GEOS 470R/570R Volcanology

L28, 4 May 2015 Handing out

PowerPoint slides for today

Lecture final Wednesday, 13 May 2015, 10:30-12:30pm, G-S 203Early offering: Monday, 11 May 2015, 1:00-3:00pm,

G-S 321Time of lecture review session? Friday afternoon?

“The reward of a thing well done, is to have done it.”--Ralph Waldo Emerson

Readings from textbook

For L28 from Lockwood and Hazlett (2010) Volcanoes—Global PerspectivesChapters 15 and 13

Last time: Extraterrestrial volcanism, II.

Venus Mars Io Cryovolcanism Comparative

planetology revisited

Press and Siever, 2001, Fig. 1.10

Venus Size and density similar to Earth

Diameter only 330 km less than Earth Covered with dense atmosphere rich in carbon

dioxide Capped with clouds with sulfuric acid droplets Clouds circulate planet once every four days High winds aloft, but mostly calm at surface

Explored by Pioneer Venus radar Earth-based radar Soviet Venera 15-16 orbital imaging radar Soviet Venera and Vegas landers Magellan radar, altimetry, and gravity (1990-1994)

Lunar and Planetary Institute, 1997, Venus Slide Set, #2

Volcanologic implications of atmospheric pressure and heat

High atmospheric surface pressure Everything else being equal, will inhibit vesiculation of magma,

leading to less explosive eruption (some ash suspected; no ash-flow tuffs documented)

Makes wind velocities very low (few dunes observed on Venus) High ambient surface temperature

Slow the rate of solidification of lavas Prevent water from existing on or below surface Everything else being equal, would diminish potential to form

maars, tuff rings, etc. Potentially could increase long term rates of geological strain in

areas of high, mountainous relief

Types of magmatic features on Venus Volcanoes

Large volcanoes Intermediate

volcanoesSmall volcanoes and

fields of small shield volcanoes (colles)

Calderas (often, patera, irregular depressions)

Lava flows and channelsPlains lavasLava flow fields (fluctii)Unusual lava flowsLava channels (canali)

Magmatic structuresCoronaeArachnoidsRadial (stellate)

fracture centers

Large volcanoes Chloris Mons

Shield volcano 300 km in diameter

Numerous light and dark lava flows and radiating fractures

Distal ends of flows are radar bright Relatively rough and

blockier? Several small volcanoes

with steep-sided dome morphology near the summit

Crumpler and Aubele, 2000, Fig. 2

Intermediate volcanoes

Diameter 20 - 100 km Morphologic types

Radially patterned domesSteep-sided domesPancake domes (farra)Scalloped domesModified or fluted domesTholi

Volcano of intermediate size

A simple intermediate volcano20 km in diameter

Radial bright and dark lava flows

Summit caldera

Crumpler and Aubele, 2000, Fig. 3

Steep-sided dome

Steep-sided domeConvex profile~40 km in diameter

Located on set of annular fractures defining the margins of a corona

Crumpler and Aubele, 2000, Fig. 4

Pancake domes (farra) Steep sided domes that

are Broad and flat Very circular Steep along their

perimeter Apparent emplacement

in a single episode of volcanism

Seem to require highly viscous, perhaps silicic magma

Located just southeast of Alpha Regio at 30°S, 12°E

Fluted dome

Fluted dome on rightConvex profile~25 km in diameter

Deep central crater with inverted conical profile

Pancake-like steep-sided dome at left~35 km in diameter

Crumpler and Aubele, 2000, Fig. 5

Tholi

Intermediate volcano in which the flanks appear steep relative to most volcanoes on Venus

Mahuea Tholus Located at 37.3°S, 165.1°E The bright, ridged flows

stand about 600 m above the surrounding plains

Inner tier sits >1000 m high

Thickness suggests that they were unusually viscous at time of emplacement Lunar and Planetary Institute, 1997,

