way to classify language in terms of lexis - semantics and morphology, grammar structure/ syntax,function use and register/appropriacy, and pronunciation.

Language/Grammarthrough Text

This involves providing learners with data (in the form of a l istening or reading text) to illustrate a particulargrammatical feature and getting them to analyze it so as to arrive at an understanding of how the featureworks. The text contains a language item/concept. The learners begin by reading/listening to a text thatcontains examples of correct usage. They first process this for meaning. Then they read/listen again, thistime focusing their attention on the target language feature (i.e. they are helped to notice it). Next, they usethe data to try to arrive at an explicit understanding of the rule. This provides a basis for an error-identification task, where they can check if they have understood the rule clearly. Finally, there is an

opportunity for the learners to try to use the correct grammatical structure in their own sentences.Learning Strategies Specific actions, behaviors, steps, or techniques - such as seeking out conversation partners or giving

oneself encouragement to tackle a difficult language task - used by students to enhance their own learning.

Learning Styles General approaches that students use to learn a new language and many other subjects. The spectrum ofstyles is: analytic-global aspect, sensory preferences, intuition vs. sensory/sequential learning, andorientation toward closure or openness. The preferred way in which students are able to understand andinternalize lesson material.

LEP (Limited English Proficiency) the term (usually used in elementary and secondary education) for studentsidentified as needing ESL training.

Lesson Aims What the students will be able to do at the end of the lesson that they couldnt do at the beginning. Theaims should be written so that the teacher will know whether the aims have been met. Poor example:Students will understand the listening text. Good example: Students will show understanding of thelistening text by correctly answering the comprehension questions. Measurable results that are to beachieved during a lesson, learner outcomes.

Lexical Unit/Item A word or a number of words that could be considered a single item of vocabulary (or meaning).

Lexical Set A group of words or fixed expressions connected by form or meaning; e.g., six adjectives of size, or sevenwords relating to travel, or six phrasal verbs ending with up.

Lexis Vocabulary. Words or fixed expressions.

Literacy The ability to read, write, and compute well enough to function in a community or on a job.

Literal ComprehensionQuestions:

Information questions, or display questions, which answer what, when, where, who, how many, etc.

M.I.T. Multiple Intelligence Theory explores and defines cognitive processes that show a tendency towardlearning styles. Multiple Intelligence Theory was developed in 1983 by Dr. Howard Gardner, professor ofeducation at Harvard University. It suggests that traditional ways of testing for intelligence may be biased tocertain types of individuals. The original Multiple Intelligence theory was developed in 1983 and first


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published in his book, Frames of Mind. The book strongly suggests that everybody has a different mind,and no two profiles of intelligence are the same. Therefore, the traditional concept of measuring intelligenceby I.Q testing is far too restricted. From the 8 primary intelligences, an individual may excel in one, two oreven three of these, but nobodys good at them all.

Mastery Learning This defines the idea that learning builds on learning. Each lesson builds upon the previous lessons andstudents must know the lesson material before the next lesson is introduced. This is sometimes referred toscaffolding.

Matching Exercise A written exercise where students have to match given words/sentences with appropriate pictures,definitions, etc.

Meaning (a) The message being conveyed by the target language (i.e. language item/concept) and (b)The messagethat the speaker wishes to convey using the target language.

Meaningful An activity is meaningful if students cannot complete it unless they understand the meaning of what theyare saying or writing. Repeating sentences you do not understand is not meaningful! (Contrast:Mechanical)

Mechanical Not involving communication. Repetition and Substitution Drills are mechanical. Mechanical activities riskbeing meaningless. (Contrast: Meaningful)

Metacognition Learning to learn; thinking about the learning process.

Metalanguage The language used to talk about language, e.g., the word verb is an item of metalanguage.

Method A guide to language teaching that is a set of procedures which show you how to teach English. Morespecific than an approach. Methods are typically compatible with one (maybe more) approaches. (Celce-Murcia, M. Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language, 2001)

Mingle An activity which involves students interacting (standing up) to find information from other students.

Minimal Pair A pair of sound clusters (hit/heat or nice/rice) used to practice sound discrimination.

Modeling Teacher does/says/models what is expected of the students for both new language items as well asactivities.

Monitoring After a teacher gives instructions and models a task for pair/group work, he/she walks around the room tomake sure students understand the activity, and to listen for errors that can be corrected later.

Morphology The study of the meaning units in a language (morphemes); the internal structure of language

Morpheme A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit in the grammar of a language.

Needs Analysis Ways of finding out what students need/want to study in a language course. Using questionnaires,interviews, etc.

OHP Overhead Projector

Open Class When the whole class is listening to one student or the teacher, or watching a video, or doing a drill, etc.

Open Enrollment (Open-Entry)

A situation usually in Adult Education ESL programs where students are allowed to enroll in the class atany point in the semester.

Open Questions Questions which require an answer involving either sentences or else utterances of more than one word.For example, Why did he go? or How did she get the job? (Contrast: Closed Questions)

Pair Work Work done by students in groups of two without the direct supervision of the teacher.

