fifth edition

erte rates Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution

Kenneth V. Kardong, Ph.D. Washington State University

_ Higher Education Boston Burr Ridge, IL Dubuque, lA New York San Francisco S1. Louis

Bangkok Bogota Caracas Kuala Lumpur Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan Montreal New Delhi Santiago Seoul Singapore Sydney Taipei Toronto

'~ i Contents

Preface xv

CHAPTER. one

INTRODUCTION 1

COMPARATIVE VERTEBRATE MORPHOLOGY

Designs of Students 2 Vertebrate Design-Form and Function 3 Grand Design 3

1

HISTORICAL PREDECESSORS-EvOLUTION 3 The Process behind the Change 4 Linnaeus 4 Naturalists 5 J-B. de Lamarck 5

Acquired Characteristics 6 Upward to Perfection 6

Natural Selection 7 A. R. Wallace 7 Charles Darwin 8 Critics and Controversy 9

HISTORICAL PREDECESSORS-MORPHOLOGY 10 Georges Cuvier 10 Richard Owen 11

WHY ARE THERE No FLYING ELEPHANTS? 14

MORPHOLOGICAL CONCEPTS 14 Similarities 14 Symmetry 15 Segmentation 16

EVOLUTIONARY MORPHOLOGY 18 Function and Biological Role 18 Preadaptation 19 Evolution as Remodeling 20

PHYLOGENY 20 Of Bean Stalks and Bushes 21 Simplification 22 Patterns of Phylogeny 22 Grades and Clades 25

o

PALEONTOLOGY 29 Fossilization and Fossils 29 Recovery and Restoration 31 From Animal to Fossil 34 Dating Fossils 34

Stratigraphy 34 Index Fossils 36 Radiometric Dating 36 Geological Ages 38

TOOLS OF THE TRADE 41 The Question 41 The Function 41 The Biological Role 46

OVERVIEW 46

CHAPTER two ORIGIN OF CHORDATES

CHORDATE PHYLOGENY 47 CHORDATE CHARACTERISTICS 50

Notochord 50 Pharyngeal Slits 51 Endostyle or Thyroid Gland 52 Dorsal and Tubular Nerve Cord 52 Postanal Tail 52 Chordate Body Plan 52

PROTOCHORDATES 53 Hemichordata 54

Enteropneusta-"Acorn Worms" 55 Pterobranchia 58

47

Hemichordate Phylogenetic Affinities to Chordates 58 Hemichordate Phylogenetic Affinities to

Echinoderms 59 Cephalochordata 60 Urochordata 65

Ascidiacea-"Sea Squirts" 66 Larvacea (Appendicularia) 69 Thaliacea 72

Overview of Protochordates 72

vii

CHORDATE ORIGINS 73 Chordates from Annelids and Arthropods 74 Chordates from Echinoderms 74

Aricularian Hypothesis 75 Larval Echinoderm to Chordate Tadpole 76 Chordate Origins and Phylogeny 76

OVERVIEW 78

CHAPTER three THE VERTEBRATE STORY

INTRODUCTION 80 Innovations 81

Vertebral Column 81 Head 82

Origin of Vertebrates 82 Step 1: Prevertebrate 82 Step 2: Agnathan 83 Step 3: Gnathostome 83

Vertebrate Classification 84

AGNATHANS 84 Living Agnathans 84

Myxinoidea 84 Petromyzontida 86

Early Vertebrate Fossils 87 Conodonts 87 Ostracoderms 88 Pteraspidomorpha 90

80

Other Ostracoderms (Osteostracans, Anaspids, Thelodonts) 90

Overview of Agnathan Evolution 90

GNATHOSTOMES 92 Placodermi 92 Chondrichthyes 93

Elasmobranchii-Sharks and Rays 95 Holocephali-Chimaeras 95

TELEOSTOMI 96 Acanthodii 96 Osteichthyes 96

Actinopterygii 98 Sarcopterygii 99

Overview of Fish Phylogeny 102

TETRAPODS 102

viii

Primitive Tetrapods 103 Labyrinthodonts 103 Lepospondyls 104

Lissamphibia-Modem Amphibians 105 Urodela (Caudata) 106 Salientia (Anura) 106 Gymnophiona (Apoda) 107

Contents

AMNIOTES 107 Stem-Amniotes 107 Sauropsids 108

Mesosaurs 108 Reptilia 109

Synapsida 118 Pelycosauria 118 Therapsida 118 Mammalia 119

CHAPTER four BIOLOGICAL DESIGN 125 INTRODUCTION: SIZE AND SHAPE 125

Cl SIZE 126 Relationships Among Length, Area, and Volume 126 Surface Area 130 Volume and Mass 130

SHAPE 131 Allometry 131 Transformation Grids 131

ON THE CONSEQUENCES OF BEING THE RIGHT SIZE 134

BIOMECHANICS 134 Fundamental Principles 135

Basic Quantities-Length, Time, and Mass 135 Units 136 Derived Quantities-Velocity, Acceleration, Force, and Relatives 136 Reference Systems 137 Center of Mass 13 7 Vectors 137

Basic Force Laws 138 Free Bodies and Forces 13 8 Torques and Levers 139 Land and Fluid 141

Life on Land: Gravity 141 Life in Fluids 142

Machines 144 Strength of Materials 145

Loads 146 Biological Design and Biological Failure 146

Tissue Response to Mechanical Stress 148 Responsiveness of Bone 148

BIOPHYSICS AND OTHER PHYSICAL PROCESSES 153 Diffusion and Exchange 153

Pressures and Partial Pressures 153 Countercurrent, Concurrent, and Crosscurrent Exchange 153

Optics 155 Depth Perception 155 Accommodation 155

OVERVIEW 156

CHAPTER five LIFE HISTORY

INTRODUCTION 158

EARLY EMBRYOLOGY 160 Fertilization 160 Cleavage 161

Amphioxus 161 Fishes 162 Amphibians 162 Reptiles and Birds 162 Mammals 163

158

Overview of Cleavage 164 Gastrulation and Neurulation

Amphioxus 166 164

Fishes 166 Amphibians 168 Reptiles and Birds 168 Mammals 170

ORGANOGENESIS 173 Histogenesis 174 Epithelium 174

Covering and Lining Epithelium Glandular Epithelium 177

Connective Tissues 177 General Connective Tissues 177 Special Connective Tissues 178

176

Bone Development and Growth 179 Endochondral Bone Development 179 Intramembranous Bone Development 181 Comparative Bone Histology 181 Bone Remodeling and Repair 183 Joints 184

Neural Crest and Ectodermal Placodes 186

EXTRAEMBRYONIC MEMBRANES 186 Reptiles and Birds 187 Mammals 188

Eutherian Placenta 189 Other Placentae 190

OVERVIEW OF EARLY EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT 192

DEVELOPMENT OF THE COELOM AND ITs COMPARTMENTS 192

MATURATION 194 Metamorphosis 194 Heterochrony 195

Peramorphosis 196 Paedomorphosis 196

ONTOGENY AND PHYLOGENY 198 Biogenetic Law 198 Von Baer's Law 199 Overview of the Biogenetic Laws 199

Hox Genes and Their 19n9doms 201 Egg to Adult 201 .. Shaping Up: Positions and Parts 201 Evolutionary Significance 201

Epigenomics 202 Induction 203 Phylogeny 203

OVERVIEW 207

CHAPTER six INTEGUMENT 208

EMBRYONIC ORIGIN 209

GENERAL FEATURES OF THE INTEGUMENT 209 Dermis 209 Epidermis 211

PHYLOGENY 212 Integument of Fishes 212

Primitive Fishes 213 Chondrichthyes 213 Bony Fishes 214

Integument of Tetrapods 215 Amphibians 215 Reptiles 216 Birds 217 Mammals 220

SPECIALIZATIONS OF THE INTEGUMENT 226 Nails, Claws, Hooves 226 Horns and Antlers 227 Baleen 229 Scales 229 Dermal Armor 229 Mucus 230 Color 230

OVERVIEW 231

CHAPTER seven SKELETAL SYSTEM:

THE SKULL 234

INTRODUCTION 235

CHONDROCRANIUM 235 Embryology 235

SPLANCHNOCRANIUM 237 Embryology 237 Origin of Jaws 239 Types of Jaw Attachments 240

DBRMATOCRANIUM 241 Parts of the Dermatocranium 242

Dermal Bone Series 242

Contents ix

OVERVIEW OF SKULL MORPHOLOGY 243 Braincase 243 Jaws 246 Hyoid Apparatus 246

CRANIAL KINESIS 246

PHYLOGENY OF THE SKULL 248 Agnathans 248

'~

Ostracoderms' 248 i

Cyclostomes 248 Gnathostomes 248

Fishes 249 Early Tetrapods 256 Primitive Amniotes 257 Modern Reptiles 261 Birds 265 Synapsids 267

OVERVIEW OF SKULL FUNCTION AND DESIGN 277 Prey Capture 278

Feeding in Water 278 Feeding in Air 280

Swallowing 281

OVERVIEW 281 Cranial Neural Crest 281 Emergence of Mammals 282 Evolutionary Modifications of Immature Forms: Akinesis in Mammals 284 Composite Skull 285

CHAPTER eight SKELETAL SYSTEM:

THE AXIAL SKELETON

INTRODUCTION 287

BASIC COMPONENTS 288. Vertebrae 288

Regions of the Vertebral Column 288 Centra 288

Ribs 291 Sternum 292 Gastralia 292

EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT 294 Fishes 294 Tetrapods 296

PHYLOGENY 297

x

Fishes 297 Agnathans 297 Gnathostomes 297

Contents

287

o

Tetrapods 303 Early Tetrapods 303·· Amniotes 306

FORM AND FUNCTION 309 Fluid Environment 310 Terrestrial Environment 310 Design of Vertebrae 311

Direction of the Neural Spine 312 Height of the Neural Spine 312

Regionalization of the VertebraL Column 313

OVERVIEW 316

CHAPTER nine

SKELETAL SYSTEM: THE

ApPENDICULAR SKELETON 318

INTRODUCTION 318

BASIC COMPONENTS 319 Fins 319 Limbs 319

ORIGIN OF PAIRED FINS 320 Gill-Arch Theory 320 Fin-Fold Theory 321 Embryonic Development of Tetrapod Limbs 324

PHYLOGENY 324 Fishes 324

Agnathans 324 Placoderms 327 Chondrichthyans 327 Acanthodians 327 Bony Fishes 327

Tetrapods 329 Pectoral Girdle 331 Pelvic Girdle 332 Manus and Pes 335

EVOLUTION OF THE ApPENDICULAR SYSTEM 340 Dual Origin of the Pectoral Girdle 340 Adaptive Advantage of Lobe Fins 340 Onto the Land 341

FORM AND FUNCTION 342 Swimming 342 Terrestrial Locomotion 343

Early Gaits 343 Early Modes of Locomotion 345 Cursorial Locomotion 348 Aerial Locomotion 353

Origin of Bird Flight 360 Fossorial Locomotion 363

OVERVIEW 364

CHAPTER ten THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION 366

ORGANIZATION OF MUSCLES 367 Classification of Muscles 367

Skeletal Muscle 368\ Cardiac Muscle 369 1

Smooth Muscle 369: Structure of Skeletal Muscles 369 Tendons 370 Basis of Muscle Contraction 370

Resting and Active Muscle 370 Molecular Mechanisms of Contraction 370

MUSCLE FUNCTION 371 Muscle Fibers 371

Tension-Length Curves for a Single Muscle Fiber 371 Properties of Muscle Fibers 371

Muscle Organs and Fibers 373

366

Whole Muscle Force Generation 373 Tension-Length Curves for a Whole Muscle 374 Graded Force 375 Cross-Sectional Area 376 Fiber Orientation 377 Velocity of Shortening 379 Distance of Shortening 379

Bone-Muscle Lever Systems 379 Sequencing of Muscle Actions 381 Overview of Muscle Mechanics 382 Muscle Actions 382 Muscle Homologies 384

EMBRYONIC ORIGIN OF MUSCLES 385 Postcranial Musculature 386

Appendicular Musculature 386 Axial Musculature 387

Cranial Musculature 387 Jaw and Pharyngeal Musculature 387 Extrinsic Eye Muscles 387

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY 388 Postcranial Musculature 388

Axial Musculature 388 Appendicular Musculature 391

Cranial Musculature 399 Branchiomeric Musculature 399 Hypobranchial Musculature 402

OVERVIEW 405

CHAPTER eleven;, THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION 407

RESPIRATORY ORGANS 410 Gills 410 Lungs 410 Gas Bladders 410 Cutaneous Respiratory Organs 411 Accessory Air-breathing Organs; 411 Breathing and Embryos 412

YENTILATORY MECHANISMS 415 Cilia 415 Muscular Mechanisms 415

Water Ventilation: Dual Pump 415 Air Ventilation: Buccal Pump 416 Air Ventilation: Aspiration Pump 417

PHYLOGENY 418 Agnathans 418 Elasmobranchs 420 Bony Fishes 421 Overview of Fish Respiration 421

Gills 421 Lungs and Gas Bladders 421

Amphibians 424 Amphibian Larvae 424 Amphibian Adults 426

Reptiles 427 Mammals 429

Ventilation 429 Gas Exchange 431

Birds 431

FORM AND FUNCTION 432 Patterns of Gas Transfer 432 Rates of Gas Transfer 437 Breathing in Water 438 Breathing in Air 438

EVOLUTION OF RESPIRATORY ORGANS 438 Acid-Base Regulation 438 Ventilation 440

Ciliary Pumps 440 Muscular Pumps 440

Water-to-Land Transition 440 Air-breathing Organs 440 Advantages of Movement to Land 442 Air-breathing Mechanisms 443

Bird Lungs and Air Sacs 443

OVERVIEW 444

Contents

407

xi

CHAPTER twelve THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION 445

CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM 446 Blpod 446 Arteries, Veins, and Capillaries 446

Arteries 44l '1

Hemodynamics of Circulation 447 Veins 448 Microcirculation 448

Single and Double Circulation 449 Embryonic Development of the Cardiovascular System 450 Phylogeny of the Cardiovascular System 451

