A CALIBRATED, HIGH-RESOLUTION GOES SATELLITE SOLAR INSOLATION
GLOBAL PATTERNS OF THE CLIMATIC ELEMENTS: (1) SOLAR ENERGY (Linked to solar insolation & R, net...
-
Upload
pierce-barnaby-banks -
Category
Documents
-
view
217 -
download
2
Transcript of GLOBAL PATTERNS OF THE CLIMATIC ELEMENTS: (1) SOLAR ENERGY (Linked to solar insolation & R, net...
![Page 1: GLOBAL PATTERNS OF THE CLIMATIC ELEMENTS: (1) SOLAR ENERGY (Linked to solar insolation & R, net radiation)](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022081519/56649e0f5503460f94af9e6b/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
GLOBAL PATTERNS OF THE CLIMATIC ELEMENTS:
(1) SOLAR ENERGY(Linked to solar insolation
& R, net radiation)
![Page 2: GLOBAL PATTERNS OF THE CLIMATIC ELEMENTS: (1) SOLAR ENERGY (Linked to solar insolation & R, net radiation)](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022081519/56649e0f5503460f94af9e6b/html5/thumbnails/2.jpg)
CONTROLS OF SOLAR INSOLATION
1) Sun angle (intensity) -- changes with latitude, time of day, time of year
2) Duration (day length) -- changes with latitude, time of year3) Cloud cover
(and general reflectivity of atmosphere)
4) Surface albedo (water, soil, snow, ice, vegetation,
land use)
In general, land areas (with lower atmospheric moisture) receive more insolation than adjacent water areas and thehighest values occur over subtropical deserts.
![Page 3: GLOBAL PATTERNS OF THE CLIMATIC ELEMENTS: (1) SOLAR ENERGY (Linked to solar insolation & R, net radiation)](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022081519/56649e0f5503460f94af9e6b/html5/thumbnails/3.jpg)
REVIEW OF INSOLATIO
N
![Page 4: GLOBAL PATTERNS OF THE CLIMATIC ELEMENTS: (1) SOLAR ENERGY (Linked to solar insolation & R, net radiation)](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022081519/56649e0f5503460f94af9e6b/html5/thumbnails/4.jpg)
![Page 5: GLOBAL PATTERNS OF THE CLIMATIC ELEMENTS: (1) SOLAR ENERGY (Linked to solar insolation & R, net radiation)](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022081519/56649e0f5503460f94af9e6b/html5/thumbnails/5.jpg)
![Page 6: GLOBAL PATTERNS OF THE CLIMATIC ELEMENTS: (1) SOLAR ENERGY (Linked to solar insolation & R, net radiation)](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022081519/56649e0f5503460f94af9e6b/html5/thumbnails/6.jpg)
![Page 7: GLOBAL PATTERNS OF THE CLIMATIC ELEMENTS: (1) SOLAR ENERGY (Linked to solar insolation & R, net radiation)](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022081519/56649e0f5503460f94af9e6b/html5/thumbnails/7.jpg)
![Page 8: GLOBAL PATTERNS OF THE CLIMATIC ELEMENTS: (1) SOLAR ENERGY (Linked to solar insolation & R, net radiation)](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022081519/56649e0f5503460f94af9e6b/html5/thumbnails/8.jpg)
DURATION
![Page 9: GLOBAL PATTERNS OF THE CLIMATIC ELEMENTS: (1) SOLAR ENERGY (Linked to solar insolation & R, net radiation)](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022081519/56649e0f5503460f94af9e6b/html5/thumbnails/9.jpg)
![Page 10: GLOBAL PATTERNS OF THE CLIMATIC ELEMENTS: (1) SOLAR ENERGY (Linked to solar insolation & R, net radiation)](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022081519/56649e0f5503460f94af9e6b/html5/thumbnails/10.jpg)
![Page 11: GLOBAL PATTERNS OF THE CLIMATIC ELEMENTS: (1) SOLAR ENERGY (Linked to solar insolation & R, net radiation)](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022081519/56649e0f5503460f94af9e6b/html5/thumbnails/11.jpg)
INTENSITY
![Page 12: GLOBAL PATTERNS OF THE CLIMATIC ELEMENTS: (1) SOLAR ENERGY (Linked to solar insolation & R, net radiation)](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022081519/56649e0f5503460f94af9e6b/html5/thumbnails/12.jpg)
RADIATION / ENERGY BALANCE
Q* = ( K↓ - K↑ ) + ( L↓ - L↑ ) where K↓ = direct + diffuse shortwave
solar radiation
