Free video lectures for mba

5th Edition

Free Video Lectures for MBA

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5th Edition

Copyright © Prentice Hall 2007 11-2

PsychologyStephen F. Davis

Emporia State University Joseph J. Palladino

University of Southern IndianaPowerPoint Presentation by

Cynthia K. Shinabarger ReedTarrant County College

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5th Edition


Personality

Chapter 11

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Analyzing Personality

• Psychologists define personality as a relatively stable pattern of thinking, feeling, and behaving that distinguishes one person from another.

• Two important components of this definition are distinctiveness and relative consistency.

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• The methods psychologists use to examine personality include case studies, interviews, naturalistic observations, laboratory investigations, and psychological tests.

• To be useful, a psychological test must have three characteristics: reliability, validity, and standardization.

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• Some of the best-known and most widely used personality measures are self-report inventories that require individuals to respond to statements about themselves in the form of yes-no or true-false answers.

• Among the widely used self-report inventories of personality are the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) and the California Psychological Inventory (CPI).

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• The MMPI was designed to help diagnose psychological disorders.

• The CPI is used to assess personality in the normal population.

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• Projective tests are assessment techniques that require individuals to respond to unstructured or ambiguous stimuli.

• The assumption underlying projective tests is that people project their personality characteristics onto the ambiguous stimuli.

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• One of the most frequently used projective tests is the Rorschach inkblot test.

• Administering and interpreting projective tests requires extensive training.

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• The Barnum effect is the tendency to accept generalized personality descriptions as accurate descriptions of oneself.

• The effect results from the use of favorable personality descriptions that apply to many people.

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• Walter Mischel advised psychologists to turn their attention from the search for traits to the study of how situations influence behaviors.

• Some characteristics, such as intelligence, emotional reactions, and physical appearance, are consistent over time.

• Although a number of studies have failed to demonstrate consistency of behavior across situations, there may be limitations in the methods used to study consistency.

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• Epstein proposes that both sides of the consistency issue are correct.

• Behavior depends on the situation, but there are consistent behavioral tendencies across situations.

• The situation also influences the likelihood that a person will exhibit a specific behavior.

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Trait Approaches

• Traits are summary terms that describe tendencies to respond in particular ways that account for differences among people.

• Psychologist Gordon Allport set out to compose a list of traits, which he described as the building blocks of personality.

• After eliminating words that referred to temporary moods, social evaluations, or physical attributes, Allport found that 4,500 words remained.

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Trait Approaches

• Raymond Cattell proposed 16 source traits to describe personality and make predictions of future behaviors.

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Trait Approaches

• Cattell used the term surface traits to describe traits that were easy to identify.

• He assumed that these surface traits were in turn directed by a smaller number of traits called source traits.

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Trait Approaches

• Eysenck said we can describe personality as consisting of three basic traits: extraversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism.

• Extraversion has been associated with a number of differences in everyday behavior.

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Trait Approaches• There is a growing consensus that personality

traits can be reduced to five basic ones, although there is some disagreement about the precise labels for the five.

• The most common names for the “Big Five” are

1) openness to experience,

2) conscientiousness,

3) extraversion,

4) agreeableness, and

5) neuroticism.video.edhole.com


Trait Approaches

• Advances in the technology of genetics and neuroscience have led to an increase in the ability to detect genetic and neurological bases of complex behavior.

• Recent assessments of the heritability of the Big Five have concluded that all five traits are moderately and equally heritable.

• A growing body of research suggests that personality traits have considerable long-term stability.

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Trait Approaches

• Gregory Hurtz and John Donovan completed an extensive search for research that investigated the relation between measures of the Big Five factors and job or training performance.

• Their results showed that conscientiousness had the highest correlation across occupations with job performance criteria (r = 0.14), which was low to moderate but stable across studies.

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Trait Approaches

• Not everyone views the factors of the five-factor model as capturing the essence of personality.

• Drew Westen and Jonathan Shedler are psychotherapists and research psychologists who don’t think questionnaire items address the deeper organizing principles of personality.