Arterial Vessels 455 Venous Vessels 460

Hearts 467 Basic Vertebrate Heart 467 Fishes 469 Amphibians 472 Reptiles 474 Birds and Mammals 481

Cardiovascular System: Matching Design to Environmental Demands 483

Accessory Air~breathing Organs 484 Diving Birds and Mammals 484 Heart Flow 485 Ontogeny of Cardiovascular Function 485 Fetal Circulation in Placental Mammals 485 Changes at Birth 485 Heat Transfer 487

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM 489 Lymphatic Vessels 489 Lymphatic Tissue 491 Form and Function 492

OVERVIEW 492

CHAPTER thirteen

445

THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 496 INTRODUCTION 496

Preview 497

COMPONENTS OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 497

xii

Buccal Cavity 497 Boundaries 497 Palate 498 Teeth 499 Tongue 509

Pharynx 510

Contents

o

Alimentary Canal 513 Esophagus 515 Stomach 515 Intestines 516 Cloaca 518 Specializations of the Alimentary Canal 518 Vascularization of the Gastrointestinal Tract 520 Fishes 520 Tetrapods 521

Associated Glands of Digestion 524 Oral Glands 524 Liver 526 Pancreas 527

FUNCTION AND EVOLUTION OF THE

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 528 Absorption 528 Feces 528 Mechanical Breakdown of Food 529

Mastication 529 Gizzards 529

Chemical Breakdown ofFood 529 Gastric Fermentation 530 Intestinal Fermentation 533

Gastric Versus Intestinal Fermenters 533 Size and Fermentation 535

Digesting Toxins 535

OVERVIEW 535

CHAPTER fourteen THE UROGENITAL SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION 538

.URINARY SYSTEM 538 Structure of the Mammalian Kidney 538 Embryonic Development 540

Nephrotome to Nephric Tubules 540 Tripartite Concept of Kidney Organization 541

Kidney Phylogeny 544 Fishes 544 Tetrapods 545

Kidney Function and Structure 546 Excretion: Removing the Products of Nitrogen Metabolism 546 Osmoregulation: Regulating Water and Salt Balance 548

Evolution 555 Preadaptation 555 Origin of Vertebrates 555

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 556 Structure of the Mammalian Reproductive System 556

538

Embryonic Development 556 Gonads and Gametes 556 Reproductive Tracts 558 Overview 558

Female Reproductive System 560 Ovary 560 Genital Ducts 560 Oviduct 562 Uterus 563 \

Male Reproductive SyJtem 565 Testis 565 . Genital Ducts 565 Copulatory Organs 569

Cloaca 575 Urinary Bladder 579 Function and Evolution 581

Potency and Fertility 581 External and Internal Fertilization 581 Delays in Gestation 582

OVERVIEW 582

CHAPTJR fifteen THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

SURVEY OF ENDOCRINE ORGANS 585 Thyroid Gland 585

Structure and Phylogeny 585 Function 587

585

Ultimo branchial Body and Parathyroid Gland 589 Ultimobranchial Body 589 Parathyroid Gland 590 Form and Function 591

Adrenal Gland 591 Structure and Phylogeny 591 Function 594

Pancreatic Islets 595 Structure and Phylogeny 595 Function 595

Pituitary Gland 597 Structure 597 Phylogeny 597 Function 600

Gonads 603 Pineal Gland 603 Secondary Endocrine Organs 603

Gastrointestinal Tract 604 Kidneys 604

ENDOCRINE COORDINATION 605 Mammalian Reproduction 605

Male 605 Female 606 .­

Metamorphosis in Frogs 612

o

Fundamentals of Hormonal Control 613 Functional and Structural Linkage 613 Target Tissue Responses 614

The Endocrine System and the Environment 614

EVOLUTION 615

OVERVIEW 616

CHAPTER sixteen THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 618

INTRODUCTION 618 Types of Cells Within the Nervous System 618

Neuroglia 618 Neurons 618

Transmission of Information 619 Neurosecretory Cells 621

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM 621 Spinal Nerves 622 Cranial Nerves 625 Evolution 630 Functions of the Peripheral Nervous System 632

Spinal Reflexes 632 The Autonomic Nervous System 634

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM 639 Embryology 639 Spinal Cord 642

Spinal Reflexes 642 Spinal Tracts 643

Brain 644 Phylogeny 644 Form and Function 647 Functional Associations of Parts of the Central Nervous System 658

OVERVIEW 660

CHAPTER seventeen

SENSORY ORGANS 663

INTRODUCTION 663

COMPONENTS OF A SENSORY ORGAN 664

GENERAL SENSORY ORGANS 664 Free Sensory Receptors 664 Encapsulated Sensory Receptors 665 Associated Sensory Receptors 665

Proprioception 665 Mechanisms of Perceiving Stimuli from General Sensory Receptors 666

Contents xiii

SPECIAL SENSORY ORGANS 666 Chemoreceptors 666

Nasal Passages 667 Vomeronasal Area 669 Mouth 670

Radiation Receptors 671 Photoreceptors 673 'Infrared Receptors 683

Mechanoreceptors 1685 Lateral Line System' 686 Vestibular Apparatus 687 Auditory System 688 Functions of the Ear 693

Electroreceptors 701 Structure and Phylogeny 701 Form and Function 701

Additional Special Sensory Organs 705

OVERVIEW 705

CHAPTER eighteen CONCLUSIONS 706

INTRODUCTION 706

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 709

FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS 710 How Does It Work? 710 Functional Coupling, Functional Compromise 711 Multiple Functions 712 Performance 713

ECOLOGICAL ANALYSIS 714

EVOLUTIONARY ANALYSIS 714 Historical Constraints 714 Primitive and Advanced 714

xiv Contents

o

Diversity ofType/Un~ty of Pattern 715 Mosaic Evolution 717 Morphology and Modules 717

MODE AND TEMPO OF EVOLUTION 719 Remodeling 720 Embryonic Changes 72 1 HoxGenes 721 Evolutionary Significance 722

THE PRQMISE OF VERTEBI0TE MORPHOLOGY 722

ApPENDIX A

VECTOR ALGEBRA 723

ApPENDIX B

INTERNATIONAL UNITS (SI) 725

ApPENDIX C

COMMON GREEK AND LATIN COMBINING FORMS 728

ApPENDIX D

CLASSIFICATION OF CHORDATES LINNEAN 732

CLASSIFICATION OF CHORDATES CLADISTIC 735

GLOSSARY 736 CREDITS 750 INDEX 756

Page numbers followed by f indicate figures. Page numbers followed by t and b indicate tables and boxed discussions.

Abdominal air sacs, 432 Abdominal muscles, 428 Abdominal ribs. See Gastralia Abducens nerve, 626t, 629,

63 Of, 632t Abduction, 384f Abductors, 384 Abomasum, 523 Aborize, 664 Absorption, 528 Abundance phylogeny, 24f Acanthodes

appendicular skeleton, 328f axial skeleton of, 300f skull phylogeny of, 249, 251f

Acanthodians, 92, 96 appendicular skeleton

phylogeny, 327, 328f skull phylogeny of, 248,

249, 251f Acanthostega, 103--4

axial skeleton of, 306 gastralia, 292 manus and pes, 336, 338f ribs of, 292

Acceleration, 136-37, 141, 196, 197f

Accelerator muscle, 262 Accessory air-breathing organs,

411-12, 414f, 484 Accessory digestive glands, 497 Accessory "hearts," 469 Accessory urinary ducts, 566 Accommodation, 155-56 A cells, 597 Acellular bone, 179 Acetabulum, 320 Acetylcholine, 635 Acid-base regulation, 438--40 Acini, 595 Acinonyx, digits of, 350f Acipenser

genital ducts (male), 568f gill ventilation in, 423b limb development, 325f oviducts of, 561f pectoral girdle of, 334f

Index

Acipenserids, 99 ACipenseriformes, 99 Acoelous centra, 289, 290f Acorn worms, 54f, 55, 56f, 57-58 Acquired characteristics, 6, 7 Acrochordus javanicus, cutaneous

respiration of, 413f Acrodonts, teeth of, 505, 505f Acromegaly, 601 ACTH. See Adrenocorticotropic

hormone Actinistia, 100 Actinopterygians, 96, 97f, 98-99

aortic arches of, 456 appendicular skeleton, 327-28 buccal cavity, 497--498 cloaca,575 gas bladders on, 411 hydrostatic function of, 422 pancreatic islets, 596f pectoral girdle of, 334f skull phylogeny of, 253-54,

255f,256f suspension feeding, 279 telencephalon, 653 trunk vertebrae, 300f venous vessels, 463

Actinotrichia, 319 Actiocetus, skull of, 283b Action potential, 619, 621 Action/reaction, third law of, 138 Activates, 160 Active component, 373-74 Active muscle, 370 Active state, 370 Active tension, 374 Adaptation, 5, 12f, 13 Adavisms, 206f Adduction, 384f Adductor femoris, 394, 395t Adductor mandibulae, 400 Adductors, 384, 400 Adenohypophyseal placodes, 186 Adenohypophysis, 586t,'597-98,

601-3 ADH. See Antidiuretic hormone Adipose tissue, 225 Adrenal gland, 586t, 591-95 Adrenergic control, 635 Adrenocortical tissue, 591,

592f,593f Adrenocorticotropic hormone

(ACTH), 594, 602 Advanced groups, 714-15 Adventitia, 513, 515 Aepyornis, 114, 127f

Aerial locomotion, 342, 353-60, 361f, 398-99

cA.erodynamic circulation, 358, 359f AerodynamicS, 219-20, 356-60, 361f Afferent artery, 455 Afferent neurons, 621, 622f Afferent spinal nerves, 623f Afferent spiracular artery, 455 African elephant, 127f African lungfishes. See Protopterus Agassiz, Louis,S Aging, 160, 531b Aglomerular kidneys, 551 Agnathans, 83, 84

Air

appendicular skeleton phylogeny, 324

axial skeleton phylogeny, 297,298f

fossils, 87-90 jaws and mouths, 502-503b living, 84, 86-87 origin of, 83 overview, 90-91 pallium, 655 pancreas, 596t phylogeny, 85f pituitary gland, 599t respiratory system, 418-19 skull phylogeny, 248, 249f, 250f splanchnocranium, 286f

breathing in, 438 feeding in, 280-81 ~ vision in, 677, 679f

Air-breathing fishes, 416-17 Air-breathing mechanisms, 443 Air-breathing organs, 440-42, 484.

See also Respiratory organs

Air capillaries, 431-32 Airfoils, 356, 358-59 Air passages, 513f. See also Buccal

caviry Air sacs, 432, 443--44 Air ventilation

aspiration pump, 417-18 buccal pump, 416-17

Akinesis, 246f, 275, 284-85 Akinetic skulls, 247 Albatross, 127f, 356f Aldosterone, 594 Alimentary canal (digestive tract),

497,513-15 cloaca, 518

756

endocrine system and, 604, 605f esophagus, 515

fishes, 520-21 intestines, 516, 517f, 518 specializations of, 518,

519f,520 stomach, 515-16 tetrapods,521-24 vascularization of, 520

Alisphenoid bone, 243, 246 Allantoic cavity, 187 Allantoic placenta, 189 Allantoic vessels, 187 Allantois, 187, 188t Alligator lucius, penis,S 74f Alligators, 113

alimentary canal of, 522 axial skeleton of, 308f brain, 649f, 651f gizzards, 529 heart, 477, 481f integument of, 217 muscle homology, 385f, 402t nitrogen elimination, 548 pectoral girdle, 333f, 334f pelvic girdle of, 336f penis, 574f skulls of, 268f stomach of, 521f teeth of, 505f See also Crocodilians

Allin, Edgar F., 27 6f Allometry, 131, 132f, 133f, 135f All-or-none muscle excitation, 375 Allosaurus, 112, 350f Alpha-keratins, 212 Alpha motor neurons, 665 Alula,356 Alveolar ducts, 225 Alveolar exocrine glands, 177 Alveolar lungs, 434 Alveoli, 431 Amacrine cells, 674 Ambiens, 393, 395t Amble, 349, 351f Ambystoma, 568f Ambystoma gracile, 194-95, 506f Ambystoma macrodactylum, 573f Ambystoma texanum, 573f Ambystoma tigrinum, 196,

413f,417f Ameloblasts, 501 Amia

axial skeleton of, 301f genital ducts (female), 562, 564f genital ducts (male), 568f oviducts of, 561f pectoral girdle, 328f, 334f

skull phylogeny of, 253, 254f structural analysis, 710

Amia calva, axial skeleton of, 300f Ammocoetes, 86, 279,418,440 Ammonia, 438-39, 546, 547f, 548 Ammonotelism, 546, 547f Ammotragus, 135f Amnion, 84, 187, 188t Amniotes, 84, 107, 109f

aortic arches, 459f appendicular musculature,

386-87 aspiration pump, 418 . axial skeleton phylogeny, 306-9 cranial nerves, 626t digits of, 35 Of double circulation, 449-50 embryonic development, 192 extraembryonic membranes,

187, 191f eyes, 675 forebrain, 644-45 genital ducts (female), 562, 564f genital ducts (male), 566 kidneys, 542f, 545, 546 pectoral girdle, 331, 333f pelvic girdle, 335f pineal gland, 651 ribs, 291f sauropsids, 108-17 skull, 257-58, 260-61,

266f, 272f spinal accessory nerve, 629-30 spinal reflexes, 634 stem-amniotes, 107-8 synapsida, 118-24 tectum, 653f testis, 565 vertebral column, 315f

Amniotic cavity, 187 Amniotic folds, 187 Amoebocytes, 68 Amphibians, 103, 105-7

acid-base regulation, 439-40 adrenal tissues, 592f, 593f air-breathing mechanisms, 443 alimentary canal, 519f, 521-22 aortic arches, 456f, 457-58 autonomic nervous system, 638f axial musculature, 389 axial skeleton, 303 body cavities, 193f branchial arches, 240t buccal pump, 417 CCK cells, 615, 616f cerebral hemispheres, 656f chondrocranium, 237t circulation in, 450 cleavage, 162 cloaca, 575, 577f copulatory organs, 569-70 cranial musculature, 404f cranial nerves, 626 cutaneous respiration, 411, 413f dehydration, 548b ear functions, 694-96 embryonic development, 192 eyes, 675, 677f fertilization in, 581-82 fossoriallocomotion, 363 gastrulation and neurulation,