Pair Work (closed) When pairs of students work on a task at the same time that other pairs are working on the same or othertasks. (Contrast: Open Class / Pair Work {open})

Pair Work (open) One pair of students carries out an activity (e.g., dialogue), while the other students listen/watch. (Contrast:Pair Work {closed})

Passive Vocabulary The vocabulary that students are able to understand compared to that which they are able to use.(Contrast: Active Vocabulary)

Peer Editing/PeerEvaluation:

Feedback given to the language learner by fellow students.

Personalization/Personalized

An activity which involves students talking/writing about their life experience. When students interact withwhat they are doing throughout the class, including the reading or listening material, and bring their ownknowledge and experiences to the activity/content.

Phonology Phonology is the study of how sounds are organized and used in natural languages. The phonologicalsystem of a language includes (a) an inventory of sounds and their features, and (b) rules which specifyhow sounds interact with each other. Phonology is just one of several aspects of language. It is related toother aspects such as phonetics, morphology, syntax, and pragmatics.

Phoneme A phoneme is the smallest contrastive unit in the sound system of a language.

Phonetics Phonetics is the study of human speech sounds.

Phonetic Alphabet The International Phonetic Alphabet is a system of phonetic notation designed to represent the soundsof all spoken languages. Sometimes referred to as the Phonemic Alphabet/Chart.

The IPA is used in dictionaries to indicate the pronunciation of words.

The IPA has often been used as a basis for creating new writing systems for previously unwrittenlanguages.


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The IPA is used in some foreign language text books and phrase books to transcribe the soundsof languages which are written with non-latin alphabets. It is also used by non-native speakers ofEnglish when learning to speak English.

Phrasal Verb A verb and preposition (or adverb) which combine to produce a meaning different from the meanings of theverb and preposition separately; e.g., to run up a bill or to get away with. They are sometimes calledtwo-word verbs or two-part verbs, even though they sometimes have three parts.

PPP The introduction and practice of a language item through a process ofPresentation - Practice -Production. A lesson planning format based on the idea of giving (presenting) small items of language tostudents, providing them with opportunities to use it in controlled ways (practice) and finally integrating itwith other known language in order to communicate (production). Although traditionally a deductiveapproach, the presentation stage may be modified to incorporate more inductive approaches (e.g. guideddiscovery, task-based, grammar through texts).

Pragmatics (a) study of how context affects the users interpretation of language (b) study of the aspects of meaningand language use that are dependent on the speaker, the addressee and other features of the context ofutterance.

The effect that the following have on the speakers choice of expression and the addresseesinterpretation of an utterance: context of utterance, generally observed principles ofcommunication, the goals of the speaker

Presentation The first stages of giving or input of (probably) a new language to students. It is usually followed bypractice and production of that item.

Pre-Set (Question) Comprehension questions given to students before they read or listen to a text, so that they know what tofocus on. (Also referred to as listening for a purpose questions.)

Pre-Teach Present or review language items (usually vocabulary) before giving students a text or activity whichcontains those items.

Process Writing A way of teaching writing as a process of searching for and developing ideas, getting feedback from peers,drafting, revising, editing, and completing the final product and reflecting on the learning experience. Thefocus is on the process, part of which is the written product. This is fluency writing in which students use aprocess similar to essay or composition writing to develop their own piece (own thoughts).

Product Writing A traditional way of teaching writing that provides students with examples of good writing that they attemptto duplicate. The focus is on the written product. This is guided writing in which a model is presented andstudents must produce a similar piece.

Productive Skills Speaking and Writing. (Contrast: Receptive Skills)

Proficiency The level of understanding and usage of language by a student.

Prominence The main syllables emphasized in a tone group.

Prompt A word, mime, etc. which elicits an item, etc. from a student.

Pronunciation The study or practice of sounds, stress, and intonation

Rapport The quality of relationship within the classroom.Realia The actual object used to illustrate meaning. For example, if you were teaching the word fruit you could

bring in realia: bananas, strawberries, oranges, etc. Real objects or picture of them, such as money, maps,menus, want ads, clothing, food, and so on.

Receptive Skills Reading and Listening (Contrast: Productive Skills)

Recognition The process of determining the pronunciation and (to some degree) meaning of a word in spoken or printedform; the quick and easy identification of written and spoken words.

Register The term for distinguishing between formal and informal speech. (Can be referred to as appropriacy.)

Relevant Tangents Expansion of lesson material by related discussions or personalizing practice of vocabulary, expressionsand grammar.

Repetition Drill Students repeat an item immediately after it has been presented.

Restricted Exposure Students read or listen to texts specifically designed to draw attention to language points. The languageavailable for the students to hear or read has in some way been restricted.

Restricted Output Speaking or writing when students use less than the full quantity of language they know. Practice that uses

language in ways that are controlled or deliberately simplified in a way that makes the task less demanding.

Retelling An activity where students summarize and retell a story or conversation; one of the best ways to testcomprehension.

Review Brief re-presentation (and practice) of an item, which you think or know the students have previouslylearned.

Role Play The acting out of a dialogue or conversation, based on some (usually situational or functional) prompts.

Running Commentary When a teacher thinks out loud in class, giving too much input to students and increasing TTT. It isusually said very quickly and quietly, or comes in the form of explanation that students usually do notneed or understand. Example: Ok, now Im going to give you guys a handout, its probably too easy foryou but just go ahead and do it any, and its not a very good photocopy


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Scanning Reading with the aim of finding out items of specific information; Quickly searching a text for someparticular piece of information.