Venus Slide Set, #25

Small volcanic field

“Shield field”Centered at

78.4°S, 43.0°ELocated in the

volcanic plains

Lunar and Planetary Institute, 1997, Venus Slide Set, #26

Caldera

Circular caldera with ring fractures

Radar altimetry profile Demonstrating depth

of caldera of 1 km

Crumpler and Aubele, 2000, Fig. 7A, B

Types of magmatic structures

CoronaeAlmost unique to VenusBut also observed on Miranda, a moon of

Uranus Arachnoids Radial (stellate) fracture centers

Coronae Dominantly circular to elliptical

structures May be associated with mantle

plumes or hot spots Characteristics

Annulus of concentric ridges or fractures

Interior that may be high or low Peripheral moat or trough Large and small volcanoes

frequently present within the corona or on its margins

But exhibit a variety of topographic forms

Interpreted origin Rising plumes push the crust

upward into a dome Dome collapses in center Molten lava leaks out around

sidesCrumpler and Aubele, 2000, Fig. 10

Arachnoids Similar to coronae, but with strongly developed

radial patterns Annular structural patterns consisting of

Concentric or circular pattern of fractures or ridges, With

Radial arrays of fractures or ridges extending outward for several radii

Interior flows and small shield volcanoes Radial fractures frequently merge outward with

the linear patterns of the fracture belts on which arachnoids are arrangedHence the name: spiders along webs of linear

fracture belts

Arachnoids

Crumpler and Aubele, 2000, Fig. 12A, B

Mars Explored by

Flybys of Mariner 4 (1965), Mariners 6 and 7 (1969), and Mariner 9 (1971)

Viking 1 and 2 orbiters and landers (1976)

Mars Pathfinder and Sojourner Rover (1997-1998)

Mars Global Surveyor (1999-present)

Mars Odyssey (2002-present)

Mars Express (2003-present)

Mars Exploration Rovers Spirit and Opportunity (2004)

Phoenix Lander (2008) Curiosity Rover (2012)

Press and Siever, 2001, Fig. 1.10

Volcanic features on Mars Mons

Large isolated mountain Tholus (pl. tholi)

Isolated domical small mountain or hill, with slopes much steeper than that of a patera

Patera (pl. paterae)Irregular or complex crater with scalloped

edges, surrounded by shallow flank slopes

Olympus Mons A shield volcano on Mars the size of Arizona

Diameter ~600 km Relief: 21 km above datum (akin to sea level)

Tholi Isolated, domical

mountains or hillsSlopes much

steeper than that of most paterae

Smaller than 200 km in diameter

Ceraunius Tholus Lava dome Elongate crater at top

created by oblique impact at northern base

Dimensions 150 X 100 km

Lava channel flowed into crater

Zimbelman, 2000, Fig. 3

Paterae

Irregular or complex cratersScalloped edgesSurrounded by shallow flank slopes

Possibly have an important pyroclastic componentFlows or falls?Suggestive of increased volatile content of

magmas?

Paterae

Highland Paterae Irregular or complex

crater with scalloped edges that are surrounded by shallow flank slopes

Intensely eroded appearanceRemoval of friable

material?

Zimbelman, 2000, Fig. 4

Tyrrhena Patera (FOV ~ 120 km)

Volcanic plainsLava flow margins (FOV ~ 54 km)

Zimbelman, 2000, Fig. 1

Zimbelman, 2000, Fig. 6

Volcanic fields (white)

Volcanoes and ice on Mars Large amounts of water

iceBelieved to be present in

Martian subsurface Interaction of ice with

molten rock Produces distinct

landforms Features identified

recently includeRootless cones created by

phreatic explosions (e.g., Hamilton et al., 2010)

Lahars or debris flows

Images from Wikipedia Site, Volcanology of Mars

HiRISE image of possible rootless cones east of Elysium region. Chains of rings interpreted to be caused by steam explosions when lava moved over ground that was rich in water ice.

"Rootless Cones" on Mars – due to lava flows interacting with water (MRO, January 4, 2013)

Io Galilean satellites

(four largest satellites of Jupiter) Io Europa Ganymede Callisto

Io Innermost satellite of

Jupiter Intense magmatism

on Io Driven not by

internal heat But by

gravitational attractions of Jupiter and Europa

Io Most volcanically

active object in the solar system

Heat flow much higher than Earth’sSeveral volcanoes

erupt lavas that are hotter than any erupted on the Earth today

Lopes-Gautier, 2000, Fig. 1

Surface features Mountains Smooth plains Volcanic constructs

Absence of large volcanic edifices

Shield volcanoes are low Magmas of low viscosity?