168, 170f, 171f genital ducts (female), 562, 564f genital ducts (male), 566, 568f gliding and parachuting, 353f

hearts, 468-69, 472-74, 485 integument of, 215-16 kidneys, 545 manus, 338f midbrain, 651 nasal passages, 672f nasal sac, 668 nephrons, 547f nitrogen elimination, 548 olfactory bulb and tract, 668f pallium, 656 pancreas, 596t parathyroid glands, 590f pectoral girdle, 331, 333f, 334f pelvic girdle, 335f, 336f pes, 339f photoreception, 678 pineal complex, 682 pituitary gland, 599t respiratory systems, 424, 426-27 salt balance, 554f skulls, 256-57, 258f, 259f somatic and visceral circuits

in, 634f spermatophores, 573f stomach,521f suction feeding, 279-80 thyroid gland, 589, 590f urinary bladder, 581, 58lf venous vessels, 463, 465f, 466 vocalization, 429b vomeronasal area, 669 water balance, 551

Amphisbaena, 112f Amphicoelous centra, 289, 290f Amphicoelous vertebrae, 300f Amphikinesis. See Dikinesis Amphioxus, 60-65

cleavage, 161-62 gastrulation and neurulation,

166, 167f integument of, 211f suspension feeding, 279

Amphiplaryan, 289 Amphisrylic jaw suspension, 240 AmphiTbx415 gene, 322 Amphiuma tridactylum, buccal pump

in,417f Amplexus, 569 Ampullae, 688 Ampullae of Lorenzini, 703 Ampullary receptor, 701, 703f Amygdala, 655, 658 Amylase, 526 Anadromous fishes, 551b Analogy, 14, 15 Anal regions, of fishes,S 7 6f Anamniotes, 84, 187

aortic arches, 456f breathing and embryos, 412 embryonic development, 192 somatic and visceral circuits

in, 634f spinal reflexes, 634 testis, 565, 567f

Anapsids, 90, 91f, 109 dermatocranium evolution, 260f skull, 107,248 temporal fenestrae in, 261f

Anatomy, 14 autonomic nervous system,

635,637 ear, 690-92 small intestine, 517f spinal nerve, 622f

stomach,516f tooth,500

Anatosaurus, fossilized, 31f Anaximander, 3 Andrewsarchus, skull of, 283b Androgens, 565, 591 Angelfish, swimming-related

musculature of, 393b Angiogenic cells, 452f Angiotensin I, 604 Angiotensin II, 604 Angiotensinogen, 604 Angle of attack, 356 Anguilla anguilla, cutaneous

respiration of, 413f Angular bone, 243 Animal pole, 160 Animal-to-fossil process. See

Fossilization Ankles, of archosaurs, 340f Ankylosaurs, 113

Cl Ankylosis, 184 Anlagen, 405 Annelids, 17, 18f, 74 Anomodontia, skulls of, 271f Antagonists, 382 Anteaters, teeth of, 508f Antelopes, 122 Anterior cardinal veins, 62, 454, 460 Anterior chamber, 674 Anterior lobes, 597 Anterior mesenteric artery, 454 Anterior region, 15 Anterior thoracic air sacs, 432 Anterior vena cava, 454-55 Anthracosaurs, 104, 106f, 108,

303~305,306,307f Anthropoids, 122 Antidiuretic hormone (ADH), 600 Antlers, 227-28 Antorbital fenestra, 112 Antrum, 606 Ants, 127f Anurans

aortic arches, 462f, 473f appendicular musculature, 396 development, external view

of, 171f genital ducts (male), 569f pancreas, 596t sternum, 293f systemic arches, 462f venous vessels, 465f

Aorta, 451, 453 Aortic arches, 451, 455-60, 461f,

462f,473f Aortic trunks, 475 Apatosaurus, 113 Apes, 122,679,717, 719f Apical ectodermal ridge (AER),

203-4 Apical foramen, 500 Apical surface, 176 Apnea, 481 Apocrine glands, 224 Apoda. See Gymnophiona Aponeuroses, 370 Appendicularia. See Larvaceans Appendicular musculature

comparative anatomy, 391-99, 400f,401f

embryonic development, 386-87 Appendicular skeleton, 318

components, 319-20 evolution of, 340-42

fish phylogeny, 324, 327-29, 330f form and function, 342-63, 364f modulariry and, 717, 720f overview, 364-65 paired fins, origin of,

320-24,325f tetrapod phylogeny, 329, 331-40

Appendix, 523b Appositional growth, 181 Apteryx, pelvic girdle of, 336f Aquatic environment. See Fluid

environment Aqueous humor, 674 Arachnoid, 639 Arboreal locomotion, 342, 362f ArboreaLtheory, 360, 362f Archaeopteryx, 116, 117b, 121b

aerial locomotion, 354 epigenomics, 204-5 feathers, 220, 221f fossilized, 31f mosaic evolution and, 717 structural analysis, 710 supracoracoideus muscles, 401f

Arch centers, 294 Archean eon, 38, 39f Archenteron, 164 Archetypes, 12 Archimedes, 144 Archinephric duct, 559, 559f Archipterygial fin, 320 Architheuthis, 127 f Archo~auromorpha, 110, 111 Archosaurs, 111-112, 113

ankles of, 340f appendicluar skeleton of, 348 digits of, 35 Of supracoracoideus muscles

of,400f Arctodus simus, reconstruction

of,33f Arcualia, 294, 295f, 296 Arduino, Giovanni, 34

. Area, 126, 129-30 Areola, 225 Argali sheep, 135f Aricularian hypothesis, 75-76 Aristotle, 6 Arithmetic growth, 134 Armadillos

adrenal tissues of, 593f cervical vertebrae of, 309 forelimbs of, 380f skull (embryonic

development),241f Armor. See Dermal armor Arrector pili, 222 Arterial vessels, 455-60, 461f, 462f Arteries, 446-49, 451, 453-54 Arterioles, 447 Arthrodire, 127f Arthropods, evolution of, 74 Articular bones, 246, 692 Articular cartilage, 184 Articulations. See Joints Artificial taxon, 25 Artiodacryls, 122, 140-41

appendicular musculature of, 397 gait of, 349 manus of, 338f teeth,530f

Ascaphus copulatory organs in, 569-70 fertilization in,S 81 pectoral girdle of, 334f

Index 757

Ascaphus truei tadpoles, respiratory system of, 426

Ascending nerve tracts, 643, 645f,646t

Ascidiacea ("sea squirts"), 66-69, 70f Ascidian tadpole, 66 Askeptosaurus, 11 0 Aspidospondylous vertebra, 289 Aspiration effect, 468 Aspiration filling, 468f Aspiration pump, 417-18, 443 Aspondyly, 288 Associated nerve endings:See

Associated sensory receptors

Associated sensory receptors, 665, 666f,667f

Association neurons, 632 Astragalus, 339 Astrocytes, 618, 619f Astylosternus robustus, cutaneous

respiration in, 414f Asymmetrical gaits, 350 Atherinomorphs, 99 Atlas, 268, 307 Atmosphere (atm), 144 Atretic follicles, 606 Atretic oocytes, 562 Atrial chambers, 471 Atriopore,61 " Atrioventricular (AV) node, 468· Atrioventricular (AV) plug, 471 Atrioventricular (AV) valves, 468 Atrium, 68, 450 Atrophy, 148, 149f, 150-51 Attachments, 370 Auditory bulla, 268 Auditory nerve, 626t, 629, 630f Auditory papilla, 696 Auditory system, 688, 690, 691f,

692,693-701 Auks, 343f, 713 Auricle, 647 Auricularia larva, 55 Auricular operculum, 106 Australian lungfish. See

N eoceratodus Autonomic nervous system (ANS),

621,634-39 Autopalatine, 249 Autopodium, 319 Avascular bone, 179 Axial column, 289 Axial complex, 67 Axial musculature

appendicular musculature and, 391-92

comparative anatomy, 388-91 embryonic development, 387

Axial skeleton, 287-88 components, 288-92, 293f, 294f embryonic development,

294-97 form and function, 309-16 modularity and, 717, 720f overview, 316-17 phylogeny, 297-309

Axis, 307, 320 Axon, 619, 664 Azygos veins, 466

Baculum, 575 Bakker, Robert, 115b Balaena, axial skeletons in, 315f

758 Index

Balaenoptera, axial skeletons in, 315f . Balance

Biological design, 125 biomechanics, 134-52 biophysics and other physical bipedals, 311f

salt, 548-49, 553-55 Baleen, 229, 229f, 282b, 283b Baleen whales, 122 Balfour, F. M., 321, 322f Ballinsky, Boris L, 169f Baluchitherium, 127 f Bandicoots, 190, 191f Banks, William J., 226f Barbary sheep, 135f Barbs, 218 Barbules, 218 Basal cells, 667 Basal ganglia, 658 Basal lamina, 176 Basallayer, 174 Basal plate, 235 Basals, 319 Basapophyses, 290 Base, 500 Basement membrane, 174, 208 Basibranchial element, 238 Basilar membrane, 692 Basilosaurus, axial skeletons in, 315f BaSioccipital bone, 243 Basisphenoid,237t Basmajian, J. v., 382f, 490f Bateson, William, 201 Bats, 114, 122

cutaneous respiration, 413f diversity and patterns in, 716f forelimb modifications for

flight, 354f sternum, 293f suspension feeding, 278

B cells, 595 Bdellostoma, 544, 567f Beaks, 267 Beaumont, William, 518b Beavers

scales of, 229 teeth of, 504f

Belly, of muscle organs, 370 Belly-walking, 343 Benchley, Robert, 376b Bends, 441b, 442b Benthic protochordates, 54 Bermuda parrot fish thyroid

glands, 588f Beta-keratins, 212 Bias, 21 0, 211f Biceps brachii, 392, 395t Biceps femoris, 394, 395t Bichirs,99

axial skeleton of, 301f brain, 647f genital ducts (male), 568f oviducts of, 561f

Bicipital ribs, 291 Bicornuate uteri, 578 Bicuspids, 505 Bi-directional food flow, 257 Bi-directional ventilation, 409f, 410 Big brown bat, cutaneous

respiration of, 413f Bilaminar blastoderm, 163 Bilateral symmetry, 15 Bilateria, 47, 49f, 49t Bile, 526, 527f Binocular vision, 155, 680 Bioengineering, 134 Biogenetic law, 198-201

processes, 153-56 overview, 156-57 shape, 125-26, 131-133, 134f size, 125-31, 134

Biological failure, 146-47, 148f Biological role, 18-19,46 Biology, evolutionary, 2, 3-10 Biomechanics, 134-35

force laws, 138, 139f free bodies and forces, 138-39 fundamental principles, 135-38 land and fluid, 141-44, 144f machines, 144-45, 146f materials, strength of,

145-47, 146t mechanical stress, tissue

response to, 148-52 torques and levers, 139-41

o Biophysics, 153-56 Bipartite uteri, 578 Bipedal balance, 311f Bipedalism, 111 Bipedal posture, 313b, 314b Bipolar cells, 674 Bipolar neurons, 619, 620f Birds, 113-14, 116-17, 117b

adrenal tissues, 593f aerial locomotion, 342,

353-60, 361f air sacs, 443-44 alimentary canal, 519f, 522-23 aortic arches, 459, 462f appendicular musculature,

397-98 appendicular skeleton, 343f

, aspiration pump, 418 axial musculature, 391 body cavities, 193f branchial arches, 240t breathing and embryos, 412, 414 cardiovascular system design,

484-85 castratio;lof,610b CCK cells, 615, 616f cerebral hemispheres, 656f chondrocranium, 237t cleavage, 162-63 cloaca, 575, 577f, 578f copulatory organs, 570f cranial kinesis, 261 cursoriallocomotion, 349 depth perception, 680 dermatocranium evolution, 260f digits, 350f diversity and patterns in, 716f ear functions, 697, 698f, 699f embryonic development,

189f, 192 epigenomics, 202-3 extraembryonic membranes,

187, 188t eyes, 675, 677f feather coIOl', 230 feces,529 flight, 19-20,360-63,710-11 foregut fermentation, 532 forelimb modifications for

flight, 354f functional coupling of

feathers, 712 functional matrices in, 713

gas exchange, 437f gastrulation and neurulation

168-69, 172f, 173f ' genital ducts (female), 564f genital ducts (male), 569f gizzards, 529 hearts, 468,481, 483 heat blocks, 488f integument, 210f, 217-20,

221f, 222b intromittent organs, 572, 575f jaw articulations, 284 kidneys, 545-46 lungs, 434, 435f, 436f, 443--44 magnetic fields and, 705 manus and pes, 338f, 339 midbrain, 651 modularity, 71 7, 720f muscle fiber colors, 371-72 nasal passages, 669 nephrons, 547f nitrogen elimination, 548 oral glands, 525 pallium, 658 pancreas, 596t pancreatic islets, 595 pectoral girdle, 331-32,

333f,334f pelvic girdle, 335f, 336f penis, 571 phylogeny of, 23f pineal complex, 682, 683, 684f pituitary gland, 599t, 600 poisonous, 222b prolactin, 601 respiratory system, 431-32, 434,

435f, 436f, 437f salt balance, 554-55 scales, 229 size and, 12 7 f skull phylogeny, 265, 267,

269f,270f spinal accessory nerve, 629-30 spinal cords, 643f sternum, 293f stomach,521f supracoracoideus muscles, 401f systemic arches, 462f telencephalon, 654 testis and epididymis, 571f thyroid glands, 588f, 589 venous vessels, 466, 466f ventilation, 436f vertebral column, 315-16 visual accommodation, 679f

Birds of prey feeding by, 281 flight of, 356

Birth, cardiovascular changes at, 485-87

Birth canal, in humans, 313b Bison, 122, 312f Blackbelly salamanders, courtship

in, 573f Blackbum, Daniel, 225 Black-tailed godwit, 132f Blastocoel, 161, 164f Blastocyst, 163, 164f, 582 Blastoderm, 162 Blastodisc, 162, 163 Blastomeres, 161, 162, 163 Blastopore, 49, 166 Blastula, 160, 162f Blood,446,520, 527f

Blood cell formation, embryonic,451f

Blood clot, 446 Blood islands, 450 Blood pressure, 447-48, 449f Blood vessels, 446f. See also Arterial

vessels; Arteries; Capillaries; Veins, Venous vessels

Blowholes, '425b Blue whales, 127f, 282b BMP (bone morphogenetic

protein), 76-77 Boa constrictors

cutaneous respiration of, 413f infrared receptors in, 685

Body free, 138-39 neuron, 618 vertebra, 288

Body cavities, 193f Body design

segmentation, 16-18 similarities, 14-15, 16f symmetry, 15-16, 17f See also Design

Body mass. See Mass Body parts, Hox genes and, 201, 202f Body plans, of chordates, 52-53, 75f Body size and shape. See Shape; Size Body support, in fishes and

dinosaurs, 310f Body veins, general, 462, 463f Bolitoglossa occidentalis, 196 Bolus, 496 Bombesin, 615 Bone fractures, 146-47, 148f, 149b.