![Page 13: GLOBAL PATTERNS OF THE CLIMATIC ELEMENTS: (1) SOLAR ENERGY (Linked to solar insolation & R, net radiation)](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022081519/56649e0f5503460f94af9e6b/html5/thumbnails/13.jpg)
![Page 14: GLOBAL PATTERNS OF THE CLIMATIC ELEMENTS: (1) SOLAR ENERGY (Linked to solar insolation & R, net radiation)](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022081519/56649e0f5503460f94af9e6b/html5/thumbnails/14.jpg)
Kiehl and Trenberth (1997) BAMS
![Page 15: GLOBAL PATTERNS OF THE CLIMATIC ELEMENTS: (1) SOLAR ENERGY (Linked to solar insolation & R, net radiation)](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022081519/56649e0f5503460f94af9e6b/html5/thumbnails/15.jpg)
Trenberth et al. (2009) BAMS
![Page 16: GLOBAL PATTERNS OF THE CLIMATIC ELEMENTS: (1) SOLAR ENERGY (Linked to solar insolation & R, net radiation)](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022081519/56649e0f5503460f94af9e6b/html5/thumbnails/16.jpg)
Radiative Components
Net short-wave radiation = short-wave down - short-wave up
Net long-wave radiation = long-wave down - long-wave up
Net radiation (R net) =
net short-wave radiation + net long-wave radiation
Positive values represent energy moving towards the surface, negative values represent energy moving away from the surface.
![Page 17: GLOBAL PATTERNS OF THE CLIMATIC ELEMENTS: (1) SOLAR ENERGY (Linked to solar insolation & R, net radiation)](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022081519/56649e0f5503460f94af9e6b/html5/thumbnails/17.jpg)
Net short-wave radiation =
Positive values represent energy moving towards the surface, negative values represent energy moving away from the surface.
![Page 18: GLOBAL PATTERNS OF THE CLIMATIC ELEMENTS: (1) SOLAR ENERGY (Linked to solar insolation & R, net radiation)](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022081519/56649e0f5503460f94af9e6b/html5/thumbnails/18.jpg)
SW absorbed =
Function of INTENSITY &
DURATION & sun angle / albedo
![Page 19: GLOBAL PATTERNS OF THE CLIMATIC ELEMENTS: (1) SOLAR ENERGY (Linked to solar insolation & R, net radiation)](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022081519/56649e0f5503460f94af9e6b/html5/thumbnails/19.jpg)
Net long-wave radiation =
Positive values represent energy moving towards the surface, negative values represent energy moving away from the surface.
![Page 20: GLOBAL PATTERNS OF THE CLIMATIC ELEMENTS: (1) SOLAR ENERGY (Linked to solar insolation & R, net radiation)](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022081519/56649e0f5503460f94af9e6b/html5/thumbnails/20.jpg)
![Page 21: GLOBAL PATTERNS OF THE CLIMATIC ELEMENTS: (1) SOLAR ENERGY (Linked to solar insolation & R, net radiation)](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022081519/56649e0f5503460f94af9e6b/html5/thumbnails/21.jpg)
Net Surplus
Net Deficit Net Deficit
![Page 22: GLOBAL PATTERNS OF THE CLIMATIC ELEMENTS: (1) SOLAR ENERGY (Linked to solar insolation & R, net radiation)](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022081519/56649e0f5503460f94af9e6b/html5/thumbnails/22.jpg)
Annual mean absorbed solar radiation,
emitted longwave radiation (OLR) and net radiation by latitude
![Page 23: GLOBAL PATTERNS OF THE CLIMATIC ELEMENTS: (1) SOLAR ENERGY (Linked to solar insolation & R, net radiation)](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022081519/56649e0f5503460f94af9e6b/html5/thumbnails/23.jpg)
S = Solar radiation T = Terrestrial radiation
![Page 24: GLOBAL PATTERNS OF THE CLIMATIC ELEMENTS: (1) SOLAR ENERGY (Linked to solar insolation & R, net radiation)](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022081519/56649e0f5503460f94af9e6b/html5/thumbnails/24.jpg)
Net Radiation =
Positive values represent energy moving towards the surface, negative values represent energy moving away from the surface.
