Foundations of Foundations of BehaviorBehavior

Ch 14Ch 14

Understanding Individual Understanding Individual BehaviorBehavior

Organizational Behavior (OB)Organizational Behavior (OB)– The actions of people at workThe actions of people at work

Dual Focus of OBDual Focus of OB– Individual behaviorIndividual behavior

Attitudes, personality, perception, learning, and Attitudes, personality, perception, learning, and motivationmotivation

– Group behaviorGroup behavior Norms, roles, team building, leadership, and conflictNorms, roles, team building, leadership, and conflict

Goals of OBGoals of OB– To explain, predict and influence behaviorTo explain, predict and influence behavior

Important Employee Important Employee BehaviorsBehaviors

Employee ProductivityEmployee Productivity– A performance measure of both efficiency A performance measure of both efficiency

and effectivenessand effectivenessAbsenteeismAbsenteeism

– The failure to report to work when expectedThe failure to report to work when expectedTurnoverTurnover

– The voluntary and involuntary The voluntary and involuntary permanent withdrawal from permanent withdrawal from an organizationan organization

Important Employee Important Employee BehaviorsBehaviors

Organizational Citizenship Behavior Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB)(OCB)– Discretionary behavior that is not a part Discretionary behavior that is not a part

of an employee’s formal job of an employee’s formal job requirements, but which promotes the requirements, but which promotes the effective functioning of the organization.effective functioning of the organization.

Job SatisfactionJob Satisfaction– The individual’s general attitude The individual’s general attitude

toward his or her jobtoward his or her job

Psychological Factors Psychological Factors Affecting Employee Affecting Employee

BehaviorBehavior

AttitudesAttitudes

PersonalitPersonalityy

PerceptionPerception

LearningLearning

AttitudesAttitudes

PersonalitPersonalityy

PerceptionPerception

LearningLearning

Employee Employee ProductivityProductivity

AbsenteeismAbsenteeismTurnoverTurnoverOrganizational Organizational CitizenshipCitizenship

Job SatisfactionJob Satisfaction

Employee Employee ProductivityProductivity

AbsenteeismAbsenteeismTurnoverTurnoverOrganizational Organizational CitizenshipCitizenship

Job SatisfactionJob Satisfaction

Psychological FactorsPsychological Factors

AttitudesAttitudes– Evaluative statementsEvaluative statements—either favorable or —either favorable or

unfavorable—concerning objects, people, or unfavorable—concerning objects, people, or events.events.

Components Of An AttitudeComponents Of An Attitude– Cognitive component:Cognitive component: the beliefs, opinions, the beliefs, opinions,

knowledge, or information held by a person.knowledge, or information held by a person.– Affective component:Affective component: the emotional or the emotional or

feeling part of an attitude.feeling part of an attitude.– Behavioral component:Behavioral component: the intention to the intention to

behave in a certain way.behave in a certain way.

Psychological Factors Psychological Factors (cont’d)(cont’d)

Job SatisfactionJob Satisfaction– Job satisfaction is affected by level of Job satisfaction is affected by level of

income earned and by the type of job a income earned and by the type of job a worker does.worker does.

Job Satisfaction and ProductivityJob Satisfaction and Productivity– For individuals, productivity appears to For individuals, productivity appears to

lead to job satisfaction.lead to job satisfaction.– For organizations, those with more For organizations, those with more

satisfied employees are more effective satisfied employees are more effective than those with less satisfied employees.than those with less satisfied employees.

Psychological Factors Psychological Factors (cont’d)(cont’d)

Job Satisfaction and AbsenteeismJob Satisfaction and Absenteeism– Satisfied employees tend to have lower levels of Satisfied employees tend to have lower levels of

absenteeism.absenteeism.Job Satisfaction and TurnoverJob Satisfaction and Turnover

– Satisfied employees have lower levels of Satisfied employees have lower levels of turnover; dissatisfied employees have higher turnover; dissatisfied employees have higher levels of turnover.levels of turnover.

– Turnover is affected by the level of employee Turnover is affected by the level of employee performance.performance. The preferential treatment afforded superior employees The preferential treatment afforded superior employees

makes satisfaction less important in predicting their makes satisfaction less important in predicting their turnover decisions.turnover decisions.