See also Bone remodeling and repair

Bone histology comparative, 181, 183 dinosaurs, 115b, 121b

Bone-muscle lever systems, 379-81 Bone remodeling and repair, 152f,

183-84, 185f Bones

architecture of, 181f as connective tissue, 178-79 dermal,209 development and growth,

179-86 evolution of, 183b responsiveness of, 148-52 See also Appendicular skeleton;

Axial skeleton; Skull Bone spicules, 180 Bonner, J. T., 132f, 133f Bony fishes

aortic arches, 456 appendicular skeleton

phylogeny, 327-29, 330f axial skeleton phylogeny, 297 bombesin, 615, 616f cloaca, 575 eyes, 675 genital ducts (female), 562 gill ventilation, 423b hearts, 470 integument, 214-15 kidneys, 546 nephrons, 547f pancreas, 528 pancreatic islets, 595 pineal complex, 682

pyloric ceca, 521 respiratory system, 421, 422f vertebrae, 296 vertebral column, 315f

Boswell, James, 553b Bothriolepis, 251f, 326f Bound, 349, 351f Boundaries, of buccal cavity,

497-98,499f Boundary layer, 142 Bovine stomach, foregut

fermentation in, 533f Bowfins,99

axial skeleton phylogeny, 297, 300f,302f

brain, 648f genital ducts (female), 562, 563f genital ducts (male), 568f holoblastic cleavage, 162f oviducts, 561f skull, 253, 254f

Bowman's capsule, 540 Braces, 147f Brachiation, 122,342 Brachiocephalic artery, 459 Brachiosaurus, 113 Brachydont teeth, 507 Bradycardia, 467 Brain, 644

form and function, 647-58 functional associations of

central nervous systems parts and, 658-60

functional matrices in, 713, 713f neurogenesis, 620b phylogeny, 644-45, 647 regions of, 639, 640f, 646f structural analysis, 71 0

Braincase, 235, 243, 246 Brain stem, 644 Bramble D., 510f Branchial arches, 238, 240t,

402,632t Branchial basket, 51-52 Branchial grooves, 511 Branchial heart, 469, 470 Branchial pore, 55 Branchial pouch, 55 Branchial vein, 460 Branchiomeric musculature, 387,

391, 395t, 399-402, 403f,404f

Branchiostoma, 60, 61f, 64b Breasts, 225 Breathing

air, 438 embryos and, 412, 414, 415f medulla and, 653f water, 438 whales, 425b

Broca, P. P., 650b, 659 Broca's speech area, 650b, 659 Brockmann bodies, 595 Bronchi,410 Bronchioles, 410 Brood patch, 217, 601 Brown hydra, 127f Brown trout, cutaneous respiration

of,413f Brunner's glands, 518 Buccal cavity, 497

boundaries, 497':'98, 499f-evolution of, 502-3b human speech, 504b

palate, 498-99, 500f teeth, 499-501, 504f, 505-9 tongue, 509-10

Buccal cirri, 60 Buccal pump, 416-17, 422f. 427,443 Buccopharyngeal membrane, 497 Budding, 68-69 Bufo, pancreatic islets in, 595 Bufo japonicus, 217b Bufonidae, 106 Bulbar valves, 470 Bulbourethral gland, 556 Bulbus arteriosus, 467 Bulbus cordis, 450, 467 Bullfrogs

cutaneous respiration of, 413f hearts of, 47 3f thyroid and parathyroid glands

in, 590f Bunodontteeth,507 Buoyancy, 144

Q Burggren, 478 Burghardt, G. M., 217b Burrowing. See Fossorial

locomotion Burrowing protochordates, 54 Bustard, aortic arches of, 459f Butterfly fish, swimming

specializations in, 393b,394b

Caecilians, 105, 107, 25q-57, 545, 668. See also Gymnophiona

Caimans, 113,428, 492f, 519f Caisson disease, 441 b Calamoichthys calabaricus, cutaneous

respiration of, 413f Calamus, 218 Calcaneum, 339 Calcification, 178 Calcitonin, 589 Calcium, 148, 150f, 183b Calcium regulation, 591 Callus, 212 Calorie, 13 7 Cambered wings, 356 Camels, 122,349, 532f Cancellous bone, 179 Canines, 507 Canis dirus, skull of, 274f Canis latrans, teeth of, 507 Cannon bone, 339 Canter, 350, 351f Capillaries, 446-49 Capillary bed, 447 Capitulum, 291 Capons,61Ob Captorhinidae, 110, 111f Captorhinomorph, 111f Captorhinus, digits of, 350f Capybara, adrenal tissues of, 593f Carapace, 109,230 Carassius carassius, cutaneous

respiration of, 413f Carbohydrates, 530 Carbon dioxide expulsion, 409,

437,439-40. See also Circulatory system; Respiratory system

Carcharhinus acronotus, teeth of, 506f Cardia, 515 Cardiac glands, 515 Cardiac muscles, 367, 369

Cardiac shunt, 475, 483-84 e

Cardinal hearts, 470 Cardinal veins, 62, 454, 460 Cardiovascular function, ontogeny

of,485 Cardiovascular system, 446

arteries, veins, and capillaries, 446-49

blood,446 circulation, single and double,

449-50 embryonic development,

450-51,452f.453f environmental influences on,

483-89 hearts, 467-83 phylogeny, 451, 453-66, 467f

Carina, 292 Carnassials, 508, 530f Carnivora, 122 Carotid arteries, 451, 457 Carotid body, 457 Carotid duct, 457 Carotid rete, 488 Carp, muscle fibers of, 382, 383f Carpals, 335 Cartilage, 178, 179, 237f Cassowary,116 Castrati, 610-11 b Castration, 610-11 b Catadromous fishes, 551b Catarrhine monkeys, 122 Catecholamines, 591 Catfish

accessory air-breathing organs of,411-12

chemoreceptors in, 667f electric organs in, 367 f

Cats adrenal tissues, 593f aortic arches, 459f appendicular musculature, 396f biomechanics, 314b cranial and shoulder

musculature, 392f facial muscles, 405f muscle homologies, 402t olfactory bulb and tract, 668f pelvic girdle, 336f pelVic musculature, 396f pes, 339f saber-tooth, 512b salivary glands, 526f sternum, 293f

Cat shark, cutaneous respiration of,413f

Cattle, 122 Caudal artery, 453 Caudal hearts, 470 Caudal lobes, 600 Caudal region, 15,288,315 Caudal skeleton and fins, 298, 301-2 Caudata. See Urodelans Caudate nucleus, 658 Caudofemoralis, 393, 395t Cavefish, midbrain of, 645 Cavernous urethra, 575 Cavum arteriosum, 475 Cavum pulmonale, 475 Cavum venosum, 475 C cells 590 CCK. See Cholecystokinin CCK-PZ. See Cholecystokinin-

pancreozymin

Index 759

Cecal fermenters. See Hindgut fermenters

Cecum,518 Celiac artery, 454 Cells. See specific types of cells Cellular bone, 179 Cellulases, 530 Cellulose, 530 Cemental annuli, 500 Cementocytes, 500 Cementum, 500, 501 Cenozoic era, 39, 40-41 Center of mass, 13 7, 138f Center of pressure, 219 Centra, 287, 288-90 Central blood sinus, 57 Central nervous system (CNS),

618,639 brain, 644-60 embryology, 639-42 overview, 660-62 spinal cord, 642-43, 644f, 645f,

646f,646t Centrales, 339 Central tendon, 194,429 Centrum, 81, 82f Cephalaspidomorphs, skull

phylogeny of, 248, 249f Cephalic clasp er, 95 Cephalic lobes, 600 Cephalochordata, 50, 60-65 Ceratobranchial element, 238 Ceratopsians, 113, 114f Ceratotrichia, 319 Cerebellum, 644, 647-48, 650-51,

653f,704f Cerebral cortex, 653, 654, 655t Cerebral ganglion, 67, 68 Cerebral hemispheres, 653, 656f Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), 639,

641f,642f Cerebrum, 644, 654 Cervical air sacs, 432 Cervical ganglia, 623 Cervical region, 288, 315 Cervical vertebrae, 307f,

309,311f Cetacea, 122 Chameleon, alimentary canal

of, 519f Chaucer, Oeoffrey, 553b Cheek, 498 Cheek pouches, 498 Cheek teeth, 507 Cheese mite, 127f Cheetahs

cursoriallocomotion of, 350, 350t,352-53

digits of, 35 Of gait of, 349

Cheirolepis, skull phylogeny of, 253

Chelonians adrenal tissues of, 593f hearts of, 475, 476f, 477 pectoral girdle of, 334f

Chemical breakdown, of food, 529-30, 532-33, 534f

Chemoreceptors, 666-67 mouth, 670-71, 674f nasal passages, 667-69, 670f,

671f,672f vomeronasal area, 669-70, 673f

Chewing. See Mastication

760 Index

Chicken embryos blood cell formation in, 45lf cardiovascular system, 453f heart formation, 452f heart growth, 453f respiration in, 415f

Chickens pes, 339f skeleton of, 309f vestibular apparatus of, 698f

Chief cells, 515, 590 Chimaeras, 95

alimentary canal of, 520f anal regions of, 576f cloaca, 575, 576f copulatory organs, 569 intromittent organs in, 571f

Chimpanzees, 122, 314b, 504b, 593f Chiridium, 102, 319 Chiroptera, 122 Chlamydoselachus, intromittent

organs in, 571 f Choanae, 99, 255,498, 668 Choanate fishes, olfactory

organs, 672f Choanichthyes, 99 Cholecystokinin (CCK), 604,

615-16 Cholecystokinin-pancreozymin

(CCK-PZ),604 Cholinergic control, 635 Chonate fishes, nasal passages

in, 668 Chondrichthyans, 92, 93-95

adrenal tissues, 592f appendicular musculature, 387 appendicular skeleton

phylogeny, 326f, 327 axial skeleton phylogeny, 297 fins and squalene, 424 hearts, 470 integument, 210f, 213 intromittent organs, 571f pancreas, 596t pancreatic islets, 595, 596f pituitary gland, 598, 599t respiratory system, 420-21 skull phylogeny, 249-51, 252f telencephalon, 654 water balance, 550

Chondrocranium, 235, 236f, 237f, 237t, 239, 243f

Chondrocytes, 178 Chondrosteans, 98, 325f Chordal centers, 294 Chordamesoderm, 166, 167f Chordates, 47

characteristics, 50-53 origins, 73-78 overview, 78-79 phylogeny, 47, 48f, 49-50 protochordates,53-73 tadpoles, 76

Chordin,77 Choresine beetle, 222f Chorioallantoic membrane,

163-64, 187 Chorion, 187, 188t Chorionic gonadotropin (CO),

608, 612b Choriovitelline membrane, 163-64 Choroid, 673 Choroid plexus, 639 Chromaffin hormones, 591

Chromaffin tissue (bodies), 591 Chromatophores, 209

amphibians, 216 birds, 218 fishes, 213, 214 mammals, 221, 222 skin color and, 230-31

Chromophobes, 600 Chronic overload, 376b Chrysopelea, 361f Chuckwalla, cutaneous respiration

of,413f Chyme, 496, 604 Cilia, 52, 128f, 415, 685 Ciliary body, 674 Ciliary muscle, 674 Ciliary pumps, 440 Ciliated funnel, 68 Cingulated gyrus, 653, 659 Cingulum, 509 Circadian rhythms, 603

Cl Circulating blood, 446 Circulation

fetal (placental mammals), 485, 486f,487f

hemodynamics of, 447-48 lymphatic, 490f microcirculation, 448-49 pituitary gland, 60lf single and double, 449-50

Circulatory system, 445-46 evolution of, 494f lymphatic system, 489-92, 493 overview, 492-95 respiratory system and, 408, 409f See also Cardiovascular system

Circuli, 215 Cistern, 225 Clades, 25-29 Cladistia, 99 Cladistics, 27 Cladogram, 27 Cladoselache, 95

axial skeleton phylogeny, 299f skull phylogeny of, 252f

Claspers, 324, 569 Classification, 26f

muscles, 367-69 vertebrates, 84

Clavicle, 328, 334f Claws, 226-27 Cleavage, 161-64 Cleidoic eggs, 192 Cleithrum, 328, 334f Climate, dinosaurs and, 115b Clirnatius, appendicular

skeleton, 328f Climbing, 342, 362f Cloaca, 497, 518, 538, 575, 576f,

577-78, 579t 581f Cloacal bursa, 578 Cloacal membrane, 497 Cloacal opening, 497 Cloney, R. A., 68f Closing plate, 511 Clot, 446 Club cell, 212 Clumps, 177 Clupeomorphs, 99 Cobra,40f Coccosteus, axial skeleton of, 300f Cochlea, 688, 701f Coelacanths, 45b, 99, 100

air-breathing organs, 441

j appendicular skeleton, 328, 329 brain, 647f cloaca,575 cranial kinesis, 257f cranial nerves, 626 pancreatic islets, 595 vestibular apparatus, 690f water balance, 550, 553