Calderas Steep walls and flat

floors 20 – 200 km in

diameter As deep as 2 km

Lockwood and Hazlett, 2010, Fig. 12.21

Scalloped (possibly sapped) volcanic tableland and compound caldera of Tvashtar patera on Io; ongoing effusive eruption on left)

Eruptive products

Red materialsEphemeral (lasting a few years?)Pyroclastic deposits—fall deposits from plumes?Associated with hot spots and plumes

Very dark depositsAlso associated with hot spots

Different colors may reflect different allotropes (crystal structures) of sulfurCooled rapidly from different temperatures

Cryovolcanism

DefinitionEruption of liquid or vapor phases (with or without

entrained solids) of water or other volatiles that would be frozen solid at the normal temperature of an icy satellite’s surface

Known to occurGeyser-like plumes of nitrogen were discovered on

Triton, a moon of Neptune, by Voyager 2 Indirect evidence that it has taken place

elsewhereMight be active today

South pole of Triton, Neptune’s only planet-sized moon Bright polar

cap Made up of

relatively mobile N2 ice, subliming in the summer sunshine

Dark streaks are active or recent plumes

Geissler, 2000, Fig. 3

Cryovolcanic flows on Triton Evidence of

extensive melting Perhaps when

moon was gravitationally captured into orbit about Neptune

Two large caldera-like lake features near the equator Rimless pits to the

right of the impact crater may be the source of the smooth materials

Geissler, 2000, Fig. 5

Summary: Extraterrestrial volcanism, II.

Venus Volcanoes: Large volcanoes, intermediate volcanoes (various domes),

small volcanoes and fields of small shield volcanoes, calderas, lava flows and channels

Magmatic structures characterized by surface deformation associated with large-scale subsurface magmatism: Coronae, arachnoids, radial fracture centers

Mars Volcanically inactive planet with huge volcanoes

Io Vigorous volcanism driven by tidal forces; sulfur is an important product

Cryovolcanism May be common on outer planets and their satellites

Comparative planetology, revisited Many features are similar on various planetary bodies

Lecture 28: Societal applications

Volcanic contributions to climate changeReview of atmospheric structure and processesEruptions and atmospheric anomaliesVolcanism and extinctionsVolcanic contributions to S and C fluxes

Volcanic materials for consumers Volcanic contributions to soils Geothermal systems and resources Petroleum maturation and reservoirs

Definitions Colloid

Any finely divided substance (finer than clay size) that does not occur in crystalline form

Any fine-grained material in suspension Sol

Homogeneous suspension or dispersion of colloidal matter in a fluid (liquid or gas)

A sol is more fluid than a gel Aerosol

A sol in which the dispersion medium is a gas (usually air) and the dispersed or colloidal phase consists of solid or liquid droplets

e.g., mist, haze, most smoke, and some fog

Homospheric portion of the atmosphere Mesosphere

T decreases with altitude to a minimum at the top (the mesopause)

Stratosphere Temperature increases with altitude to a maximum at the top

(the stratopause, ~50 km altitude) Warm air is less dense than cold air, so is more stable than

troposphere because air enters stratosphere from convective storms in tropics; particles not rained out

Air leaves stratosphere only by infolding into troposphere at midlatitudes (3/4; residence time two years) and by descending toward surface at poles during winter (1/4)

Troposphere Region closest to Earth; “dirty” Temperature decreases with altitude to a minimum at the top

(the tropopause, ~18 km altitude at equator, ~8 km at poles) Absoption of solar radiation causes instabilityweather Precipitation causes rainout of particles within weeks

Mills, 2000, p. 933-934

Residence times in stratosphere

Fine ashResides in stratosphere for <3 months

because of its relatively large size Sulfuric acid aerosol

Resides in stratosphere for several years

Consequences of atmospheric structure Volcanic eruptions have little chance to impact global

atmosphere unless volcanic plumes penetrate the tropopause Only explosive eruptions will affect the stratosphere

Ash not of major concern regarding climate Short residence time

Sulfuric acid aerosols are important if injected into stratosphere

Explosive, SO2-rich eruptions will have the greatest impact on climate Mafic eruptions (especially if explosive, but are uncommonly

explosive) and eruptions of oxidized intermediate magmas Eruptions in the tropics have the best chance to have a

global impact Better chance for eruptive products to reach both the northern and

southern hemispheres (because their air masses do little mixing) Famous global impacts of Tambora (1815), Krakatau (1883),

Pinatubo (1991 were all equatorial, highly explosive eruptions

More definitions

ClimateAverage weather conditions (temperature,

meteorological conditions) of a place over a period of years

WeatherDaily changes or weekly and monthly

patterns

“Climate is what you expect; weather is what you get”