Psychological Factors Psychological Factors (cont’d)(cont’d)

Job Satisfaction and Customer SatisfactionJob Satisfaction and Customer Satisfaction– The level of job satisfaction for frontline The level of job satisfaction for frontline

employees is related to increased customer employees is related to increased customer satisfaction and loyalty.satisfaction and loyalty.

– Interaction with dissatisfied customers can Interaction with dissatisfied customers can increase an employee’s job dissatisfaction.increase an employee’s job dissatisfaction.

– Actions to increase job satisfaction for customer Actions to increase job satisfaction for customer service workers:service workers: Hire upbeat and friendly employees.Hire upbeat and friendly employees. Reward superior customer service.Reward superior customer service. Provide a positive work climate.Provide a positive work climate. Use attitude surveys to track employee satisfaction.Use attitude surveys to track employee satisfaction.

Psychological Factors Psychological Factors (cont’d)(cont’d)

Job InvolvementJob Involvement– The degree to which an employee The degree to which an employee

identifies with his or her job, actively identifies with his or her job, actively participates in it, and considers his or her participates in it, and considers his or her performance to be important to his or performance to be important to his or her self-worth.her self-worth. High levels of commitment are related to High levels of commitment are related to

fewer absences and lower resignation rates.fewer absences and lower resignation rates.

Psychological Factors Psychological Factors (cont’d)(cont’d)

Organizational CommitmentOrganizational Commitment– Is the degree to which an employee Is the degree to which an employee

identifies with a particular organization identifies with a particular organization and its goals and wishes to maintain and its goals and wishes to maintain membership in the organization.membership in the organization.

– Leads to lower levels of both Leads to lower levels of both absenteeism and turnover.absenteeism and turnover.

– Could be becoming an outmoded Could be becoming an outmoded measure as the number of workers who measure as the number of workers who change employers increases.change employers increases.

Psychological Factors Psychological Factors (cont’d)(cont’d)

Perceived Organizational SupportPerceived Organizational Support– Is the general belief of employees that Is the general belief of employees that

their organization values their their organization values their contribution and cares about their well-contribution and cares about their well-being.being.

– Represents the commitment of the Represents the commitment of the organization to the employee.organization to the employee.

– Providing high levels of support increases Providing high levels of support increases job satisfaction and lower turnover.job satisfaction and lower turnover.

Attitude SurveysAttitude Surveys

Attitude SurveysAttitude Surveys– A instrument/document that presents A instrument/document that presents

employees with a set of statements or employees with a set of statements or questions eliciting how they feel about questions eliciting how they feel about their jobs, work groups, supervisors, or their jobs, work groups, supervisors, or their organization.their organization.

– Provide management with feedback on Provide management with feedback on employee perceptions of the employee perceptions of the organization and their jobs.organization and their jobs.

Attitudes and ConsistencyAttitudes and Consistency

People seek consistency in two ways:People seek consistency in two ways:– Consistency among their attitudes.Consistency among their attitudes.– Consistency between their attitudes and Consistency between their attitudes and

behaviors.behaviors.If an inconsistency arises, individuals:If an inconsistency arises, individuals:

– Alter their attitudesAlter their attitudesoror

– Alter their behaviorAlter their behaviororor

– Develop a rationalization for the inconsistencyDevelop a rationalization for the inconsistency

Cognitive Dissonance Cognitive Dissonance TheoryTheory

Cognitive DissonanceCognitive Dissonance– Any incompatibility or inconsistency between Any incompatibility or inconsistency between

attitudes or between behavior and attitudes.attitudes or between behavior and attitudes. Any form of inconsistency is uncomfortable and Any form of inconsistency is uncomfortable and

individuals will try to reduce the dissonance.individuals will try to reduce the dissonance.

– The intensity of the desire to reduce the The intensity of the desire to reduce the dissonance is influenced by:dissonance is influenced by: The importance of the factors creating the dissonance.The importance of the factors creating the dissonance. The degree to which an individual believes that the The degree to which an individual believes that the

factors causing the dissonance are controllable.factors causing the dissonance are controllable. Rewards available to compensate for the dissonance.Rewards available to compensate for the dissonance.