Schema Theory Readers interact with what they are reading, bringing their experiences to bear on it. The more studentspersonal experience or knowledge extant linguistic knowledge) can be used, the more easily they will read.Calling on this knowledge is referred to as activating the students schema.

Scope and Sequence The amount and order of presentation of language forms that comprise a curriculum or course of study.

Semantic Fields Associative networks of words; groups of words that have related meaning or function.

Semantics The study of meanings of individual words and or larger units such as phrases and sentences.

Situations Specific places where survival language is spoken; for example, at school, at the post office, in the doctorsoffice. Can be called context.

Skills (Language) Reading, Writing, Speaking, Listening

Skills-Based Focuses on pieces of language, building from the smallest units of language (for example, sounds to wordsand phrases) or breaking down the larger segments of language into individual units.

Skimming Reading, usually done quickly, with the aim of understanding the general meaning or gist of a piece oftext.

Ss Students

Stress The emphasis placed on a syllable in a word (= word stress) or on a word in a sentence (= sentencestress). Word stress and sentence stress are two of the components of Pronunciation.

Strip Story A story, dialogue, or any written text cut into pieces (strips/sentences) which students assemble in thecorrect order.

Structural View ofLanguage Language is a system of structurally related elements for the transmission of meaning. These elements areusually described as phonological units (phonemes), grammatical units (phrases, clauses, sentences),grammatical operations (adding, shifting, joining or transforming elements), lexical items (function wordsand structure words). Here are some of the areas of research in this view of language: linguistic analysis,textual discourse analysis. The target of language learning, in the structural view, is the mastery ofelements of this system. Some of the language learning methods based on this view of language are: the

Audiolingual method, Total Physical Response, the Silent Way, The communicative view of language.Adapted from Richards and Rodgers 1986.http://www.sil.org/lingualinks/languagelearning/PrepareForLanguageLearning/TheStructuralViewOfLanguage.htm

Structure Grammar; form

Student Self-Correction Prompting a student to correct him/herself.

STT Student Talking Time - The amount of talking done by students in class. (Contrast: TTT)

Student-Centered Any approach which encourages students to participate fully in the learning process, and which fostersautonomous learning. A student-centered lesson would include, e.g., Eliciting, Pair Work (Closed), andStudent Self-Correction and more inductive lesson planning approaches. A student-centered approach toplanning and teaching involves using information from learners and about learners as the basis fordeveloping teaching materials, strategies, and techniques. (Contrast: Teacher-Centered).

Student-Student Correction Prompting a student to correct another student.

Substitution Drill The teacher gives a model sentence, and then prompts individual students to change specific words in it.

Survival Skills Linguistic, cultural, and practical information that people need to get along in everyday life.

Survival Writing: Nonacademic, everyday writing, such as filling out forms and writing memos and notes.

Synonym A word having the same or nearly the same meaning as another in the language, asjoyful, elated, glad.

Syntax The study of the sentence patterns of a language and rules that govern the correctness of a sentence.

Task Chain An integrated sequence of tasks in which the successful completion of one task is dependent on thesuccessful completion.

Task-Based Materials or curricula incorporating pieces of classroom work that involves learners in comprehending,manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language, while their attention is principally focused onmeaning rather than form.

TBL In task-based learning, the tasks are central to the learning activity. Originally developed by N Prabhu inBangladore, southern India, it is based on the belief that students may learn more effectively when theirminds are focused on the task, rather than on the language they are using. In the model of task-basedlearning described by Jane Willis, the traditional PPP (presentation, practice, production) lesson isreversed. The students start with the task. When they have completed it, the teacher draws attention to thelanguage used, making corrections and adjustments to the students' performance. InA Framework forTask-Based Learning, Jane Willis presents a three stage process:

Pre-task - Introduction to the topic and task.

Task cycle - Task planning and report

Language focus - Analysis and practice.

TTT Teacher Talking Time - The amount of talking done by a teacher in class. (Contrast: STT)


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Teacher-Centered A teaching approach that is requires more teacher-talk time and uses more of a deductive approach tolesson planning. (Contrast: Student-centered)

Teacher-Created/Generatedcontext,or Situational Presentation

Situational grammar teaching is a contemporary way of teaching grammar points of a foreign language bypresenting and practicing them in a context or a situation, instead of presenting charts/rules cold. In thepresentation of a language item/concept, language is introduced via a context that the teacher has created.Teachers can incorporate either an inductive or deductive techniques.

Teaching Opportunities Teaching times within a lesson when a teacher hears, sees, or senses a teaching point because of anerror, confusion, mispronunciation and/or misuse of word or structure. Usually not planned.

TEAL Teaching English as an Additional Language

TEFL Teaching English as a Foreign Language

Technique A classroom device or activity. The narrowest category of Approach, method and technique. Sometechniques are widely used and found in many methods (e.g., dictation, imitation, and repetition); however,some are specific to or characteristic of a given method (e.g., using Cuisenaire rods = the Silent Way).(Celce-Murcia, M. Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language, 2001)

TEFL Teaching English as a Foreign Language

TESL Teaching English as a Second Language

TESOL Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages

Test-Teach-Test A lesson planning format which involves starting by checking what students know about an item. Theteacher then presents or clarifies the aspects, which the students have problems with. Then, the teacherprovides more practice with those aspects.