![Page 25: GLOBAL PATTERNS OF THE CLIMATIC ELEMENTS: (1) SOLAR ENERGY (Linked to solar insolation & R, net radiation)](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022081519/56649e0f5503460f94af9e6b/html5/thumbnails/25.jpg)
![Page 26: GLOBAL PATTERNS OF THE CLIMATIC ELEMENTS: (1) SOLAR ENERGY (Linked to solar insolation & R, net radiation)](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022081519/56649e0f5503460f94af9e6b/html5/thumbnails/26.jpg)
Non-Radiative Components
Sensible heat flux (H) = direct heating, a function of surface and air temperature
Latent heat flux (LE) = energy that is stored in water vapor as it evaporates, a function of surface wetness and relative humidity
Positive values for sensible and latent heat flux represent energy moving towards the atmosphere, negative values represent energy moving away from the atmosphere.
![Page 27: GLOBAL PATTERNS OF THE CLIMATIC ELEMENTS: (1) SOLAR ENERGY (Linked to solar insolation & R, net radiation)](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022081519/56649e0f5503460f94af9e6b/html5/thumbnails/27.jpg)
Non-Radiative Components
Change in heat storage (G) = net radiation - latent heat flux - sensible heat flux
G = R net - LE - H
Positive values for change in heat storage represent energy moving out of storage, negative values represent energy moving into storage.
![Page 28: GLOBAL PATTERNS OF THE CLIMATIC ELEMENTS: (1) SOLAR ENERGY (Linked to solar insolation & R, net radiation)](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022081519/56649e0f5503460f94af9e6b/html5/thumbnails/28.jpg)
Sensible Heat Flux = H
Positive values for sensible and latent heat flux represent energy moving towards the atmosphere, negative values represent energy moving away from the atmosphere.
![Page 29: GLOBAL PATTERNS OF THE CLIMATIC ELEMENTS: (1) SOLAR ENERGY (Linked to solar insolation & R, net radiation)](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022081519/56649e0f5503460f94af9e6b/html5/thumbnails/29.jpg)
Latent Heat Flux = LE
Positive values for sensible and latent heat flux represent energy moving towards the atmosphere, negative values represent energy moving away from the atmosphere.
![Page 30: GLOBAL PATTERNS OF THE CLIMATIC ELEMENTS: (1) SOLAR ENERGY (Linked to solar insolation & R, net radiation)](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022081519/56649e0f5503460f94af9e6b/html5/thumbnails/30.jpg)
![Page 31: GLOBAL PATTERNS OF THE CLIMATIC ELEMENTS: (1) SOLAR ENERGY (Linked to solar insolation & R, net radiation)](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022081519/56649e0f5503460f94af9e6b/html5/thumbnails/31.jpg)
Humid Tropical / Equatorial rainforest
Tropical desert
R net
LE
H
R net
LE
H
![Page 32: GLOBAL PATTERNS OF THE CLIMATIC ELEMENTS: (1) SOLAR ENERGY (Linked to solar insolation & R, net radiation)](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022081519/56649e0f5503460f94af9e6b/html5/thumbnails/32.jpg)
Tropical wet-dry climate
Grassland /steppe climate
Tropical wet climate
Tropical desert climate
![Page 33: GLOBAL PATTERNS OF THE CLIMATIC ELEMENTS: (1) SOLAR ENERGY (Linked to solar insolation & R, net radiation)](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022081519/56649e0f5503460f94af9e6b/html5/thumbnails/33.jpg)
Change in Heat Storage = G
Positive values for change in heat storage represent energy moving out of storage, negative values represent energy moving into storage.