The Importance of AttitudesThe Importance of Attitudes

Implication for ManagersImplication for Managers– Attitudes warn of potential behavioral problems: Attitudes warn of potential behavioral problems:

Managers should do things that generate the positive Managers should do things that generate the positive attitudes that reduce absenteeism and turnover.attitudes that reduce absenteeism and turnover.

– Attitudes influence behaviors of employees:Attitudes influence behaviors of employees: Managers should focus on helping employees become Managers should focus on helping employees become

more productive to increase job satisfaction.more productive to increase job satisfaction.

– Employees will try to reduce dissonance unless:Employees will try to reduce dissonance unless: Managers identify the external sources of dissonance.Managers identify the external sources of dissonance. Managers provide rewards compensating for the Managers provide rewards compensating for the

dissonance.dissonance.

PersonalityPersonality

PersonalityPersonality– The unique combination of psychological The unique combination of psychological

characteristics (measurable traits) that characteristics (measurable traits) that affect how a person reacts and interacts affect how a person reacts and interacts with others.with others.

Classifying Personality Classifying Personality TraitsTraits

Myers Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)Myers Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)– A general personality assessment tool A general personality assessment tool

that measures the personality of an that measures the personality of an individual using four categories:individual using four categories: Social interaction: Extrovert or Introvert Social interaction: Extrovert or Introvert

(E or I)(E or I) Preference for gathering data: Sensing or Preference for gathering data: Sensing or

Intuitive (S or N)Intuitive (S or N) Preference for decision making: Feeling or Preference for decision making: Feeling or

Thinking (F or T)Thinking (F or T) Style of decision making: Perceptive or Style of decision making: Perceptive or

Judgmental (P or J)Judgmental (P or J)

The Big Five ModelThe Big Five Model

ExtraversionExtraversion– Sociable, talkative, Sociable, talkative,

and assertiveand assertive

AgreeablenessAgreeableness– Good-natured, Good-natured,

cooperative, and cooperative, and trustingtrusting

ConscientiousnessConscientiousness– Responsible, Responsible,

dependable, dependable, persistent, and persistent, and achievement orientedachievement oriented

Emotional StabilityEmotional Stability– Calm, enthusiastic, Calm, enthusiastic,

and secure or tense, and secure or tense, nervous, and nervous, and insecureinsecure

Openness to Openness to ExperienceExperience– Imaginative, Imaginative,

artistically sensitive, artistically sensitive, and intellectualand intellectual

Other Personality InsightsOther Personality Insights

Locus of ControlLocus of Control– External locus:External locus: persons who believe that what persons who believe that what

happens to them is due to luck or chance (the happens to them is due to luck or chance (the uncontrollable effects of outside forces) .uncontrollable effects of outside forces) .

– Internal locus:Internal locus: persons who believe that they persons who believe that they control their own destiny.control their own destiny.

Machiavellianism (Mach)Machiavellianism (Mach)– The degree to which an individual is pragmatic, The degree to which an individual is pragmatic,

maintains emotional distance, and seeks to gain maintains emotional distance, and seeks to gain and manipulate powerand manipulate power—”the ends justify the —”the ends justify the means”.means”.

Other Personality Insights Other Personality Insights (cont’d)(cont’d)

Self-Esteem (SE)Self-Esteem (SE)– The degree to which people like or dislike The degree to which people like or dislike

themselvesthemselves– High SEsHigh SEs

Believe in themselves and expect success.Believe in themselves and expect success. Take more risks and use unconventional approaches.Take more risks and use unconventional approaches. Are more satisfied with their jobs than Low SEs.Are more satisfied with their jobs than Low SEs.

– Low SEsLow SEs Are more susceptible to external influences.Are more susceptible to external influences. Depend on positive evaluations from others.Depend on positive evaluations from others. Are more prone to conform than high SEs.Are more prone to conform than high SEs.

Other Personality Insights Other Personality Insights (cont’d)(cont’d)

Self-MonitoringSelf-Monitoring– An individual’s ability to adjust his or her An individual’s ability to adjust his or her

behavior to external, situational factors.behavior to external, situational factors.– High self-monitors:High self-monitors:

Are sensitive to external cues and behave differently Are sensitive to external cues and behave differently in different situations.in different situations.