Text Any piece of language which is recorded or written down; e.g., a newspaper article, radio news, a taped

dialogue, or a poem.The Chain Error correction technique that involves students passing corrections to each other across the classroom.

Thematic Grouping according to common themes.

Time-Line A visual representation of a verb tense; used for concept illustration or checking.

TL Target Language: a new language item/concept in a systems lesson

Top-Down Mode (ofLanguage Processing)

The processing of language information comes from prior knowledge that allows learners to predict on thebasis of context what the incoming message can be expected to be, and how the pieces fit into thewhole. Top-down processing involves prediction and inference on the basis of hierarchies of facts,propositions, and expectations, and it enables the listener or reader to bypass some aspects of bottom-upprocessing (Contrast: Bottom-Up mode).

Transitions Moving from stage to stage (or activity to activity) within a lesson. This is critical to flow and continuity of aclass and allows students time to process the change in activity.

TS Target Sentence or Target Structure: the sentence or structure the target language appears in (usually forpractice/repetition drill)

Two-Word Verb See: Phrasal Verb

Unabridged A complete piece of work; not based on a larger piece.

Unadapted Not modified or simplified, usually referring to reading or listening materials.

Unscripted: Refers to lectures delivered without notes.

Use The pragmatic constraints governing the use of a particular form in context (e.g., its politeness level). Useis connected to context and meaning; function.

VESL Vocational ESL provides adult immigrants with English skills on an as-needed basis in cooperation with aprogram of vocational training.

Wait Time After asking a question or making a statement, give Ss time to process the information and formulate ananswer or response. Dont answer your own questions or restate anything until you know its necessary.

Warm-up activity (Warmers) A short activity at the start of a lesson (to break the ice, re-establish group harmony, allow late students toarrive, etc.), before the teacher moves into the main part of the lesson. Warmers are sometimes calledIce-Breakers.

WB White board

Wh- Question Any question starting with Where, Who, etc., and with How. (Contrast: Inverted questions)

Word Stress The emphasized syllable (s) in a word.

Part Two: Teaching Approaches & Methods* The following information was taken/adapted from the following:

http://coe.sdsu.edu/people/jmora/ALMMethods.htm

http://www.onestopenglish.com/section.asp?docid=146498

http://www.jwelford.demon.co.uk/brainwaremap/suggest.html

http://iteslj.org/Techniques/Brown-CBEC.html

http://www.thecenterlibrary.org/cwis/cwisdocs/pdfs/sheltered-english.pdf


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Celce-Murcia, M. Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language (2001)

Larsen-Freeman, D. Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching (1986)

Richards, J., Rodgers, T. Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching (2007)

Name Overview Characteristics and/or Techniques

The Grammar-Translation Approach

This approach was historically used inteaching Greek and Latin. The approachwas generalized to teaching modern

languages.

Classes are taught in the students mother tongue, with l ittle active useof the target language. Vocabulary is taught in the form of isolated wordlists. Elaborate explanations of grammar are always provided.

Grammar instruction provides the rules for putting words together;instruction often focuses on the form and inflection of words. Readingof difficult texts is begun early in the course of study. Little attention ispaid to the content of texts, which are treated as exercises ingrammatical analysis. Often the only drills are exercises in translatingdisconnected sentences from the target language into the mothertongue, and vice versa. Little or no attention is given to pronunciation.

The Direct Approach(Method)

This approach was developed initially as areaction to the grammar-translationapproach in an attempt to integrate moreuse of the target language in instructionand produce learners who couldcommunicate in the foreign language theyhad been studying.

Lessons begin with a dialogue using a modern conversational style inthe target language. Material is first presented orally with actions orpictures. The mother tongue is NEVER, NEVER used. There is notranslation. The preferred type of exercise is a series of questions in thetarget language based on the dialogue or an anecdotal narrative.Questions are answered in the target language. Grammar is taughtinductivelyrules are generalized from the practice and experiencewith the target language. Verbs are used first and systematicallyconjugated only much later after some oral mastery of the target

language. Advanced students read literature for comprehension andpleasure. Literary texts are not analyzed grammatically. The cultureassociated with the target language is also taught inductively. Culture isconsidered an important aspect of learning the language.

The ReadingApproach

This approach is a reaction to theproblems experienced in implementing theDirect Approach. This approach isselected for practical and academicreasons. For specific uses of the languagein graduate or scientific studies. Theapproach is for people who do not travelabroad for whom reading is the oneusable skill in a foreign language.

The priority in studying the target language is first, reading ability andsecond, current and/or historical knowledge of the country where thetarget language is spoken. Only the grammar necessary for readingcomprehension and fluency is taught. Minimal attention is paid topronunciation or gaining conversational skills in the target language.From the beginning, a great amount of reading is done in L2, both inand out of class. The vocabulary of the early reading passages andtexts is strictly controlled for difficulty. Vocabulary is expanded asquickly as possible, since the acquisition of vocabulary is consideredmore important that grammatical skill. Translation reappears in thisapproach as a respectable classroom procedure related tocomprehension of the written text.

The AudiolingualMethod(Audiolingualism)

This method is based on the principles ofbehavior psychology. It adapted many ofthe principles and procedures of the DirectMethod, in part as a reaction to the lack ofspeaking skills of the Reading Approach.Dominant in the US during the 1940s, 50sand 60s.