![Page 34: GLOBAL PATTERNS OF THE CLIMATIC ELEMENTS: (1) SOLAR ENERGY (Linked to solar insolation & R, net radiation)](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022081519/56649e0f5503460f94af9e6b/html5/thumbnails/34.jpg)
![Page 35: GLOBAL PATTERNS OF THE CLIMATIC ELEMENTS: (1) SOLAR ENERGY (Linked to solar insolation & R, net radiation)](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022081519/56649e0f5503460f94af9e6b/html5/thumbnails/35.jpg)
Air Temperature (at the surface) = T (C)Seasonal temperature variations can be explained in terms
of the latitudinal & seasonal variations in the surface energy balance.
The pattern of temperatures are a function of net short-wave radiation, net long-wave radiation, sensible heat flux, latent heat flux and change in heat storage.
![Page 36: GLOBAL PATTERNS OF THE CLIMATIC ELEMENTS: (1) SOLAR ENERGY (Linked to solar insolation & R, net radiation)](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022081519/56649e0f5503460f94af9e6b/html5/thumbnails/36.jpg)
GLOBAL PATTERNS OF THE CLIMATIC ELEMENTS:
(2) TEMPERATURE
![Page 37: GLOBAL PATTERNS OF THE CLIMATIC ELEMENTS: (1) SOLAR ENERGY (Linked to solar insolation & R, net radiation)](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022081519/56649e0f5503460f94af9e6b/html5/thumbnails/37.jpg)
CONTROLS OF HORIZONTAL TEMPERATURE PATTERNS
1. Sun angle & Duration
2. Land vs. water thermal contrasts
3. Warm & Cold surface ocean currents
4. Elevation
5. Ice/Snow albedo effects
6. Prevailing atmospheric circulation
![Page 38: GLOBAL PATTERNS OF THE CLIMATIC ELEMENTS: (1) SOLAR ENERGY (Linked to solar insolation & R, net radiation)](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022081519/56649e0f5503460f94af9e6b/html5/thumbnails/38.jpg)
1. Sun Angle & DurationSun angle (influences intensity of solar insolation & albedo) Duration (based on day length)
- both change with latitude and time of year
Leads to: zonal (east-west) distribution of isotherms,
hot in low latitudes; cold in high latitudes
![Page 39: GLOBAL PATTERNS OF THE CLIMATIC ELEMENTS: (1) SOLAR ENERGY (Linked to solar insolation & R, net radiation)](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022081519/56649e0f5503460f94af9e6b/html5/thumbnails/39.jpg)
Given the same intensity of insolation, the surface of any extensive deep body of water heats more slowly and cools more slowly than the surface of a large body of land.
4 Reasons:
1) water has a higher specific heat and heat capacity than land
2) transmission of sunlight into transparent water
3) mixing is possible in water, but not soil
4) evaporation cools air over water during hot season (less evap during winter)
Leads to:
• annual and diurnal temperature ranges will be less in coastal/marine locations
• the lag time from maximum insolation to time of maximum temperature may be slightly longer in coastal/marine locations
2. Land vs. water thermal contrasts
![Page 40: GLOBAL PATTERNS OF THE CLIMATIC ELEMENTS: (1) SOLAR ENERGY (Linked to solar insolation & R, net radiation)](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022081519/56649e0f5503460f94af9e6b/html5/thumbnails/40.jpg)
3. Warm and Cold Ocean Currents
![Page 41: GLOBAL PATTERNS OF THE CLIMATIC ELEMENTS: (1) SOLAR ENERGY (Linked to solar insolation & R, net radiation)](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022081519/56649e0f5503460f94af9e6b/html5/thumbnails/41.jpg)
4. Elevation
![Page 42: GLOBAL PATTERNS OF THE CLIMATIC ELEMENTS: (1) SOLAR ENERGY (Linked to solar insolation & R, net radiation)](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022081519/56649e0f5503460f94af9e6b/html5/thumbnails/42.jpg)
5. Ice /Snow Albedo & Other Effects
![Page 43: GLOBAL PATTERNS OF THE CLIMATIC ELEMENTS: (1) SOLAR ENERGY (Linked to solar insolation & R, net radiation)](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022081519/56649e0f5503460f94af9e6b/html5/thumbnails/43.jpg)
6. Prevailing atmospheric circulation
Temperatures are affected by the temperature "upwind" -- i.e. where the prevailing winds and air masses originate
![Page 44: GLOBAL PATTERNS OF THE CLIMATIC ELEMENTS: (1) SOLAR ENERGY (Linked to solar insolation & R, net radiation)](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022081519/56649e0f5503460f94af9e6b/html5/thumbnails/44.jpg)
MAPPING HORIZONTAL TEMPERATURE PATTERNS
•Isotherms = lines connecting points of equal temperature
•Isotherms will be almost parallel, extending east-west if Control #1 (sun angle) is the primary control.