Coeliac ganglia, 623 Coelom, 47, 49, 164, 165f, 166 Coelom development, 192-94 Coelomic fold, 193 Coelurosaurus, 11 0 C~itus, 569 Coleonyx, .cloaca, 578f Collagen,213 Collagen fibrils, 178 Collar, 55 Co liar cord, 58 Collar ganglion, 58 Collateral branches, 621 Collateral ganglia, 623 Collecting loop, 455 Collecting tubule, 539 Colon, 516 Colonial protochordates, 54 Color

muscle fibers, 371-72 skin, 230-31

Color changes, 231f Color vision, 678-79 Colubrid snake

cranial nerves of, 627f dentition of, 505f

Colugo, gliding and parachuting by, 353f

Columba copulatory organs in, 570f genital ducts (female) of, 564f

Columella, 241 Columnar cells, 176 Commissures, 654 Common cardinal veins, 454, 460 Common carotid artery, 457 C:;ompact bone, 151, 179, 181f Comparative anatomy, for muscles,

388-405 Comparative bone histology,

181, 183 Comparative morphology, 1-3 Comparative vertebrate

morphology, 1-3 Competition, 4 Composite bones, 273f Composite skull, 236f, 285, 286f Composite theory, 239, 240f Compound bone, 264 Compression, 416 Compression teeth, 530f Compressive forces, 145, 146f Compressive strength, 145, 146f Compsognathus, supracoracoideus

muscles of, 400f Compund glands, 177 Comuboniscus, pectoral girdle

of, 334f Conal valves, 467 Conchae, 668 Concurrent exchange, 153-55 Cones, 509, 674 Connective tissue, 174, 177-79 Conodonts, 87-88, 91, 499 Constrictor muscles, 384, 400 Contia,112f

Contourfeathers, 218, 219f, 353 Contraceptives, oral, 607b Contraction

heart, 468 muscle, 370-71

Conus arteriosus, 467 Convergence, 621, 639 Convergent design, 16f, 714f Cooling, 489f Co-option, 7.17, 719 Coots, appendicular skeleton of, 343f Coprodeum, 522, 575 Coprolites, 520 Coprophagy, 528-29, 535 Coprourodeal fold, 575 Copulation, 569 Copulatory organs, 568-72, 573f,

574f, 575, 576f Coracobrachialis, 392, 395t Coracoid, 332, 334f Cords, 177 Cormorants, appendicular skeleton

of, 343f Cornea, 156, 673 Corneal muscle, 674-75 Cornified layer of epidermis, 211 Cornua, 246 Corona radiata, 161, 164f Coronary ligament, 193 Coronary vessels, 635 Coronoid process, 246 Coronoids, 243 Corpora, cavernosa, 571 Corpus, 246, 647 Corpus albicans, 606 Corpus callosum, 654 Corpuscle of Ruffini, 665 Corpus luteum, 602, 606 Corpus spongiosum, 575 Cortex, 160,556,593, 594f Cortical bone, 179 Cortical granules, 160 Cortical region, 653 Corticospinal tracts, 643 Corticosteroid hormones, 591 Corticotropin. See

Adrenocorticotropic hormone

Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), 612, 613

Corvus, testis and epididymis in, 571f Cosmine, 100 Cosmoid scale, 100, 210f, 214 Costa, O. G., 64b Costal (diaphragm), 429 Costal rib, 292 Cotylosauria, 107, 108 Countercurrent exchange, 153-55 Countercurrent gas transfer, 437f Courtenay-Latimer, M., 45b Cousteau, J acques, 441 b Covering, epithelium, 176-77 Covering cells, 701 Coyotes

cursoriallocomotion of, 350t teeth of, 507

Cranford, Ted, 425b Cranial autonomic system, 637 Cranial kinesis, 246-48, 257f, 261,

264f,270f Cranial musculature

comparative anatomy, 399-405 embryonic development,

386f,387

Cranial nerves, 186, 187f, 187t, 622,625-30,670-71

Cranial neural crest, 238f, 281-82, 284f

Cranial region, 15 Cranial shield, 249 Cranial skeleton, 234 Craniates, 82, 93b Craniosacral outflow, 635 Craniostylic jaw suspension, 241 Cranium, 82, 93b, 235 Creod6nts, 512b Cretaceous birds, 116 Cretinism, 589 CRH. See Corticotropin-releasing

hormone Cribriform plate, 270, 667 Cristae, 688, 689f Crocodilians, 113, 127f

adrenal tissues, 593f alimentary canal, 522 cloaca, 577f gastralia, 292 gizzards, 529 heart, 477, 481, 482f, 485 integument, 217 intratarsal joints, 340f lymphatic system, 492f pancreas, 596t pectoral girdle, 332 penis, 571, 572, 574f pituitary gland, 599t, 600 respiratory system, 428 skulls, 258, 260f, 265 sniffing by, 672f spinal cords, 643f venous vessels, 466f ventilation, 431f vestibular apparatus, 690f

Crocodylus palustris, penis, 574f Cromwell, Oliver, 553b Crop milk, 601 Crosscurrent exchange, 153-55 Crosscurrent gas exchange, 437f Crossopterygians, 100 Cross-sectional area, 376-77 Crotalus atrox, hemipenes, 574f Crown, 500, 501 Cr\lwn group, 29 Crown height, 507f Crows, cranial kinesis in, 270f Cruising (swimming), 393b Crura, 194 Crural (diaphragm), 429 Crurotarsal joint, 340 Cryptobranchus alleganiensis,

cutaneous respiration of,413f

Cryptodira,110 Cryptorchidism, 569 CSR See Cerebrospinal fluid Ctenacanthus, axial skeleton

phylogeny, 299f Ctenoid scale, 210f, 215 Ctenosaura, adrenal tissues of, 593f Cubes, 126, 129f Cuboidal cells, 176 Culmann, Karl, 152 Cupula, 686 Cursoriallocomotion, 342, 346f,

348-53,362f,396-97 Cursorial theory, 362f, 363 Cusps, 500 Cutaneous artery, 458

Cutaneous respiration, 215, 411, 413f,414f

Cutaneous respiratory organs, 411, 413f,414f

Cuticle, 222 Cuticular plate, 685 Cuvier, Georges, 10-11, 12f, 13, 14,

74,283 Cycloid scale, 210f, 215 Cyclostomes, 84, 91

genital ducts (male), 565, 567f kidneys, 544f nasal passages, 668 ovaries, 561 pancreas, 527-28 pancreatic islets, 595, 596f skull phylogeny, 248 thyroid glands, 588f

Cynodonts, 118-19, 120[, 271f, 284, 285f

Cynognathus, pelvic girdle of, 336f G Cyprinids, 99

Cytotrophoblast, 190

Dale, Henry, 42b Dalton, John, 678b Daphnia, 127f Darwin, Charles, 3, 4f, 8-9

Archaeopteryx and, 117b critics and controversy, 9-10 evolutionary change, 4 Huxley, T. H., 10 Lamarck, J.-B. de, 5-6 morphology and, 46 natural selection, 7 Wallace, A. R., 7, 8

Darwinism, 8. See also Evolution Darwin's rhea, alimentary canal

of, 519f Dasyatis, intromittent organs

in, 571f Da Vinci, Leonardo, 572b D cells, 597 Dead space, 410 De Beer, Gavin, 717 Deciduas, 189f Deciduous dentition, 500, 501f Deer, 122, 140-41, 350f Deer mouse, stomach of, 521f Deglutition, 511 Dehydration, 548b, 549f Deinonychus, ventilation in, 428-29 Delamination, 165 Delayed development, 582 Delayed fertilization, 582 Delayed implantation, 190, 582, 583f Deltoideus, 392, 395t Dendrites, 619, 664 Dendrograms, 21-22, 23f, 24f Density, 143, 144 Dental formula, 507 Dentary bone, 241, 243 Dentin, 213, 500 Depression, 384f Depressors, 384 Depth perception, 155,680-81 Depulsation,470 Derived condition, 25 Derived quantities, 136-37 Dermal armor, 229-30 Dermal bones, 181,209,241-43 Dermal bone series, 242-43 Dermal fin rays, 319 Dermal melanophore, 231

permal papillae, 221, 501 Dermal scale, 212 Dermatocranium, 235, 236f,

241-43, 260f Dermatome, 165f, 166, 209,

386,625 Dermis, 208, 209-10, 211f, 221-22,

223f, 232f Dermomyotome, 209 Dermoptera, 122 Descending nerve tracts, 643,

644f,645f Descriptive morphology, 709-10 Design, 3

analysis of, 707, 708f body design, 14-18 cardiovascular system, 483-89 convergent, 714f form and function of, 3 optimum, 713 skull, 277-81 vertebrae, 311-13 vertebral column, 310f See also Biological design; Form;

Function; Morphology; Structure

Desmognathus quadramaculatus, 573f Deuterostomes, 47, 49f, 49t, 50,

79f. See also Chordates Diabetes insipidus, 600 Diabetes mellitus, 596 Diadectes, 107 Diadectomorphs, 107 Diagonal-sequence gait, 343, 344f Dial, K., 362f Diaphragm, 194,429,430 Diaphragmatic muscles, 194,428 Diaphysis, 179f, 180 Diapophysis, 290, 291 Diapsids, 107, 109, 110-11, 260f Diarthrognathus, 283-84 Diarthrosis, 184 Diastolic pressure, 447 Diatryma, 114, 116f Didelphis

extraembryonic membranes in, 191f

pelvic girdle of, 336f skulls of, 273f supracoracoideus muscles of, 400f

Diencephalon, 597, 644, 651, 653 Differential scattering, 230 Differentiation, 207 Diffusion, 153-55,407-8 Digastric muscle, 401 Digesta, 496 Digestion

chemical breakdown of, 529-30, 532-33, 534f

endocrine control of, 605f mechanical breakdown, 529, 530f toxins, 535

Digestive enzymes, 529, 530 Digestive glands, 497, 524-28 Digestive system, 496-97

absorption, 528 alimentary canal, 513-24 buccal cavity, 497-510 chemical breakdown of food,

529-30,532-33, 534f embryonic development of, 498f feces, 528-29 fermenters, gastric versus

intestinal, 533-35

Index 761

Digestive system-Cont. function and evolution of,

528-35 glands of digestion, 524-28 mechanical breakdown of food,

529, 530f overview, 535-37 pharynx, 510-13 toxin digestion, 535

Digestive trad, 497 Digging. See Fossoriallocomotion Digital cushion, 227 Digitigrade posture, 348, 349f Digits, 335, 350f Dikinetic,261 Dilators, 384 Dimetrodon, 120f, 336f Dinesen, Isak, 553b Dinocephalia, skulls of, 271f Dinomis, 114 Dinosaurs, 112-13, 114f, 121b

air passage of, 277, 278f body support, 31 Of heresies and hearsay, 115b locomotion, 346f mesotarsal joints, 340f modularity, 71 7, 720f pelvic girdle of, 33 6f ventilation and locomotion,

428-29 See also Paleontology

Dinosaur tracks, 32f Dioecious protochordates, 54 Diphycercal,100 Diphycercal tail, 298, 301f Diphyodont dentition, 500 Diphyodonty, 225, 275 Diploceraspis, 105f Diplodocus, 113, 127f, 141, 142f Diploid, 161 Diplospondyly, 288 Dipnoans, 99, 100-101,462--63, 599t Dipterus, 101f Direct development, 195 Discoidal cleavage, 161, 163f Diseases, bones and, 148 Disraeli, Benjamin, 9, 158 Dissociation, 71 7 Distal convoluted tubule, 540 Distal region, 15 Distance, of shortening, 379 Distance advantage, 140 Divergence, 621, 639, 717 Diversity

birds, 116-17 terrestrial vertebrates, 119f

Diving birds, cardiovascular system design in, 484-85

DNA, 13 Dogfish

brain of, 647f jaws and mouths of, 503b thyroid glands, 588f

Dogs alimentary canal of, 519f heat transfer in, 488, 489f jumping mechanics, 710f salivary glands of, 526f skull of, 275f teeth in, 501f ventilation in, 433f vomeronasal organs of, 673f

Dolphins, 441b, 442b, 488, 519f Dorsal aorta, 62, 451, 453 Dorsal blood vessel, 57

762 Index

Dorsal branchial muscles, 400 Dorsal horns, 642 Dorsalis trunci, 389 Dorsal lamina, 68 Dorsal lip of the blastopore, 166 Dorsal mesentery, 165f Dorsal muscles, 392, 393, 395t Dorsal nerve chord, 50f, 52f Dorsal pallium, 655, 658 Dorsal pancreatic diverticulum, 527 Dorsal ramus, 388 Dorsal region, 15,314 Dorsal ribs, 291 Dorsal roots, 622, 634 Dorsal sac, 682 Dorsal thalamus, 651, 653 Dorsal ventricular ridge (DVR),

656,658 Dorso-bronchi,432 Dorsolateral placodes, 186, 187f,

187t, 629f, 630 Dorsomedial musculature, 391 Dorsoventral rotation, 290f Double circulation, 449-50 Double jaw articulation, 285f Down feathers, 218, 219f Down-regulation, 536 Downstroke, 353, 354, 355f Downstroke-upstroke transition,

353,354 Draco, gliding and parachuting

by, 353f Drag, 142-43,356,358f,359,360f Drosophila melanogaster, Hox genes

in,202f Dual pump, 415-16 Duck-billed dinosaurs, air passage

of, 277, 278f Duckbill platypus, 45b, 122

alimentary canal of, 519f cerebral cortex, 654 mosaic evolution and, 717, 719f pectoral girdle of, 334f

Ducks appendicular skeleton of, 343f penis, 572, 575

Ductus arteriosus, 456, 485 Ductus deferens, 556, 559f Ductus venosus, 485 Dullemeij er, P., 151 f Dumbacher, John P., 222f Duodenal glands, 518 Duodenum, 516, 586t Duplex uterus, 578 Duplication, 717 Dura mater, 639 Duvemoy's gland, 524 DVR. See Dorsal ventricular ridge Dwarfism, 601 Dynamic fluids, 142-43, 144f Dynamics, 139