New material is presented in the form of a dialogue. Based on theprinciple that language learning is habit formation, the method fostersdependence on mimicry, memorization of set phrases and over-learning. Structures are sequenced and taught one at a time. Structuralpatterns are taught using repetitive drills. Little or no grammaticalexplanations are provided; grammar is taught inductively. Skills aresequenced: Listening, speaking, reading and writing are developed inorder. Vocabulary is strictly limited and learned in context. Teachingpoints are determined by contrastive analysis between L1 and L2.There is abundant use of language laboratories, tapes and visual aids.There is an extended pre-reading period at the beginning of the course.Great importance is given to precise native-like pronunciation. Use ofthe mother tongue by the teacher is permitted, but discouraged amongand by the students. Successful responses are reinforced; great care istaken to prevent learner errors. There is a tendency to focus on

manipulation of the target language and to disregard content andmeaning.

Oral-SituationalApproach

This method is based on the principles ofbehavior psychology. It adapted many ofthe principles and procedures of the DirectMethod, in part as a reaction to the lack ofspeaking skills of the Reading Approach.Dominant in the Britain during the 1940s,50s and 60s.

The spoken language is primary in the classroom. All language materialis practiced orally before being presented in written form. Therefore,reading and writing are taught only after an oral base in lexical andgrammatical forms have been established. Only the target languageshould be used in the classroom. Only the most general and usefulvocabulary are presented. Grammatical structures are graded fromsimple to complex. All new lexical and grammatical items areintroduced and practiced situationally in the bank, at the dinner table.

Cognitive Approach A reaction to the behaviorist features ofthe Audiolingual Approach which was

Rather than simply being responsive to stimuli in the environment,learners are seen to be much more actively responsible for their own


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influenced by cognitive psychology andChomskyan linguistics. Proponents of theCognitive Approach hold that language isnot the result of conditioning and habitformation, but based on mental processesinvolving the application of rules. Thus,grammar is taught explicitly as well asimplicitly.

learning, engaged in formulating hypotheses in order to discover therules of the target language. Language learning is viewed a ruleacquisition, not habit formation. Their errors are inevitable and aresings to the teacher that the students are actively testing theirhypotheses. Student progress in accomplished little by little, with a lotof imperfection expected in the beginning. All four skills are worked onfrom the beginning, and meaning is as important as form. The teacheris expected to have good general proficiency in the target language aswell as an ability to analyze the target language.

Affective-HumanisticApproach

A reaction to the general lack of affectiveconsiderations in both Audiolingualismand the Cognitive Approach.

Affective-Humanistic Approach considered the affective involved in thelearning process, such as, respecting the individual and his/herfeelings, atmosphere and interests. There are meaningful interaction,pair and group works and peer support. The teacher is viewed as afacilitator and is proficient in both languages because translation isallowed in the initial stages.

The Silent Way Silent Way originated in the early 1970sand was the brainchild of the late CalebGattegno. The three basic tenets of theapproach are that learning is facilitated ifthe learner discovers rather thanremembers or repeats, that learning isaided by physical objects, and that

problem-solving is central to learning. Theuse of the word "silent" is also significant,as Silent Way is based on the premise

that the teacher should be as silent aspossible in the classroom in order toencourage the learner to produce as muchlanguage as possible. As far as the

presentation of language is concerned,Silent Way adopts a highly structuralapproach, with language taught throughsentences in a sequence based ongrammatical complexity, described bysome as a "building-block" approach. Thestructural patterns of the target languageare presented by the teacher and thegrammar "rules" of the language are learntinductively by the learners. Cuisenairerods (small colored blocks of varying sizesoriginally intended for the teaching ofmathematics) are often used to illustrate

meaning (the physical objects mentionedabove). New items are added sparingly bythe teacher and learners take these as faras they can in their communication untilthe need for the next new item becomesapparent. The teacher then provides thisnew item by modeling it very clearly justonce. The learners are then left to use thenew item and to incorporate it into theirexisting stock of language, again taking itas far as they can until the next item isneeded and so on.

This method begins by using a set of colored rods and verbalcommands in order to achieve the following:

To avoid the use of the vernacular.

To create simple linguistic situations that remain under thecomplete control of the teacher

To pass on to the learners the responsibility for theutterances of the descriptions of the objects shown or theactions performed.

To let the teacher concentrate on what the students say and

how they are saying it, drawing their attention to thedifferences in pronunciation and the flow of words.

To generate a serious game-like situation in which the rulesare implicitly agreed upon by giving meaning to the gesturesof the teacher and his mime. To permit almost from the starta switch from the lone voice of the teacher using the foreignlanguage to a number of voices using it. This introducescomponents of pitch, timbre and intensity that will constantlyreduce the impact of one voice and hence reduce imitationand encourage personal production of ones own brand ofthe sounds.

To provide the support of perception and action to theintellectual guess of what the noises mean, thus bring in thearsenal of the usual criteria of experience already developedand automatic in ones use of the mother tongue.

To provide a duration of spontaneous speech upon which the

teacher and the students can work to obtain a similarity ofmelody to the one heard, thus providing melodic integrativeschemata from the start.

Suggestopedia Suggestopedia is a teaching methodwhich is based on a modernunderstanding of how the human brainworks and how we learn most effectively.