Climate and global change

Dust and especially gases (CO2, SO2, H2S) from large eruptions have short-term impacts on climate

Numerous atmospheric anomalies correlate with historic volcanic eruptions, commonly in a different part of the worldTypically hemispheric spatial extentsTypically 1- to 2-year temporal effects

Ancient eruptions and atmospheric anomalies Santorini (Thera), Aegean Sea ~ 1620 BC

Atmospheric effects felt globallyChina: Floods, followed by 7 years of drought

Etna, Sicily ~42 BCCorrelates with anomalies in Rome, China,

Greenland Kuwae, Vanuatu, S. Pacific, ~1453 AD

Eclipse, hailstorm, dense fog in Constantinople (Istanbul)

Frost and snow in China same year9 years of crop damage in Sweden and Germany

beginning in 1453Tree ring evidence for frost damage globally for

several years

More recent eruptions and atmospheric anomalies

Laki fissure eruption, Iceland, 1783 Largest historic series of lava flows (~15

km3) Europe’s “dry fog” may have caused cold

winter in 1783-1784 and cold summer of 1784

Tambora, Sumbawa, Indonesia, Apr 1815 Largest eruption in last 10,000 yrs (~100

km3) 1816: “Year without a summer” because of

lower temperatures in New England and Europe

France: Famines and riots at end of Napoleonic wars

Ireland and British Isles: Famine and typhus epidemic

India: Crop failures, famine, cholera Krakatau, 1883

Several years of brilliant sunsets

Laki fissure, Iceland

P. Kresan

Brilliant sunsets Major explosive eruptions

Produce smog-like silvery midday skies and colorful sunsets

Krakatau eruption (1883) impressed European observers Inspired a number of paintingsPerhaps Edvard Munch’s The

Scream (1893)Lockwood and Hazlett,

2010, Fig. 13.3

Lockwood and Hazlett, 2010, Fig. 13.4

Volcanic eruptions and short-term changes in climate Eruption of

Tambora, Indonesia, in 1815 shortened growing season in New EnglandAnnual and

5-year running average

Sigurdsson, 2000, Fig. 5

ME

NH

MA

Extraordinarily large eruptions

Toba, IndonesiaEruption at 74,000 yr BPLargest eruption of last several hundred

thousand years (~280,000 km3)Ice core studies indicate that Toba aerosols

remained in stratosphere for ~6 yr

Fisher et al., 1997, Fig. 9-2; adapted from AGU Report, “Volcanism and Climate Change”

Fate and impact of volcanic SO2

Within one month SO2 is converted to H2SO4 Combines with water vapor to form stratospheric sulfate aerosol

Volcanic aerosol May cool the Earth’s surface by reflecting solar energy back to

space May warm the stratosphere by absorbing infrared radiation

escaping the from the surface and troposphere Chemical reactions between gaseous and aerosol

components activate anthropogenic halogens Amplifies ozone depletion at midlatitudes and poles

Aerosol eventually is taken up by clouds in troposphere May again increase planetary albedo by decreasing average

size of droplets in cirrus clouds, modifying their optical properties

Mills, 2000, p. 935-936

Eruptive plume that penetrates the stratosphere and forms aerosols

Mills, 2000, Fig. 1

SAGE II

Stratospheric aerosol and gas experiment (SAGE)

Satellite-borne instrument that monitors distribution of stratospheric aerosol

Observations of effects of Pinatubo eruption of June 1991

Eruption of Pinatubo, June 1991 Aerosol initially

confined to tropics Increased the 1-μm

optical depth by two orders of magnitude

Over 6 months spread to higher latitudes Global increase in 1-

μm optical depth by one order of magnitude

Stratospheric aerosol layer continued to be dominated by steadily decreasing volcanic aerosol for 3 yr

Self et al., 1996, Fig. 6; from McCormick et al., 1995

Effects of El Chichón 1982 and Pinatubo 1991

Self et al., 1996, Fig. 9

Variability in sulfur loading

Mills, 2000, Table 1

Temperature decreases correlate with sulfur yield of eruptions

Fisher et al., 1997, Fig. 9-1; adapted from Sigurdsson, 1990

Laki fissure eruptions, Iceland, 1783-4

Rampino and Self, 2000, Fig. 3

Flood basalt provinces of last 250 Ma

Rampino and Self, 2000, Table I

Flood basalts and faunal events

Rampino and Self, 2000, Table II

Volcanism and extinctions Unclear relationship between volcanism and

extinctionsBest temporal correlation is with eruption of flood

basalts Does a large extinction require

Combination of bolide impact + eruption? Does bolide impact somehow trigger eruption of

flood basalts? Can short-term climate-changes associated with

volcanic event somehow trigger longer term climate change Which may be required to cause massive

extinctions?