•If any of the other controls are operating, isotherms on a map will have an EQUATORWARD shift over COLD surfaces and a POLEWARD shift over WARM surfaces
•The TEMPERATURE GRADIENT will be greatest where there is a rapid change of temperature from one place to another (closely spaced isotherms).
Continental surfaces in winter tend to have the steepest temperature gradients.
Temperature gradients are much smaller over oceans, no matter what the season.
![Page 45: GLOBAL PATTERNS OF THE CLIMATIC ELEMENTS: (1) SOLAR ENERGY (Linked to solar insolation & R, net radiation)](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022081519/56649e0f5503460f94af9e6b/html5/thumbnails/45.jpg)
JANUARY JULYNorthern Hemisphere
Southern Hemisphere
![Page 46: GLOBAL PATTERNS OF THE CLIMATIC ELEMENTS: (1) SOLAR ENERGY (Linked to solar insolation & R, net radiation)](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022081519/56649e0f5503460f94af9e6b/html5/thumbnails/46.jpg)
Southern Hemisphere
Northern Hemisphere
JANUARY JULY
![Page 47: GLOBAL PATTERNS OF THE CLIMATIC ELEMENTS: (1) SOLAR ENERGY (Linked to solar insolation & R, net radiation)](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022081519/56649e0f5503460f94af9e6b/html5/thumbnails/47.jpg)
![Page 48: GLOBAL PATTERNS OF THE CLIMATIC ELEMENTS: (1) SOLAR ENERGY (Linked to solar insolation & R, net radiation)](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022081519/56649e0f5503460f94af9e6b/html5/thumbnails/48.jpg)
![Page 49: GLOBAL PATTERNS OF THE CLIMATIC ELEMENTS: (1) SOLAR ENERGY (Linked to solar insolation & R, net radiation)](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022081519/56649e0f5503460f94af9e6b/html5/thumbnails/49.jpg)
![Page 50: GLOBAL PATTERNS OF THE CLIMATIC ELEMENTS: (1) SOLAR ENERGY (Linked to solar insolation & R, net radiation)](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022081519/56649e0f5503460f94af9e6b/html5/thumbnails/50.jpg)
http://geography.uoregon.edu/envchange/clim_animations/
Constructed by:
Jacqueline J. Shinker, “JJ” Univ of Oregon Climate Lab
![Page 51: GLOBAL PATTERNS OF THE CLIMATIC ELEMENTS: (1) SOLAR ENERGY (Linked to solar insolation & R, net radiation)](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022081519/56649e0f5503460f94af9e6b/html5/thumbnails/51.jpg)
The NCEP / NCAR REANALYSIS PROJECT
DATASET
http://www.cdc.noaa.gov/cdc/data.ncep.reanalysis.html
![Page 52: GLOBAL PATTERNS OF THE CLIMATIC ELEMENTS: (1) SOLAR ENERGY (Linked to solar insolation & R, net radiation)](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022081519/56649e0f5503460f94af9e6b/html5/thumbnails/52.jpg)
The assimilated data are:
-- computed by the reanalysis model at individual gridpoints
-- to make gridded fields extending horizontally over the whole globe
-- at 28 different levels in the atmosphere.