Can present contradictory public persona and private Can present contradictory public persona and private selves.selves.

– Low self-monitorsLow self-monitors Do not adjust their behavior to the situation.Do not adjust their behavior to the situation. Are behaviorally consistent in public and private.Are behaviorally consistent in public and private.

Other Personality Insights Other Personality Insights (cont’d)(cont’d)

Risk-TakingRisk-Taking– The propensity (willingness) to take risks.The propensity (willingness) to take risks.

High risk-takers take less time and require High risk-takers take less time and require less information than low risk-takers when less information than low risk-takers when making a decision.making a decision.

– Organizational effectiveness is Organizational effectiveness is maximized when the risk-taking maximized when the risk-taking propensity of a manager is aligned with propensity of a manager is aligned with the specific demands of the job assigned the specific demands of the job assigned to the manager.to the manager.

Emotions and IntelligenceEmotions and Intelligence

EmotionsEmotions– Intense feelings (reactions) that are Intense feelings (reactions) that are

directed at specific objects (someone or directed at specific objects (someone or something)something)

– Universal emotions:Universal emotions: AngerAnger FearFear SadnessSadness HappinessHappiness DisgustDisgust SurpriseSurprise

Emotions and IntelligenceEmotions and Intelligence

Emotional Intelligence (EI)Emotional Intelligence (EI)– An assortment of noncognitive skills, An assortment of noncognitive skills,

capabilities, and competencies that influence a capabilities, and competencies that influence a person’s ability to succeed in coping with person’s ability to succeed in coping with environmental demands and pressures.environmental demands and pressures.

– Dimensions of EI:Dimensions of EI: Self-awareness: knowing what you’re feelingSelf-awareness: knowing what you’re feeling Self-management: managing emotions and impulsesSelf-management: managing emotions and impulses Self-motivation: persisting despite setbacks and Self-motivation: persisting despite setbacks and

failuresfailures Empathy: sensing how others are feelingEmpathy: sensing how others are feeling Social skills: handling the emotions of othersSocial skills: handling the emotions of others

Understanding Personality Understanding Personality DifferencesDifferences

Personality-Job Fit Theory (Holland)Personality-Job Fit Theory (Holland)– An employee’s job satisfaction and An employee’s job satisfaction and

likelihood of turnover depends on the likelihood of turnover depends on the compatibility of the employee’s compatibility of the employee’s personality and occupation.personality and occupation.

– Key points of the theory:Key points of the theory: There are differences in personalities.There are differences in personalities. There are different types of jobs.There are different types of jobs. Job satisfaction and turnover are related to Job satisfaction and turnover are related to

the match between personality and job for an the match between personality and job for an individual.individual.

PerceptionPerception

PerceptionPerception– A process by which individuals give meaning A process by which individuals give meaning

(reality) to their environment by organizing and (reality) to their environment by organizing and interpreting their sensory impressions.interpreting their sensory impressions.

Factors influencing perception:Factors influencing perception:– The perceiver’s personal characteristicsThe perceiver’s personal characteristics——

interests, biases and expectationsinterests, biases and expectations– The target’s characteristicsThe target’s characteristics——distinctiveness, distinctiveness,

contrast, and similarity)contrast, and similarity)– The situation (context) factorsThe situation (context) factors——place, time, place, time,

locationlocation——draw attention or distract from the draw attention or distract from the targettarget

How We Perceive PeopleHow We Perceive PeopleAttribution TheoryAttribution Theory

– How the actions of individuals are perceived by How the actions of individuals are perceived by others depends on what meaning (causation) we others depends on what meaning (causation) we attribute to a given behavior.attribute to a given behavior. Internally caused behavior: under the individual’s controlInternally caused behavior: under the individual’s control Externally caused behavior: due to outside factorsExternally caused behavior: due to outside factors

– Determining the source of behaviors:Determining the source of behaviors: Distinctiveness: different behaviors in different situationsDistinctiveness: different behaviors in different situations Consensus: behaviors similar to others in same situationConsensus: behaviors similar to others in same situation Consistency: regularity of the same behaviorConsistency: regularity of the same behavior

How We Perceive People How We Perceive People (cont’d)(cont’d)

Attribution Theory (cont’d)Attribution Theory (cont’d)– Fundamental attribution errorFundamental attribution error

The tendency to underestimate the influence The tendency to underestimate the influence of external factors and to overestimate the of external factors and to overestimate the influence of internal or personal factors.influence of internal or personal factors.