It was developed by the Bulgarian doctorand psychotherapist Georgi Lozanov (seeright). The term 'Suggestopedia', derivedfrom suggestion and pedagogy, is oftenused loosely to refer to similar acceleratedlearning approaches. However, Lozanovreserves the title strictly for his ownmethod, and he has his own training andcertification facilities. Suggestopedia wasoriginally applied mainly in foreignlanguage teaching, and it is often claimedthat it can teach languages approximatelythree times as quickly as conventional

Some of the key elements of Suggestopedia include a rich sensorylearning environment (pictures, color, music, etc.), a positiveexpectation of success and the use of a varied range of methods:dramatized texts, music, active participation in songs and games, etc.

Suggestopedia adopts a carefully structured approach, using four mainstages as follows:Presentation

A preparatory stage in which students are helped to relax and moveinto a positive frame of mind, with the feeling that the learning is goingto be easy and fun.First Concert - "Active Concert"This involves the active presentation of the material to be learnt. Forexample, in a foreign language course there might be the dramaticreading of a piece of text, accompanied by classical music.Second Concert - "Passive Review"The students are now invited to relax and listen to some Baroquemusic, with the text being read very quietly in the background. The


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methods. music is specially selected to bring the students into the optimummental state for the effortless acquisition of the material.PracticeThe use of a range of games, puzzles, etc. to review and consolidatethe learning.

Community LanguageLearning

This methodology is not based on theusual methods by which languages aretaught. Rather the approach is patternedupon counseling techniques and adaptedto the peculiar anxiety and threat as wellas the personal and language problems a

person encounters in the learning offoreign languages. Consequently, thelearner is not thought of as a student butas a client. The native instructors of thelanguage are not considered teachers but,rather are trained in counseling skillsadapted to their roles as languagecounselors.The language-counseling relationshipbegins with the clients linguistic confusionand conflict. The aim of the languagecounselors skill is first to communicateempathy for the clients threatened

inadequate state and to aid himlinguistically. Then slowly the teacher-counselor strives to enable him to arrive athis own increasingly independentlanguage adequacy. This process isfurthered by the language counselorsability to establish a warm, understanding,and accepting relationship, thus becomingan other-language self for the client. The

process involves five stages of adaptation:

STAGE 1The client is completely dependent on the language counselor.1. First, he expresses only to the counselor and in English what hewishes to say to the group. Each group member overhears this Englishexchange but no other members of the group are involved in theinteraction.2. The counselor then reflects these ideas back to the client in theforeign language in a warm, accepting tone, in simple language inphrases of five or six words.3. The client turns to the group and presents his ideas in the foreignlanguage. He has the counselors aid if he mispronounces or hesitateson a word or phrase. This is the clients maximum security stage.STAGE 21. Same as above.2. The client turns and begins to speak the foreign language directly tothe group.3. The counselor aids only as the client hesitates or turns for help.These small independent steps are signs of positive confidence andhope.

STAGE 31. The client speaks directly to the group in the foreign language. Thispresumes that the group has now acquired the ability to understand hissimple phrases.2. Same as 3 above. This presumes the clients greater confidence,independence, and proportionate insight into the relationship ofphrases, grammar, and ideas. Translation is given only when a groupmember desires it.STAGE 41. The client is now speaking freely and complexly in the foreignlanguage. Presumes groups understanding.2. The counselor directly intervenes in grammatical error,mispronunciation, or where aid in complex expression is needed. Theclient is sufficiently secure to take correction.STAGE 51. Same as stage 4.2. The counselor intervenes not only to offer correction but to add

idioms and more elegant constructions.3. At this stage the client can become counselor to the group in stages1, 2, and 3.

Total PhysicalResponse

James J. Asher defines the Total PhysicalResponse (TPR) method as one thatcombines information and skills throughthe use of the kinesthetic sensory system.This combination of skills allows thestudent to assimilate information and skillsat a rapid rate. As a result, this successleads to a high degree of motivation.

The basic tenets are:

Understanding the spoken language before developing theskills of speaking.

Imperatives are the main structures to transfer orcommunicate information.

The student is not forced to speak, but is allowed anindividual readiness period and allowed to spontaneouslybegin to speak when the student feels comfortable andconfident in understanding and producing the utterances.

1. Step I The teacher says the commands as hehimself performs the action.

2. Step 2 The teacher says the command as both theteacher and the students then perform the action.

3. Step 3 The teacher says the command but onlystudents perform the action

4. Step 4 The teacher tells one student at a time to docommands

5. Step 5 The roles of teacher and student arereversed. Students give commands to teacher andto other students.

6. Step 6 The teacher and student allow for commandexpansion or produces new sentences.

Competency Based CBLT is based on a functional and Key Features:


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Language Teaching interactional perspective on the nature oflanguage. It seeks to teach language inrelation to the social contexts in which it isused. Language always occurs as amedium of interaction and communicationbetween people for the achievement ofspecific goals and purposes. CBLT has forhis reason most often been used as aframework for language teaching insituations where learner have specificneeds and are in particular roles andwhere the language skills they need andcan be fairly accurately predicted ordetermined.

A focus on successful functioning society.

A focus on life skills

Task- or performance-centered orientation.