Eagles, 117, 356 Ears

anatomy of, 690-92 functions of, 693-701 middle ear bones, 270, 274-75,

276f,277f Eastlick, Herbert, 42b Eccrine glands, 224 Ecdysis, 217 Echidna

adrenal tissues of, 593f alimentary canal of, 519f cerebral cortex, 654

pectoral girdle of, 334f stomach of, 521f

Echinoderms, 59-60, 74-76 Ecological analysis, 714 Ectoderm, 49, 160, 175f Ectodermal placodes, 67-69,

186, 187f Ectomesenchyme, 166 Ectopterygoid bone, 243 Ectotherms, 115b, 121b Edaphosaurus, 118, 120f Edema, 489 Edentata, 122 Eels

accessory air-breathing organs of, 411-12

air-breathing by, 414f cutaneous respiration, 413f electric organs in, 367f locomotion of, 304f mucus of, 230

OEfferent artery, 455 Efferent ductules, 556 Efferent neurons, 621, 622f Efferent spinal nerves, 623f Efferent spiracular artery, 455 Egg fossils, 29, 30f Eggs, 160,201,538,556. See also

Cleavage Einstein, Albert, 138, 553b Ejaculation, 565 Elands, cooling in, 489f Elaphe, swallOWing by, 281f Elasmobranchs, 93-95

autonomic nervous system, 637f fins and squalene, 424 genital ducts (male), 567f ovaries, 561 pallium, 655 pancreas, 528, 596t pineal complex, 682 respiratory system, 420-21 salt balance, 554f ventral lobe, 598, 600 vertebrae, 296 water balance, 553

Elastic cartilage, 178 Elastic component, 374 Elastic fibers, 178 Electric carfish, 367f Electric eels, 367f, 411-12, 414f Electric fishes, 701, 703, 704f Electric organs, 367f Electric rays, 95 Electromagnetic spectrum,

671-72, 675f Electromyogram (EMG), 42-44 Electrophorus

accessory air-breathing organs of, 411-12

air-breathing by, 414f electric organs in, 367f

Electroplaques, 701 Electroreceptors, 701-5 Elephant birds, 114, 116 Elephants, 122, 127f

facial muscles, 405f nose, electric organs in, 367f teeth, 501, 504f, 505, 508f

Elephant trunk snake, cutaneous respiration of, 413f

Elevation, 384f Elk antlers, 228f Emarginations, 258, 260f, 261 Embolomerous vertebra, 289

J;-mbryonic area, 160 Embryonic development

(ontogeny), 159, 160 adaptive changes, 721 adrenal glands, 592f axial skeleton, 294-97 breathing, 412, 414, 415f cardiovascular function, 485 cardiovascular system, 450-51

452f,453f ' central nervous system, 639-42 chondrocranium, 235, 237f cleavage, 161-64

, cranial nerves, 629f digesti\Ce system, 498f evolution and, 198f eyes, 674, 676f fertilization, 160-61 gastrulation and neurulation,

164-72, 173t 174f gut (mammalian), 514f human skulls, 273f integument, 209, 210f life history and, 198-206 liver, 527f metamorphosis and, 194-95 middle ear, 691f muscles, 385-87 nasal passages, 667-68, 670f olfactory system, 670f ontogeny and phylogeny,

198-206 overview of, 192 pharyngeal pouches, 589f pituitary gland, 598f principles of, 199f protostomes and deuterostomes,

49t, 50 reproductive system, 556, 558-60 spinal nerves, 623f splanchnocranium, 237-39 telencephalon, 655f tetrapod limbs, 324, 325f thyroid gland, 588f tranformation grids in, 133f urinary system, 540-43 venous vessels, 464f

Embryonic diapause, 582, 612 Embryonic disc, 162 Embryonic implantation. See

Implantation Embryonic induction, 232 Embryonic shield, 167 Emotions, 659 Empedocles, 3 EmulSify, 526 Emus, 116, 267 Enamel, 213,500 Enamel organ, 501 Encapsulated nerve endings. See

Encapsulated sensory receptors

Encapsulated sensory receptors, 665 End-bulb of Krause, 665 Endocardial tubes, 450 Endocardium, 450 Endochondral bones, 179-81,

182f,237t Endocrine coordination

environment and endocrine system, 614-15

hormonal control, 613-14 metamorphosis (frogs), 612-13 reproduction (mammalian),

605-12

Endocrine glands, 177,585 adrenal gland, 591-95 gonads, 603 pancreatic islets, 595-97 parathyroid gland, 589, 590-91 pineal gland, 603 pituitary gland, 597-603 secondary organs, 603-5 thyroid gland, 585-89 ultimo branchial body, 589-90

Endocrine portion of pancreas, 595 Endocrine system, 585 .

adrenal gland, 591-95 environment and, 614-15 evolution, 615-16 gonads, 603 hormonal control, 613-14 metamorphosis (frogs),

612-13 overview, 616-17 pancreatic islets, 595-97 parathyroid gland, 589, 590-91 pineal gland, 603 pituitary gland, 597-603 reproduction (mammalian),

605-12 secondary endocrine organs,

603-5 thyroid gland, 585-89 ultimobranchial body, 589-90

Endocytosis, 176 Endoderm, 49, 160, 175f Endolymph, 687-88 Endomesoderm, 166, 167 Endomysium, 370 Endoskeleton, 87, 96, 98, 234 Endostylar artery, 62 Endosryle, 50f, 52, 68 Endothelium, 176 Endotherms, 115b, 121b Energetics, gait selection and, 351f English system of measurement, 136 Engrailed-l gene expression, 322, 323 Ensatina eschscholtzii, cutaneous

respiration of, 413f Enteric autonomic system, 637 Enterocoelom, 49 Enterocoel y, 166 Enterocrinin, 604 Enterogastrone, 604 Enteropneusta, 55, 56f, 57-58 Entoplastron, 331 Environment

bones and, 148, 150 cardiovascular system and,

483-89 endocrine system and, 614-15 See also Fluid environment;

. Terrestrial environment Enzymes, digestive, 529, 530 Eocaptorhinus, ll1f Eocene carnivore, skull of, 283b Eocene cetacean, skull of, 283b Eogyrinus, 103,329 EOP. See Erythropoietin Eosuchia, 111 Epaxial myotomes, 405 Ependymal cells, 67, 618, 619f Epiblast, 162-63 Epiboly, 165 Epibranchial element, 238 Epibranchial groove, 55, 60 Epibranchial placodes, 186,

187f, 187t Epidermal cells, 212

Epidermal melanophore, 231 Epidermal placodes, 82 Epidermal scale, 212 Epidermis, 208, 209, 211-12,

220-21, 223f, 232f Epididymis, 556, 57lf Epigenomics, 202-6 Epiglottis, 512 Epimeres, 165f, 166,209 Epimyocardium, 450 Epimysium, 370 Epinephrine, 591, 635 Epiphyseal plate, 180 Epiphysis, 179f, 180. See also Pineal

gland Epiphysis cerebri, 682 Epipterygoid bone, 243, 246 Episternal cartilage, 292 Epithalamus, 651, 682 Epithelium, 174, 176-77 Epoophoron, 558 Eptesicus fucus, cutaneous Cl

respiration of, 413f Equus, digits of, 35 Of Erpetoichthys, 99 Erupt, 501 Eryops

appendicular skeleton, 329, 330f,331

axial skeleton of, 305f, 306 pectoral girdle of, 334f pelvic girdle of, 336f

Erythrocytes, 446 Erythrophore, 231 Erythropoietin (EOP), 604-5 Esophagus, 497, 499f, 515, 517f Essay on the Principle of Population,

An (Malthus), 7 Estemmenosuchus, 224 Estivation, 100b Estrogens, 591 Ethmoid plate, 235 Ethmoid region, 237t, 250 Ethmoid unit, 255 Ethmoturbinate bone, 270 Euagnathans, phylogeny of, 89f Euarchontoglires, 124 Euautostylic jaw suspension, 240 Eunuchs, 610-11b Eupodotis, aortic arches of, 459f Eureptilia, 107, 109, 110--11 Eureptilian radiation, 110-11 European eel, cutaneous respiration

of,413f European starling, wing-beat cycle

of,355f Euryapsids, 107, 110, 260f Euryhaline animals, 551b, 553 Eustachian tube, 690 Eusthenopteron, 102

appendicular skeleton, 330f axial skeleton of, 302, 303f limb development, 325f skull of, 236f

Eutherian mammals (placental mammals), 119, 122, 123, 190

cerebral hemispheres, 656f cleavage, 163-64 cloaca, 575 commissure, 654 embryonic development, 192 extra embryonic

membranes, 188t fetal circulation, 485, 486f, 487f

gastrulation and neurulation, 171-72, 174f

genital ducts (male), 568 glands, 225 molar patterns, 509f reproductive organs, 580f skull phylogeny, 268, 270, 273f,

274f,275f urinary bladder, 581f urogenital sinus, 579f

Eutherian placenta, 189-90 Evans, H., 698f Evolution

agnathan, 90-91 annelid/arthropod to

chordate, 74 aortic arches, 461 f appendicular skeleton, 340-42 ArcMeopteryx and, 117b bone, 183b brains, 647f cerebral hemispheres, 656f circulatory system, 494f digestive system, 528-35 embryology and, 198f endocrine system, 615-16 facial muscles, 405f feathers, 218-20 flight feathers, 707, 709f hair, 223-24 hearing, 698-99, 701 historical development of, 3-10 historical predecessors, 3-10 Hox genes and, 201-2, 203f jaws and mouths, 502-3b kidneys, 555-56 mode and tempo of, 719-22 morphology and, 2 mosaic, 717, 718f, 719f mouth, 502-3b patterns of, 25f pectoral girdle, 333f pelvic girdle, 335f peripheral nervous system,

630-32 quantum, 24 remodeling through, 20 reproductive system, 581-82 respiratory organs, 438--44 steps in, 23f supracoracoideus muscles, 400f tetrapod vertebrae, 303f urinary bladder, 581f ventilatory mechanisms, 443f vertebrate, 82 whales, 282b, 283b

Evolutionary analysis, 714-19, 720f Evolutiol1ary biology, 2 Evolutionary morphology, 2, 18-20 Evolution of Man, The (Haeckel), 21 Excavatiol1s. See Paleontology Exchange, 153-55 Excretiol1, 546, 547f, 548 Exercise, of muscles, 37 6b Exhalation, 410 Exhalatiol1 phase, 416, 417f Exoccipitals, 243 Exocoelomic membrane, 171 Exocril1e glal1ds, 177 Exocrine portion of pancreas, 595 Exocytosis, 176 Exoskeletol1, 90, 96, 234 Exposures, 34 Expulsiol1, 416 Extant groups, 28f, 29f

Extel1Sion, 384f Extensors, 384 External auditory meatus, 690 External carotids, 451 External ear, 690, 692f External elastic membranes

(EEM),446f External fertilization, 581-82, 583f External gills, 410 External jugular veins, 463, 466 External naris, 255, 668 External orifice, 690 External respiratiol1, 409 Exteroceptors, 639, 664 Extinct groups, 28f, 29f Extil1ct mammals, 121-22 Extracellular matrix, 174, 177 Extracolumella, 274, 692 Extraembryol1ic area, 160 Extraembryonic membranes, 186-92 Extrafusal muscle cell, 665 Extrapolation, 2 Extrascapulars, 253 Extrinsic eye muscles, 387, 388f Eye muscles, extril1Sic, 387, 388f Eye photoreceptors, 673-83 Eyes

embryol1ic development, 674,676f

form and functiol1, 675-82, 683f phylogeny, 674-75, 677f structure of, 673-74, 675f

'See Optics

Facet, 291 Faciall1erve, 626t, 629, 630f, 632t,

670 Facial pits, 685 Facial series, 242 Falcons, 117 False ribs, 292 Fangs, 507 Farmer, D. S., 637f, 638f Fascia, 370 Fascicle, 370 'Fasciculus cuneatus, 643 Fasciculus gracilis, 643 Fast twitch fibers, 372-73 Fatigue fracture, 146 Faveoli,424 Faviform, 434 Feather color, 230 Feather follicles, 218, 220f Feathers, 210f, 218-20, 221f

aerial locomotion and, 353, 354f birds, 116 evolution, 707, 709f evolutionary remodeling,

720-21 flight, 707, 709f functional couplil1g of, 712 morphologyof,218f origin of, 361

Feces, 528-29 Feedil1g

air, 280-81 sharks, 252f vertebrate origins and, 82,

83-84 water, 278-80 whales, 282b, 283b See also Digestiol1; Digestive

system; Lingual feeding; Suction feeding; Suspension feeding

Index 763

Felids, 512b Felis, pelvic girdle of, 336f Female genital systems, embryonic

development of, 559f Female reproduction, in mammals,

606, 607f, 608,609t 612 Female reproductive system, 557f,

560-65 Femoral glands, 217 Fenestrae, 243' Fenestra ovalis, 692 Fenestra rotunda, 692 Fermentation, 530

gastric, 530, 532-33 intestinal, 533, 534f size and, 535 stomach and, 532f

Fermenters, gastric versus intestinal, 524f, 530, 532-3~

Fertility,581 Fertilization, 160--61, 606

delayed, 582 external and internal, 581-82

Fetal circulation, in placental mammals, 485, 486f, 487f

Fetal extraembryonic membranes, 191f

Fetal zone, 594 Fibers. See Muscle fibers Fibroblast, 178 Fibrocartilage, 178 Filiform papillae, 509 Filoplumes, 218 Filters, 70 Fimbria, 559 Fin-fold theory, 321-24 Fin rays, 319 Fins, 319

caudal, 298,301-2 paired, 319, 320-24, 325f as stabilizers, 320f See also Appendicular skeleton

Fin whales, 282b, 283b First law of inertia, 13 8 Fisher, ]., 23f Fishes, 84

acid-base regulation, 439 adrenal tissues, 592 f air-breathing, 414f, 416-17, 422f air-breathing organs, 411-12,