– Self-serving biasSelf-serving bias The tendency of individuals to attribute their The tendency of individuals to attribute their

successes to internal factors while blaming successes to internal factors while blaming personal failures on external factors.personal failures on external factors.

Shortcuts Used in Judging Shortcuts Used in Judging OthersOthers

Assumed SimilarityAssumed Similarity– Assuming that others are more like us than they Assuming that others are more like us than they

actually are.actually are.StereotypingStereotyping

– Judging someone on the basis of our perception Judging someone on the basis of our perception of a group he or she is a part of.of a group he or she is a part of.

Halo EffectHalo Effect– Forming a general impression of a person on Forming a general impression of a person on

the basis of a single characteristic of that the basis of a single characteristic of that personperson

LearningLearning

LearningLearning– Any relatively permanent change in Any relatively permanent change in

behavior that occurs as a result of behavior that occurs as a result of experience.experience. Almost all complex behavior is learned.Almost all complex behavior is learned. Learning is a continuous, life-long process.Learning is a continuous, life-long process. The principles of learning can be used to The principles of learning can be used to

shape behaviorshape behavior

– Theories of learning:Theories of learning: Operant conditioningOperant conditioning Social learningSocial learning

Learning (cont’d)Learning (cont’d)

Operant Conditioning (B.F. Skinner)Operant Conditioning (B.F. Skinner)– The theory that behavior is a function of its The theory that behavior is a function of its

consequences and is learned through consequences and is learned through experience.experience.

– Operant behavior: voluntary or learned Operant behavior: voluntary or learned behaviorsbehaviors Behaviors are learned by making rewards contingent Behaviors are learned by making rewards contingent

to behaviors. to behaviors. Behavior that is rewarded (positively reinforced) is Behavior that is rewarded (positively reinforced) is

likely to be repeated.likely to be repeated. Behavior that is punished or ignored is less likely to be Behavior that is punished or ignored is less likely to be

repeated.repeated.

Learning (cont’d)Learning (cont’d)

Social LearningSocial Learning– The theory that individuals learn through their The theory that individuals learn through their

observations of others and through their direct observations of others and through their direct experiences.experiences.

– Attributes of models that influence learning:Attributes of models that influence learning: Attentional: the attractiveness or similarity of the Attentional: the attractiveness or similarity of the

modelmodel Retention: how well the model can be recalledRetention: how well the model can be recalled Motor reproduction: the reproducibility of the model’s Motor reproduction: the reproducibility of the model’s

actionsactions Reinforcement: the rewards associated with learning Reinforcement: the rewards associated with learning

the model behaviorthe model behavior

Learning (cont’d)Learning (cont’d)

Shaping BehaviorShaping Behavior– Attempting to “mold” individuals by Attempting to “mold” individuals by

guiding their learning in graduated steps guiding their learning in graduated steps such that they learn to behave in ways such that they learn to behave in ways that most benefit the organization.that most benefit the organization.

– Shaping methods:Shaping methods: Positive reinforcement: rewarding desired Positive reinforcement: rewarding desired

behaviorsbehaviors Negative reinforcement Negative reinforcement PunishmentPunishment ExtinctionExtinction

Learning (cont’d)Learning (cont’d)

Shaping BehaviorShaping Behavior– Attempting to “mold” individuals by guiding their Attempting to “mold” individuals by guiding their

learning in graduated steps such that they learn learning in graduated steps such that they learn to behave in ways that most benefit the to behave in ways that most benefit the organization.organization.

– Shaping methods:Shaping methods: Positive reinforcement: rewarding desired behaviors.Positive reinforcement: rewarding desired behaviors.

Negative reinforcement: removing an unpleasant Negative reinforcement: removing an unpleasant consequence once the desired behavior is exhibited.consequence once the desired behavior is exhibited.

Punishment: penalizing an undesired behavior. Punishment: penalizing an undesired behavior.

Extinction: eliminating a reinforcement for an undesired Extinction: eliminating a reinforcement for an undesired behavior.behavior.