Modularized instruction

Outcomes that are made explicit a priori

Continuous and ongoing assessment

Demonstrated mastery of performance objectives.

Individualized, student-centered instruction.

Comprehension-Based Approach

An outgrowth of research in first languageacquisition that led some languagemethodologists to assume that second orforeign language learning is very similar tofirst language acquisition.

Listening comprehension is very important and is viewed asthe basic skill that will allow speaking, reading, and writing todevelop spontaneously over time, given the right conditions.

There is a silent period where learners should not speak untilthey fell ready to do so, but can respond nonverbally inmeaningful ways before they produce language.

Learners progress by being exposed o meaningful input thatis just one step beyond their level of competence. Rulelearning may help learner awareness, but not contribute totheir acquisition.

Error correction is seen as unnecessary.

Teachers should be native speakers (or near-native).The CommunicativeApproach(CommunicativeLanguage Teaching)

CA referes to a divers set of principles thatreflect a communicative view of languageand lanuage learning that can be used tosuporta wide variety of classroom

procedures. The goal of CA is to developcommunicative competence.

Principles:

Learners learn a language through using it to communicate.

Authentic and meaningful communication should be the goalof classroom activities.

Fluency is an important dimension of communication.

Communication involves the integration of different languageskills.

Learning is a process of creative construction and involvestrial and error.

Characteristics of current CA applications:

Appropriateness of language use

Message focus

Psycholinguistic processing

Risk taking

Free practiceThe Natural Approach The Natural Approach was developed by

Tracy Terrell and Stephen Krashen,starting in 1977. It came to have a wideinfluence in language teaching in theUnited States and around the world.The Communicative view of language isthe view behind the Natural Approach.Particular emphasis is laid on language asa set of messages that can beunderstood. The Natural Approachfocuses on developing language skills in anatural context. Students acquirelanguage through interaction in authenticand meaningful learning experiences.Teachers provide input in the target

language that students can understand.Teachers begin with language input thatcan be made comprehensible throughmodeling and visuals and continue to addnew learning to that base.

The Natural Approach is based on the following tenets:

Language acquisition (an unconscious process developedthrough using language meaningfully) is different fromlanguage learning (consciously learning or discovering rulesabout a language) and language acquisition is the only waycompetence in a second language occurs. (Theacquisition/learning hypothesis)

Conscious learning operates only as a monitor or editor thatchecks or repairs the output of what has been acquired. (Themonitor hypothesis)

Grammatical structures are acquired in a predictable orderand it does little good to try to learn them in anotherorder.(The natural order hypothesis).

People acquire language best from messages that are justslightly beyond their current competence. (The input

hypothesis) The learner's emotional state can act as a filter that impedes

or blocks input necessary to acquisition. (The affective filterhypothesis)

The syllabus for the Natural Approach is a communicative syllabus.Comprehensible input is presented in the target language, usingtechniques such as TPR, mime and gesture. Group techniques aresimilar to Communicative Language Teaching. Learners start to talkwhen they are ready. The Natural Approach adopts techniques andactivities from different sources but uses them to providecomprehensible input.


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The principles behind the Natural Approach are:

Comprehension precedes production. Students are notasked to repeat or produce language until they arecomfortable and begin to do so naturally.

Production emerges in stages.

A syllabus based on communicative goals is more effective.The instructional focus is on meaning rather than correctform in early stages.

The students anxiety level must be low in order for learningto take place.

Functional-notionalApproach

This method of language teaching iscategorized along with others under therubric of a communicative approach. Themethod stresses a means of organizing alanguage syllabus. The emphasis is onbreaking down the global concept oflanguage into units of analysis in terms ofcommunicative situations in which theyare used.

Principles of the FNA:

Notions are meaning elements that may be expressedthrough nouns, pronouns, verbs, prepositions, conjunctions,adjectives or adverbs. The use of particular notions dependson three major factors: a. the functions b. the elements in thesituation, and c. the topic being discussed.

A situation may affect variations of language such as the useof dialects, the formality or informality of the language andthe mode of expression. Situation includes the followingelements:

A. The persons taking part in the speech actB. The place where the conversation occursC. The time the speech act is taking placeD. The topic or activity that is being discussed

Exponents are the language utterances or statements that

stem from the function, the situation and the topic. Code is the shared language of a community of speakers.

Code-switching is a change or switch in code during thespeech act, which many theorists believe is purposefulbehavior to convey bonding, language prestige or otherelements of interpersonal relations between the speakers.

Strategic InteractionApproach

Strategic Interaction is an approach tolanguage instruction that calls uponlearners to use the target language

purposefully and skillfully incommunicating with others. Robert J. DiPietro talks about this approach in hisbook Strategic Interaction: LearningLanguages through Scenarios (CambridgeUniversity Press, 1987)

The focal activity in the strategic interaction classroom is the scenario,which replicates real-life situations and requires language in order toreach a resolution. Students are assigned roles that oblige them towork out and implement personal game plans through dialogs withother role players. Students are always themselves, and personalagendas will inevitably differ, creating the dramatic tension that makesstrategic interaction realistic and involving.