440-41,484 alimentary canal, 520-21 anal regions, 576f aortic arches, 455-57, 461f appendicular musculature,

386-87,391 appendicular skeleton phylogeny,

324,326-29,330f autonomic nervous system, 637 axial musculature, 388-89, 390f axial skeleton, 294, 295f, 296,

297-302,303 body cavities, 193f body support, 31 Of brains, 647 f branchial arches, 240t branchiomeric musculature, 403f buccal pump, 416, 417f calcium regulation, 591 cerebral hemispheres, 656f cerebrospinal fluid and

meninges, 641f chemoreceptors, 666, 667f chondrocranium, 237t

764 Index

cleavage, 162, 163f cloaca, 575, 576f copulatory organs, 569 cranial nerves, 626 cutaneous respiration, 411,

413f,414f dual pumps, 415-16 ear functions, 693, 694f electric, 701, 703, 704f electroreceptors, 701-5 embryonic development, 192 eyes, 675, 676 fluid environment and, 310 fluid mechanics, 710, 711f forebrain, 644 gaits, 343, 345 gas bladders, 411 gas transfer, 437-38 gastrulation and neurulation,

166-67, 168f, 169f genital ducts (female),

560-63, 564f genital ducts (male), 565-66,

567f,568f gliding and parachuting, 353f hearts, 467, 469-72 integument, 210f, 212-15 jaws and mouths of, 502-3b kidneys, 544, 546 land, movement on, 442 lateral line canals, 687 locomotion, 304f midbrain, 645, 651 mucus, 230 muscle fibers, 382, 383f nasal passages, 668 olfactory bulb and tract, 668f olfactory organs, 672f pancreas, 528, 596t pectoral girdle, 331, 333f photophores, 702b pituitary gland, 597-98, 599f,

599t, 600 pulmonary system, 462-63 ram ventilation, 415 respiratory system, 421-24 ribs, 291f salt balance, 555 scales, 229 single circulation, 449 skull phylogeny, 249-56, 257f spinal reflexes, 634 stomach,521f swimming specializations,

393b,394b telencephalon, 653-54 thyroid glands, 588f urinary bladder, 579, 581 venous vessels, 463, 465f vertebrae, 316f visual accommodation, 679f water balance, 549-50, 551 water-breathing, 438

Fissure, 654 Fixators, 384 Flagella, 128f Flailing, 361 Flamingo, 116 Flatfishes, 95 Fleas, 127f Fleming, Alexander, 42b Flexion, 384f Flexor hallucis longus, 394, 395t Flexors, 384 Flies, 127f

Flight, 114, 116, 117 aerial locomotion analysis of, 353 appendicular musculature and,

398-99 functional analysis of, 710-11 origin of, 360-63 types of, 355-56, 357f

Flightfeathers, 218, 219f, 220, 221f, 707, 709f

Floating ribs, 292 Flocculus, 647 Flow separation, 142 Fluid environment

axial skeletons in, 310 breathing in, 438 dehydration in, 548b feeding in, 278-80 locomotion in, 304f, 306 swimming, 342-43 vision in, 677, 679f water balance, 549f

[Fluid mechanics, 710, 711f Fluids, life in, 141, 142-44, 145f Flying fish, gliding and parachuting

by, 353f Flying frogs, gliding and parachuting

by, 353f, 361f Flying geckos, gliding and

parachuting by, 353f Flying lemurs, 122 Flying squirrels, 122, 353f, 361f Follicle, 177, 556 Follicle cells, 161,556,560 Follicle-stimulating hormone

(FSH), 581, 602, 605, 606,607b,608f

Food digestion. See Digestion Food passages, 513f. See also Buccal

cavity Foot, 319 Footfalls, 343. See also Gait Footplate, 692 Foot postures, 348, 349f Foramen magnum, 243 Foramen ofPanizza, 481 Foramen ovale, 485 Force

as derived quantity, 136-37 direction of, 145, 146f free bodies and, 138-39 graded,375-76, 377f vectors and, 138f

Force advantage, 140 Force generation, whole muscle,

373-74 Force laws, basic, 138, 139f Force phase, 416 Forebrain, 639, 640f, 644-45,651,

653-58 Foregut, 497, 524f Foregut fermenters. See Gastric

(foregut) fermenters Forelimbs, 337f

flight-related modifications in, 354f

pectoral girdle and, 391-92, 395t strength versus speed in, 380f See also Appendicular skeleton

Forest chameleon, alimentary canal of,519f

Form, 14 appendicular skeleton,

342-63,364 axial skeleton, 309-16 brain, 647-58

i electroreceptors, 701-5 .. eyes, 675-82, 683f

lymphatic system, 492 nasal passages, 669, 672f parathyroid,591 pineal complex, 683 respiratory system, 432, 434,

437-38,439f vertebrate design, 3, 14 See also Morphology

Formed elements, 446 Form-function models, 711 Fornix, 659 Fossil forgeries, 11 7b Fossilization, 29-31, 34, 35f Fossils, 28

agnathans, 87-90,91 Archaeopteryx, 117b chronology of, 37f dating, 34, 36-41 fossilization and, 29-31, 34, 35f living,45b recovery and restoration, 31-34 saber-tooth mammals, 512b

Fossoriallocomotion, 342, 363, 364f Four-stroke buccal pump, 416, 417f Fovea, 674 Foxes, cursoriallocomotion

of,350t Fractures. See Bone fractures; Bone

remodeling and repair Frank-Starling reflex, 468, 469 Frazzetta, T. H., 252f, 264f, 506f, 719 Free bodies, 138-39 Free-body diagram, 138, 139f Free nerve endings. See Free sensory

receptors Free sensory receptors, 664-65 Free sutface, 1 76 Frequencies, discrimination of,

697-98, 70lf Friction drag, 142, 143 Frigate birds, wing design of, 356f Frog (hoof), 226 Frogs, 105, 106, 12 7f

. aerial locomotion, 353 aortic arches, 456f, 458 appendicular musculature, 397f axial musculature, 389 brain, 648f, 652f copulatory organs in, 569-70 cutaneous respiration, 413f, 414f dehydration, 548b diversity and patterns in, 716f ears, 695, 696 fertilization, 581 genital ducts (female), 564f gliding and parachuting by,

353f,361f hearts, 473 integument, 215, 216f life cycle, 159f melanophores, 603f metamorphosis, 612-13 muscle homology, 385f pectoral girdle, 334f pelvic girdle, 336f pineal complex, 682, 684f poison dart, 214b respiratory system, 426-27 skulls, 257, 259f spinal cords, 643f thyroid glands, 588f vestibular apparatus, 690f vocal.ization, 429b

Frontal cilia, 57 Frontal plane, 15 Frontoparietal bones, 257 Fruit fly, Hox genes in, 202f FSH. See Follicle-stimulating

hormone Fulcrum, 139 Function, 14

adrenal gland, 594-95 appendicular skeleton,

342-63, 364f autonomic nervous system,

634-35, 637t axial skeleton, 309-16 biological role and, 18-19 bird feathers, 218 brain, 647-58 cardiovascular, 485 centra, 290f design, 3, 14,41-44,46 digestive system, 528-35 electroreceptors, 701-5 eyes, 675-82, 683f hormonal control, 613, 614f kidneys, 546-55 lymphatic system, 492 multiple, 712-13 muscles, 371-85 nasal passages, 669, 672f pancreatic islets, 595-97 parathyroid gland, 591 peripheral nervous system,

632-39 phrenology and, 657b pineal complex, 683 pituitary gland, 600-603 reproductive system, 581-82 respiratory system, 432, 434,

437-38, 439f skull, 277-81 thyroid gland, 587, 588f, 589 See also Morphology

Functional analysis, 710-14 Functional compromise, 711-12, 713f Functional coupling, 711-12 Functional matrix, 712 Functional similarity, of muscles, 384 Functional unit, 711 Fundic glands, 515 Fundulus, copulatory organs in, 569 Fundus, 515 Funnel, 559 Fur, 223 Fusiform, 90 Fusion, 405

Gadow, Hans, 294, 296, 575 Gage, Fred, 620b Gagnan, Emile, 441b Gait, 343-45

cursoriallocomotion and, 349-50, 351f

humans, 381b Galaeaspids, axial skeleton of, 297 Galago, extraembryonic membranes

in, 19lf Galapagos Islands, 8 Gallbladder, 526 Gallop, 350, 351f Game birds, muscle fiber colors in,

371-72 Gametes, 160,556,558 Gamma motor neurons, 665 Ganglia, 67, 68, 619, 622-23 Ganglion cells, 674

Ganoid scale, 98, 21Of, 215 Gars,99 Garstang, w., 74-75, 76, 77f, 78 Gas bladders, 410-11, 412f, 422-24 Gas exchange, 431, 434f, 437f Gas glands, 422 Gaskell, W. H., 74 Gaster, 370 Gastralia, 216, 288f, 292 Gas transfer

patterns of, 432, 434, 437f rates of, 437-38, 439f

Gastric (foregut) fermentation, 530, 532-33

Gastric (foregut) fermenters, 524f, 532-35

Gastric glands, 515 Gastric juice, 515 Gastric secretion, 518b Gastrin, 604 Gastrocnemius, 394, 395t Gasttocnemius externus, 394, 395t Gastrocnemius internus, 394, 395t Gastrocnemius lateralis, 394, 395t Gastrocnemius medialis, 394, 395t Gastrocoel, 164 Gastrointestinal (GI) tract. See

Alimentary canal; Digestive system

Gastrula, 160 Gastrulation,49, 164-72, 173f, 174f Gavials, 113 Geckos, gliding and parachuting

by, 353f Gegenbaur, c., 320-21, 324 Gelatinous matrix, 70 Geldings, 610b Gemelli muscles, 394, 395t General cranial nerves, 625 General sensory organs

associated sensory receptors, 665, 666f, 667f

components of, 664 encapsulated sensory

receptors, 665 free sensory receptors, 664-65 perception mechanisms, 666

Genes. See Hox genes Genetic mutations, 10 Genital arteries, 453 Genital ducts

female, 560-62, 563f, 564f male, 565-66, 567f, 568-69,

570f,57lf Genital ridge, 556 Genital systems, embryonic

development of, 559f Geological ages, 38-41 Geological time, 30f, 81f Geometric growth, 134 Gephyrostegus, 307f, 400f Germ cells, 556 Gestation, delays in, 582, 583f GH. See Growth hormone Giant flying squirrels, gliding and

parachuting by, 353f Giant panda, pancreatic ducts

of, 528f Gigantism, 601 Gill arches, 238 Gill-arch theory, 320-21 Gill curtain, 409 Gill filaments, 418 Gill lamellae, 248 Gill rays, 420

Gills, 83, 410 air breathing and, 412 bony fishes, 421 gas transfer and, 43 9f respiration through, 421 sharks, 420f

Gill slits, 51 Gill ventilation, 423b

amphibian tadpoles, 426f frogs, 427f . sharks, 420f sturgeons, 423b teleosts, 421f

Gingiva,500 Giraffes, 122, 127f

cervical vertebrae of, 309 horns of, 228f limb tendons of, 370f

Girdles, 319. See also Pectoral girdle; Pelvic girdle

Gizzard, 522, 529 Cl Glands, 177

adrenal, 591-95 bulbourethral, 556 digestive, 524-28 duodenal, 518 endocrine, 585 intestinal, 516 mammals, 224-25 parathyroid, 589, 590-91 pineal, 603 pituitary, 597-603 rectal, 521 salivary, 497 salt, 554 shell, 560 stomach and, 515

Glandular epithelium, 176f, 177, 515

Glans penis, 575 Glenoid, 334f Glenoid fossa, 246, 320 Gliding, 353, 353f, 359-60, 361, 362f Globus pallidus, 658 Glomerulus, 57, 540 Glomus, 544 Glossopharyngeal nerve, 626t, 627f,

629, 630f, 632t, 670 Glottis, 410, 512 Glucagons, 527, 597 Glucocorticoids,591 Gluteus complex, 393, 395t Glyptodon, 221, 229 Gnathostomes, 82, 83-84, 89f,

92-95 alimentary canal, 521 axial skeleton, 288f, 297-302 cerebral hemispheres, 656f cloaca,575 dual pumps, 415-16 jaws and mouths of, 502-3b phylogeny, 89f skull phylogeny, 248-77, 278f spinal nerves, 625 splanchnocranium, 286f suspension feeding, 279

GnRH. See Gonadotropin-releasing hormone

Goats, 122 Goblet cell, 212 Godwit, 132f Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 12 Goethe, w., 244b Golden mole, extraembryonic

membranes in, 191f

Goldfish, cutaneous respiration of,413f

Golgi tendon organs, 665, 666f Gonadotropin-releasing hormone

(GnRH), 606, 608f Gonadotropins, 601-2 Gonads, 556, 558f, 603

castration of, 610b Gonopodium, 569 Goose, brain of, 649f Gordon, J. E., 146t Gorillas, 122 Goslow, G. E., 375f Gosselin-Ildari, Ashley, 60f Gould, John, 8 Gracilis, 394, 395t Graded force, 375-76, 377f Graded potential, 619 Grades, 25-29 Granular cell, 212 Granulose, 606 Granulose lutein cells, 606 Graves' disease, 589 GraVity, 125, 129f, 141-42 Gray matter, 642, 646f Great auks, appendicular skeleton

of, 343f Green heron, aortic arches of, 45 9f Green igunana, alimentary canal

of, 519f Green lizard, cutaneous respiration

of,413f Grinding teeth, 530f Ground substance, 177, 178f Grouse, alimentary canal of, 519f Growth, thyroid gland and, 589 Growth hormone (GH), 601 Guard hairs, 223 Gulls, adrenal tissues of, 593f Gustatory cells, 670-71 Gut, 497 Gutmann, w., 707 Gut tube cavity, 165f Gymnarchus, 367f, 703 Gymnophiona (Apoda), 105f, . 106f, 107 Gyri, 654 Gyrinophilus, 568f