Outgassing of the Earth

Midocean ridge volcanism Intraplate volcanism Convergent margin (arc) volcanism Subduction zone and collision zone

metamorphism Volatile loss during burial diagenesis of

sediments

Volcanic contributions to global C and S fluxes Volcanic outgassing represents ~50% of the

total flux of CO2 to the atmosphereProportions of CO2 flux assigned to various tectonic

settings of volcanism remain uncertain

Volcanic volatile sulfur flux from subaerial volcanism amounts to 20 – 30% of preanthropogenic riverine sulfur flux Impact of submarine volcanism is difficult to assess

because of uncertainties assigned to hydrothermal sinks and sources

Volcanoes for consumers

Metals from mineral deposits formed in volcanic settings

Ski mountains Construction materials Volcanic soils Geothermal baths Geothermal energy Petroleum maturation and reservoir rocks

Properties of volcanic materials

Dehn and McNutt, 2000, Table 1

Building stone

IgnimbriteWelded tuffSillar

Lightweight Relatively high

strength

Ignimbrite column in Guadalajara, México

Fisher et al., 1997, Fig. 11-6; photo by G. Heiken

Building stoneBlocks from ignimbrite quarry near Naples, Italy

Church in central Naples, constructed in 13th century out of cut blocks of Campanian Ignimbrite and yellow tuff

Fisher et al., 1997, Fig. 11-8A, B; photos by R. V. Fisher

Cinders

Road construction and surfacing

“Sand” for traction on ice

Ornamental stones and pathways

Cinder cone at Little Lake, CA

Fisher et al., 1997, Ch. 11 Frontispiece; photo by R. V. Fisher

Volcanic ash in soil

Volcanic ash is made predominantly of volcanic glass

Glass is easily weatheredProducing clay mineralsReleasing elements not accommodated in clay

minerals Clay minerals can provide base for roots, help

soil hold water, and exchange nutrients Some elements released are nutrients for plant

growth (K, Ca, Na, trace elements)

Ash Ashfall from Parícutin, México

Where thin, it enriched soils if tilled in with a plow Where thick, nothing would grow; farms were abandoned

Fisher et al., 1997, Fig. 13-3

Soils and more

Volcanoes contribute to fine coffees of Guatemala in several waysVolcanic soilsEffect of elevation

(2,000-3,000 m) on temperature and rainfall

Coffee finca (plantation) near Volcán Tecuamburro, southern Guatemala

Fisher et al., 1997, Fig. 13-5; photo by G. Heiken

Geothermal benefitsBlue Lagoon, Iceland: Bathers in foreground; geothermal power plant in background

Fisher et al., 1997, Frontispiece for Ch. 12; photo by G. E. Sigvaldason

Volcanic lakes

Delmelle and Bernard, 2000, Fig. 3

Fumaroles Fumaroles, boiling acid-sulfate springs, and

acid sublimates produced bleached “wasteland”Bumpass Hell, Lassen Volcanic National Park, CA

Goff and Janik, 2000, Fig. 6A

Surface manifestations of geothermal systems

Silica sinter mound around boiling spring Sumurup, Lempur,

central Sumatra, Indonesia

Hochstein and Browne, 2000, Title Banner

Geothermal fluids Valles caldera, Jemez Mountains, New Mexico Well VC-2A, Sulphur

Springs,, May 1987Active geothermal

system with small reservoir

Wall rocks altered to native sulfur and kaolinite

Well producing fluids from a single fracture in the Bandelier Tuff

Uneconomic for electricity when explored from 1962-1984

Goff, 2010, Fig. 4

Geothermal fluids Neutral-chloride water

erupts during flow test of well VC-2B, Sulphur Springs, Valles caldera, Jemez Mountains, New Mexico Mean T of fluid production

during test 250°C Bottom hole T 295°C Scale: Well head 2.2 m tall

Reservoir conditions (adjusted for steam loss) pH = 6.2 Cl- content = 3000 ppm

Goff and Janik, 2000, Fig. 6B

Volcanic-hydrothermal system Conceptual model of a “volcanic-hydrothermal system” with

characteristic surface manifestations Based on Suretimeat system, Vanuatu Isotherms: T1 = ~150°C; T2 = ~350°C