Lexical Approach: An approach to language learning setforth by Michael Lewis (1990s). The lexicalapproach to second language teachinghas received interest in recent years as analternative to grammar-based approaches.The lexical approach concentrates ondeveloping learners' proficiency with lexis,or words and word combinations. It isbased on the idea that an important part oflanguage acquisition is the ability tocomprehend and produce lexical phrasesas unanalyzed wholes, or "chunks," andthat these chunks become the raw data bywhich learners perceive patterns oflanguage traditionally thought of asgrammar

Teachers using the Lexical Approach will not analyze the targetlanguage in the classroom, but will be more inclined to concentratelearners' attention upon these chunks. The principles of The Lexical

Approach include (i) the grammar/vocabulary dichotomy is invalid, (ii)collocation is used as an organizing principle, (iii) successful languageis a wider concept than accurate language, (iv) the Observe-Hypothesize-Experiment cycle replaces the Present-Practice-produceparadigm, and (v) language consists of grammaticalized lexis - notlexicalized grammar.http://www.ericdigests.org/2002-2/lexical.htm

Whole Language Whole language is not a systemized

approach, but rather a philosophy thatassumes that reading and generallanguage competencies are acquiredthrough integrated use instead of throughlearning separate, finite skills, such asword attack, comprehension, andvocabulary. It relies heavily on the use ofliterature and trade books, rather thanbasal readers, and usually involvesintegrated thematic studies and theextended use of writing.

It is based on the following eight principles:

a. Learning in the classroom and out of the classroom are notdifferent

b. Language learning is a social event - classrooms have aworkshop atmosphere where learners interact and share

c. The emphasis is on process; classrooms are organized tosupport individual growth

d. Language is the means of creating and communicating newknowledge

e. The four language processes (listening, speaking, reading,writing) are interrelated and interdependent

f. Authentic reading materials provide the best models forlanguage


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g. The purpose of language is to create meaningh. Learners must be involved in real language activities.

The LanguageExperience Approach

The language Experience Approachinvolves children in their own languagelearning, acknowledges the worth of theirlanguage, and organizes the curriculumaround their experiences. Children probelanguage to acquire its meaning. Thelanguage experience approach (LEA) is awhole language approach that promotesreading and writing through the use of

personal experiences and oral language.It can be used in tutorial or classroomsettings with homogeneous orheterogeneous groups of learners.Beginning literacy learners relate theirexperiences to a teacher or aide, whotranscribes them. These transcriptions arethen used as the basis for other readingand writing activities.

Features of the Language Experience Approach:

The LEA is as diverse in practice as its practitioners.Nonetheless, some characteristics remain consistent (Hall,1970):

Materials are learner-generated.

All communication skills--reading, writing, listening, andspeaking--are integrated.

Difficulty of vocabulary and grammar are determined by thelearners own language use.

Learning and teaching are personalized, communicative,creative.

TA Sample:

The Language Experience Approach begins with a sharedclass experience; a novel, exciting experience works wellwhen first using the LEA strategy.

After the class activity is completed, the teacher asks thestudents to dictate the story of the experience to her andwrites what they say word for word on large chart paper.

She reads the sentences back to the class so that the story iswritten exactly how they have composed it.

The teacher reads the final story to the class and then hasthe class read it with her.

As the students read their words about their experiencealoud they are building their reading vocabularies.

From here the teacher can personalize the lesson to focus onlanguage arts concepts in which the class needs instructionor practice.

http://www.cal.org/caela/esl_resources/digests/LEA.htmlhttp://primary-school-curriculum.suite101.com/article.cfm/language_experience_approach

Content-Based E.S.L.Curriculum

A model of language education thatintegrates language and contentinstruction in the second languageclassroom; a second language learningapproach where second languageteachers use instructional materials,

learning tasks, and classroom techniquesfrom academic content areas as thevehicle for developing second language,content, cognitive and study skills.

Essential ingredients in implementing CBEC.

First, ESL students must read authentic texts. The teachershould include time for reading texts in every class--thestudents can repeatedly read the same part.

Second, there have to be strong language learningcomponents. The teacher has to design lessons in which

ESL students must use academic oral English in the contextof debates, group projects, or cooperative learning.

Third, the teacher must integrate writing so that it ispurposeful and meaningful in context--writing aids students'conceptual learning. The salient grammar points in a specificunit should be emphasized and reinforced throughoutreading, writing, and speaking activities.

Fourth, higher-order thinking and critical thinking skills shouldbe reinforced through the use of real-life problem solvingsituations.

Fifth, scaffolding is critical when ESL students learn abstractconcepts. Hands-on activities and visual demonstration areconsidered part of scaffolding because they facilitatestudents' concept learning.

CALLA The Cognitive Academic LanguageLearning Approach (CALLA) is an

instructional model for second and foreignlanguage learners based on cognitivetheory and research. CALLA integratesinstruction in priority topics from thecontent curriculum, development of thelanguage skills needed for learning inschool, and explicit instruction in usinglearning strategies for academic tasks.The goals of CALLA are for students tolearn essential academic content andlanguage and to become independent andself-regulated learners through theirincreasing command over a variety of

CALLA's principal objectives are to assist students in:

Valuing their own prior knowledge and cultural experiences,

and relating this knowledge to academic learning in a newlanguage and culture

Learning the content knowledge and the language skills thatare most important for their future academic success;

Developing language awareness and critical literacy

Selecting and using appropriate learning strategies and studyskills that will develop academic knowledge and processes

Developing abilities to work successfully with other

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