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Trait Approaches

• According to these psychologists, if we use questionnaires to provide a glimpse of personality, what we get is a description on a selection of traits that are just statistical entities and only skim the personality’s surface.

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Biological Factors in Personality

• The idea that physical and biological factors hold a key to personality has a long history.

• Trephining involves the opening of a hole in the skull, leaving the membranes surrounding the brain intact.

• The main concept of the modern trepanation movement lies in the word brainbloodvolume (the amount of blood supplied to the brain).

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• Trepanation supposedly allows greater flow of blood in the capillaries of the brain.

• Most researchers and physicians do not have a high opinion of the supposed benefits of trepanation.

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• Hippocrates, a Greek philosopher and physician, believed that the human body contained four bodily “humors” or fluids: black bile, blood, phlegm, and yellow bile.

• The humor that predominated in a person was believed to determine that person’s characteristics.

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• In the 1800s, phrenologists (phrenology was an attempt to study a person by analyzing bumps and indentations on the skull) attempted to link personality with features of the brain.

• Eventually it became clear that any bumps on the skull had no connection to personal characteristics, and interest in phrenology faded.

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• William Sheldon suggested a relationship between body type and personality.

• He developed a scheme consisting of three body types: Endomorphs are round, mesomorphs are rectangular, and ectomorphs are thin.

• Subsequent research demonstrated that his findings were influenced by his preconceptions.

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• Additional support for the belief that biological factors influence personality is found in the negative correlation between sensation-seeking scores and levels of the enzyme MAO.

• A growing body of research points to the importance of biological factors in several personality characteristics.

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• The study of identical twins reared apart allows researchers to identify the effects of heredity independently of the influence of environmental factors.

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• Evidence from such studies indicates that heredity plays a role in a wide range of personality characteristics as evidenced by heritability estimates between 20 and 50%.

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• The evolutionary perspective would predict that those aspects of our personality that help us adapt to environmental demands are passed along to subsequent generations.

• Researchers have generated considerable data in support of the theory of psychologist David Buss that evolution has had an impact on the type of people that men and women choose as dates and mates.

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The Psychodynamic Perspective

• Three concepts form the backbone of Freud’s theory: psychic determinism, instincts, and levels of consciousness.

• Psychic determinism refers to the influence of the past on the present.

• Freud believed that much of our behavior, feeling, and thinking is determined by events that occurred earlier in our lives.

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• Freud believed we are driven by the energy of certain instincts in much the same way that a car is propelled by the energy contained in gasoline.

• He described two key instincts: eros for lifegiving and pleasure-producing activities, including sex, and thanatos for aggression or destruction.

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• The third major concept in psychodynamic theory is Freud’s proposal that there are various levels of consciousness.

• Freud described three levels of consciousness.

• The conscious level refers to the thoughts, wishes, and emotions you are aware of at this moment.

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• The level just below consciousness is called the preconscious; its contents are waiting to be pulled into consciousness like fish from a pond.

• The third – and in Freud’s theory the most important – level of consciousness (or awareness) is below the preconscious and is called the unconscious.

• The unconscious consists of thoughts, wishes, and feelings that exist beyond our awareness; we can gain access to them only with great effort.

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• According to Freud’s comprehensive theory, the mind consists of three separate but interacting elements: the id, the ego, and the superego.

• This model compares the mind to an iceberg.

• Just as most of an iceberg lies beneath the surface of the water, much of what is truly significant in psychodynamic theory lies below conscious awareness.

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• The id represents the primitive biological side of our personality.

• This reservoir of pleasure-seeking and aggressive instinctual energy aims to reduce tension that builds up when our wishes are thwarted.

• Operating on the pleasure principle, it impulsively seeks immediate gratification of wishes through the ego.

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• The ego is sometimes called the executive of the personality because it has a realistic plan for obtaining what the id wants; therefore it is said to operate on the reality principle.

• The superego, has two components: the conscience and the ego ideal.

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• The conscience, the moral part of the superego, is like a little voice that tells us when we have violated our parents’ and society’s rules.

• The second component of the superego, the ego ideal, represents the superego’s positive side—the things that make us proud.

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