Hochstein and Browne, Fig. 2

Liquid-dominated, high-temp. system Conceptual model of a liquid-dominated, high-temperature system

beneath a partially eroded, high-standing volcanic complex Exhibiting lateral zonation (downstream) of surface manifestations Large amount of heat discharged by concealed outflows that are

partially sealed by mineral deposition Based in part on Palinpinon system, Philippines

Hochstein and Browne, Fig. 3

High-temp., steaming ground system Conceptual model of a high-temperature, steaming ground system

beneath a broad volcanic center Natural two-phase (L + V) reservoir Showing restricted variety of surface manifestations in a semi-arid

environment Based in part on Olkaria, Kenya, and others in East African rift valley

Hochstein and Browne, Fig. 4

Vapor-dominated system Conceptual model of a vapor-dominated system beneath a broad, high-standing

volcanic system Reservoir has a condensate layer on top Heat transferred within the reservoir is discharged at the surface by steam and hot

condensates (bicarbonate waters) Model similar to Kamojang system, Java, Indonesia

Hochstein and Browne, Fig. 5

The Geysers, CA A vapor-dominated geothermal system

P. Kresan

Liquid-dominated, high-temp. system Conceptual model of a liquid-dominated system in rather flat

terrain Heat source is an extensive layer of hot crustal rocks that contains

some partial melts and intrusions Similar to Wairakei system, New Zealand

Hochstein and Browne, Fig. 6

Geothermal resources

Fisher et al., 1997, Fig. 12-2

How much geothermal energy is available? Global arc volcanism produces 2 km3 magma per year U.S. electrical power consumption is roughly 500 watts

(joules / second) per person How do these compare?

Cooling 1 gram of magma 1˚C releases about 1 joule of heat What is a typical magma T in round numbers?

1000˚ to 0˚C releases 1000 joules / gram Mass magma per year: 2.5 x 109 (t/km3) x 2 x 106 (g/t) Thus, 5 x 1015 grams or 5 x 1018 joules per year joules per sec (= watts) is 5 x 1018 / 3 x 107 = 2 x 1011 W from

global arc volcanism US consumption is 500 x 300 x 106 = 1.5 x 1011 W Shocking, isn’t it?

M. D. Barton

Reservoir defined by distribution of wet vs. dry volcanic products

Hydrothermal reservoir geometry (dotted line) defined by geological mapping of young volcanic products Dry volcanic

products (pumiceous)

Wet volcanic products (phreatomagmatic)

Wohletz and Heiken, 1992, Fig. 2-42

Economic significance

Hypothetical water : magma ratio (Rm) as a function of near-vent median grain sizes of tephra

Finer grain sizes from phreatomagmatic eruptions

Why are the phreatomagmatic eruptions more significant economically?

Wohletz and Heiken, 1992, Fig. 2-43

Power generation schemes

Goff and Janik, 2000, Fig. 8

Potential environmental and safety issues H2S pollution of

atmosphere Brine pollution of

groundwater Hydrothermal explosions Landslides Reservoir interference,

depletion, subsidence, and induced seismicity

Earthquakes and volcanic hazards

Goff and Janik, 2000, p. 933

P. Kresan

Hydrothermally generated oil

Heat from magmatic processesCan contribute to maturation of hydrocarbonsCan lead to overmaturation of hydrocarbonsDepends on prior thermal history and temperature +

time exposure to hydrothermal system Oil generated by interaction with hydrothermal

fluids at modern mid-ocean ridges receiving pelitic sedimentTemperatures >300°C--twice those at top of “normal”

oil window, i.e., in amagmatic sedimentary basins Oil commonly found in many paleohydrothermal

systems hosted by organic-rich sedimentary rocks

Volcanic rocks as reservoirs

Volcanic rocks uncommon reservoirsWhy?

An important petroleum reservoir in Railroad Valley, eastern Nevada, is Tertiary ignimbrite

Summary Volcanic contributions to climate change

Review of atmospheric structure and processes Eruptions and atmospheric anomalies Volcanism and extinctions Volcanic contributions to S and C fluxes

Volcanic materials for consumers Volcanic contributions to soils Geothermal systems and resources Petroleum maturation and reservoirs

Thanks for participating in Volcanology classes during Spring of 2015!