(Some of these levels correspond to the "mandatory" pressure height level at which soundings are taken, e.g., 1000, 850, 700, 500, 250 mb, etc.)
![Page 53: GLOBAL PATTERNS OF THE CLIMATIC ELEMENTS: (1) SOLAR ENERGY (Linked to solar insolation & R, net radiation)](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022081519/56649e0f5503460f94af9e6b/html5/thumbnails/53.jpg)
The horizontal resolution of the gridpoints is based on the T62 model resolution (T62 = "Triangular 62-waves truncation") which is a grid of 192 x 94 points, equivalent to an average horizontal resolution of a gridpoint every 210 km.
The pressure level data are saved on a 2.5 latitude-longitude grid. Note that the gridpoints for computed model output are more numerous and much closer together in the mid and high latitudes, and fewer and farther apart over the low latitudes.
![Page 54: GLOBAL PATTERNS OF THE CLIMATIC ELEMENTS: (1) SOLAR ENERGY (Linked to solar insolation & R, net radiation)](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022081519/56649e0f5503460f94af9e6b/html5/thumbnails/54.jpg)
Map of locations of Raobs soundings for the globe:
Raobs = rawindsonde balloon soundings
![Page 55: GLOBAL PATTERNS OF THE CLIMATIC ELEMENTS: (1) SOLAR ENERGY (Linked to solar insolation & R, net radiation)](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022081519/56649e0f5503460f94af9e6b/html5/thumbnails/55.jpg)
Reanalysis Output Fields The gridded output fields computed for different
variables have been classified into four classes ( A, B, C, and D) depending on the relative influence (on the gridded variable) of:
(1)the observational data
(2) the model
IMPORTANT: "the user should exercise caution in interpreting results of the reanalysis, especially for variables classified in categories B and C." (p 448)
![Page 56: GLOBAL PATTERNS OF THE CLIMATIC ELEMENTS: (1) SOLAR ENERGY (Linked to solar insolation & R, net radiation)](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022081519/56649e0f5503460f94af9e6b/html5/thumbnails/56.jpg)
Class A = the most reliable class of variables; "analysis variable is strongly influenced by observed data"
value is closest to a real observation
Class A variables:
mean sea level pressure,
geopotential height (i.e. height of 500 mb surface, 700 mb surface, etc.),
air temperature,
wind (expressed as two vectors dimensions: zonal = u wind (west-east ) and meridional = v wind (north-south),
vorticity (a measure of rotation)
![Page 57: GLOBAL PATTERNS OF THE CLIMATIC ELEMENTS: (1) SOLAR ENERGY (Linked to solar insolation & R, net radiation)](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022081519/56649e0f5503460f94af9e6b/html5/thumbnails/57.jpg)
Class B = the next most reliable class of variables
"although some observational data directly affect the value of the variable, the model also has a very strong influence on the output values."
Class B variables:
surface pressure,
surface temperature (and near-surface 2-m
temperature) , max and min temperature,
vertical velocity,
near-surface wind (u & v wind at 10 m),
relative humidity, mean relative humidity,
precipitable water content, and snow cover
![Page 58: GLOBAL PATTERNS OF THE CLIMATIC ELEMENTS: (1) SOLAR ENERGY (Linked to solar insolation & R, net radiation)](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022081519/56649e0f5503460f94af9e6b/html5/thumbnails/58.jpg)
Class C = the least reliable class of variables
-- NO observations directly affect the variable and it is derived solely from the model computations
-- forced by the model's data assimilation process, not by any real data.
Class C variables:
precipitation, snow depth, soil wetness and soil temperature, surface runoff, cloud fraction (% high, middle, low), cloud forcing, skin temperature, surface wind stress, gravity wind drag,
and latent and sensible heat fluxes from surface or top of the atmosphere.