Habenular nucleus, 651 Habenular region of brain, 683 Hadean eon, 38, 39f Haeckel, Ernst, 21, 198-99 Hagfishes, 84, 86f, 87,91, 91b

aortic arches, 455 autonomic nervous system, 637 axial skeleton, 287, 297 circulation, 469f cranial nerves, 628f fore brain, 644 genital ducts (male), 567f heart, 469-70 integument, 213 kidneys, 544, 546 nephrons,547f ovaries, 561f pancreas, 528, 596t pancreatic islets, 595 pituitary gland, 597, 599t respiratory system, 419 skull phylogeny, 248 vertebrate origins and, 555-56 vestibular apparatus, 690f water balance, 553

Haikouella, 87, 91, 93b, 287

Index 765

Haikouichthys, 87,91, 93b, 287., 321,324

Hair, 210f, 222-24 Hair bundle, 685 Hair cells, 685, 686, 688f Hair cortex, 222 Hair follicle, 222 Hair medulla, 222 Hair papillae, 222 Hair tracts, 224f Hairy frog, cutaneous respiration

in, 414f Haldane, J. B. S., 125, 130, 156 Half bound, 350, 35lf Hampe, Armand, 205 Hamsters, facial muscles of, 405f Hamstrings, 394, 395t Hands, 320 Haploids, 160 Harderian glands, 524 Hard palate, 275,498-99 Hares, cranial kinesis in, 247b Harness horses, gait of, 349 Hatschek's pit, 60-61, 597 Haversian bone, 179, 180f Hawks, 117 .

adrenal tissues of, 593f alimentary canal of, 519f flight of, 356 wing shape of, 357f

Head, 82 Head (muscle origin), 384 Head shield, 88 Hearing, evolution of, 698. See also

Auditory system; Ears Heart flow, 485 Heart formation, embryonic, 452f Heart growth, embryonic, 453f Hearts, 467

amphibians, 472-74 aspiration filling, 468f basic vertebrate heart, 467-69 birds and mammals, 481, 483 fishes, 469-72 reptiles, 474-81, 482f structure of, 468f

Heart vesicle, 57 Heat blocks, 488 Heat distribution, 449 Heat transfer, 487-89 Hellbender, cutaneous respiration

of,413f Heloderma, adrenal tissues of, 593f Hemal arches, 81, 82f, 288 Hemal spine, 81, 82f Hemibranch,420 Hemichordata, 53f, 54-60 Hemichordate larva,

metamorphosis of, 57f Hemicyclaspis, skull phylogeny of,

248, 249f Hemipenes, 572, 574f Hemodynamics, 447-48, 478-80b Hemoglobin, 446 Hemopoiesis, 450 Hemopoietic tissues, 178 Hemotumescence,571 Henslow, John, 8 Hepatic diverticulum, 192,526 Hepatic portal vein, 454, 460, 463f Hepatic sinusoids, 460, 526 Hepatic veins, 62, 460 Hepatocytes, 526 Herons, aortic arches of, 459f

766 Index

Herpes zoster virus, 625b Herring gulls, 343f, 593f Hesperomis, 116 Heterocercal tail, 1-2, 298, 301f Heterochrony, 195-98 Heterocoelous centra, 289, 290f Heterodonts, 500, 505f Heterostracans, 248, 297 Higher primates, 122 High gear muscles, 380 Hildebrand, Milton, 343 Hindbrain, 639, 640f, 644,

647-51, 653f Hindgut, 497, 524f Hindgut fermenters. See Intestinal

(hindgut) fermenters Hindlimbs, pectoral girdle and,

337f, 392-94, 395t. See also Appendicular skeleton

Hinge, 216 Hip girdle. See Pelvic girdle Hippocampus, 620b, 567f, 655 Hippopotamuses

facial muscles of, 405f gait of, 349 stomach of, 521f

Hips, of dinosaurs, 113f Histochemical profiles, of muscle

fibers,372f Histogenesis, 174 Historical constraints, on

evolutionary analysis, 714 Historical predecessors

evolution, 3-10 morphology, 10-14

Holoblastic cleavage, 161, 162f Holocephalans, 94f, 95,421, 571f Holonephric concept, 543 Holonephros,543 Holospondylous vertebra, 289 Holosteans, 98, 99 Homeostasis, 546, 591f Homeotic genes, 201 Homeotic mutants, 201 Hominids, 122, 717 Homocercal tail, 1-2, 298, 301f Homodont teeth, 500 Homo erectus, 717 Homo habilis, 717 Homology, 14-15

muscle, 384-85 Homoplasy, 14, 15 Homo sapiens. See Humans Homo saPiens neanderthalensis, 34 Hooded pitohui, 222b Hoof wall, 226 Hooves, 226-27 Hoplerythrinus, 484f Hoplostemum, 411-12, 414f, 484f Hopson, James A., 276f Horizontal cells, 674 Horizontal septum, 291, 387, 388 Hormonal control, 609f,

613-14 Hormonal receptor sites, 614f Hormones, 585, 586t

ACTH, 594, 602 ADH,600 bones and, 148 chromaffin, 591 corticosteroid, 591 CRH, 612, 613 evolution and, 615

FSH, 581, 602, 605, 606, 607b,608f

gastrointestinal, 604 GnRH, 606, 608f growth, 601 ICSH,602 LH, 602, 605, 606, 608f,

612b, 614 MSH,602 neurohormones, 600 parathyroid, 589 pars nervosa and, 602f releasing-inhibiting, 600 thyroid, 585-89 TSH, 587, 588f, 601, 612, 613

Horns, 227-28 Horses, 122, 127f

brain, 649f, 651f castration, 610b cursoriallocomotion, 350t,

352-53 digits, 350f diversity and patterns in, 716f epigenomics, 202 gait, 349 hindgut fermentation, 534f, 535 hooves, 226f limb muscles, 349f mosaic evolution, 718f pes, 339f stomach, 521f superficial musculature, 398f teeth, 531b ventilation and locomotion, 434f

Housefly, 127f Hovering flight, 355, 357f Hox genes, 54, 201-2, 203f, 204

cranial neural crest and, 282, 284f

digestive system and, 536f embryonic changes and, 721-22 jaws and, 239-40 turtles, 308

Humans (homo saPiens), 34, 122, 127f

adrenal tissues, 593f alimentary canal, 519f allometry, 131 f aortic arches of, 45 9f appendicular skeleton, 347b appendix, 523b autonomic nervous system,

638-39 biomechanics, 314b bipedal posture, 313b, 314b brain, 652f castration, 610-11 b cranial nerves, 631f cursoriallocomotion,350t cutaneous respiration, 413f diversity and patterns in, 716f embryonic development,

190f, 199f facial muscles, 405f food and air passages, 513f functional matrices in, 713f gray and white matter, 646f missing-linkfallacy, 717, 719f ovarian and uterine cycles, 608f pes, 339f pharynx, 512-13 photoreception, 679 reproductive systems, 557f running gait, 381b

skulls, 273f speech,504b stomach, 521f thyroid glands, 588f

Hummingbirds wing beats of, 355, 357f wing design of, 356f

Humpback whales, 282b, 283b Hutchinson, Deborah A., 217b Huxley, J. S., 127f Huxley, T. H., 10, 12, 14, 113,

244b, 715 Hyaline cartilage, 178 Hybodus, axial skeleton

;phylogeny,299f Hydra, 127f Hydrogen", 439 Hydrostatic functions, 422 Hydrostatic pressure, 489 Hyoid apparatus (hyoid), 241,

246,509 Hyoid arch, 238, 401-2 Hyomandibula, 239, 690 Hyostylic jaw suspension, 241 Hypaxial musculature, 387 Hypermorphosis, 196, 197f Hyperoodon, axial skeletons

in, 315f Hyperopia, 155 Hyperosmotic fish, 549-50 Hyperplasia, 148 Hyperthyroidism, 589 Hypertrophy, 148, 149f, 150-51 Hypoblast, 163 Hypobranchial element, 238 Hypobranchial musculature, 387,

402,405 Hypobranchial nerves, 625 Hypobranchial ridge, 55 Hypocercal tail, 298 Hypodermis, 208 Hypoglossal nerve, 626t, 627f,

630, 632t Hypomere, 165f, 166,385 Hypophyseal pouch, 498 Hypophysis. See Pituitary gland Hyposmotic fish, 549f, 550 Hypotensive shock, 449 Hypothalamus, 651, 653, 654f Hypotheses, descriptive, 709-10 Hypothesis testing, 42b Hypothyroidism, 589 Hypoxia, 410 Hypsodont teeth, 507-8 Hypurals, 298 Hyracoidea (hyraxes), 122 Hystricomorphs, 122

lchthyopterygia, 111 Ichthyomis, 116 lchthyosaurs, 110, 111

convergent design, 714f eyes of, 676 fossilized, 30, 31f manus of, 338f

Ichthyostega, 104, 105f acid-base regulation, 440 appendicular skeleton,

329,341 axial skeleton, 306 manus and pes, 336, 338f pectoral girdle, 334f pelvic girdle, 336f respiratory system of, 424

ribs, 292 skulls, 259f

lchthystegalians, 106f ICSH. See Interstitial cell­

stimulating hormone Iguana

alimentary canal of, 519f pelvic girdle of, 33 6f

Ileocolic valve, 516 Ileum, 516' Iliac arteries, 453 Iliacus, 393, 395t Iliac vein, 460 Iliocostalis, 391 Iliofemoralis, 393, 395t Iliotibialis, 393, 395t Ilium, 329, 335 Immature bone, 179 Impedance matching, 693 Implantation, 556

delayed, 190,582, 583f Impotence, 581 Incipient structures, 20 Incisors, 507 Incremental lines of von Ebner, 500 Incubation, 161 Incus, 241, 274,692 Index fossils, 36, 37f Indifferent gonad, 556 Induced drag, 359, 360f Induction, 203, 232 Inertia, 13 8 Infectious diseases, bones and, 148 Inferior colliculi, 651 Inferior jugular veins, 463 Inferior region, 15-16 Infertility, 581 Information, visual, 681-82, 683f Information transmission, in

nervous system, 619, 621 Infralabial glands, 524 Infrared radiation, 671-72 Infrared receptors, 683-85 Infraspinatus, 392, 395t Infundibulum, 559, 597, 598t Ingression, 163, 165 Ingroup,27 Inguinal canal, 566 Inhalation, 410 Inhalation phase, 416, 417f Inheritance of acquired

characteristics, 6 Inhibition, 621 Inner cell mass, 163, 164f Inner ear, 690, 692, 693f, 694f, 696 Innervation, 209 Innominate bone, 308-9, 335 Innovations, in vertebrates, 81-82 Insectivores, 122, 648f, 649f Insect-net theory, 361, 362f Insertion, 384 Insulation, of dinosaurs, 121 b Insulin, 527, 595 Integument, 208

embryonic development of, 209,210f

general features of, 209-12 overview, 231-33 phylogeny,212-25 specializations of, 209f, 225-31

Interatrial septum, 471 Interbranchial septa, 248, 410 Intercalated disks, 369 Intercardinal anastomosis, 462

Intercentrum, 288, 303f, 305f, 306 Interclavicle, 334f Interclavicular sac, 432 Interhemal arches, 288 Intermandibularis, 401 Intermediate mesoderm, 166 Intermediate tubule, 540 Intermedium,339 Intermittent stress, 151 Internal carotids, 451 Internal elastic membranes

(IEM),446f Internal fertilization, 581-82, 583f Internal gills, 410 Internal jugular veins, 463, 466 Internal nares, 498 Internal narial valve, 426 Internal naris, 668 Interneural arches, 288 Interneurons,632 Internuncial neurons, 632 Interoceptors, 639, 664 Interparietal bone, 267-68 Interpharyngobranchials, 405 Interstitial cells, 565, 603 Interstitial cell-stimulating

hormone (ICSH), 602 Interstitial space (interstitium), 174 Intertemporal bone, 243 Interventricular canal, 475 Interventricular septum, 471 Intervertebral cartilage, 290 Intervertebral disks, 81, 82f, 290 Intervertebral ligament, 290 Intestinal (hindgut) fermentation,

533, 534f Intestinal (hindgut) fermenters,

524f, 533-35 Intestinal glands, 516 Intestinal juice, 518 Intestines, 497, 516, 517f, 518, 519f In-torque, 139 Intrafusal muscle cells, 665 Intramembranous bone, 179

development, 181, 184f Intraoral transport, 509, 510f Intratarsal joint, 340 Intromittent organs, 569,

571-72, 575f Invagination, 52, 165 Involuntary muscles, 367 Involution, 165 Iridescent colors, 230 Iridophore, 231 Iris, 674 Irreducible design, 11f Ischemia, 449 Ischiotrochantericus, 394 Ischium, 329, 335 Ischnacanthus, 96f Islets of Langerhans. See Pancreatic

islets Isocortex, 658 Isolecithal, 160 Isometry, 133f Isosmotic animals, 549f, 550 Isthmus, 561, 562 Isurid shark, brain of, 647f

Jackdaw, testis and epididymis in,571f

Jackrabbits, cranial kinesis in, 247b J aco bson's organ, 668 Japanese toad, 217b

Jarvik, Erik, 102, 239,321-22 Jaw articulations, 274-75, 277f,

284, 285f Jaw attachments, types of, 240-41 Jaw musculature, 387 Jaws, 238

actinopterygians, 254f as machines, 146f morphology, 246 origin of, 239-40

Jaw suspension, 241f Jeju, respiratory system of, 421 Jejunum, 516 Jenkins, F. A., 41f, 355f Joey, 608, 612 Johansen, Kjell, 478b Joint capsule, 184 Joints, 184, 186 Joule, 137 Joule, J ames, 13 7 Jugal, 242

:; Jugular lymphatics, 489 Jugular veins, 463, 466 Jumping mechanics, of dogs, 710f Juxtaglomerular cells, 604

Kangaroo rats, 309, 548b Kangaroos, 122

adrenal tissues, 593f alimentary canal, 519f cerebral cortex, 654 reproductive cycle, 608,

609f,612 reproductive organs, 578, 580f stomach, 521f, 532f

Kardong, Kenneth V., 40f Kelvin, Lord, 9, 10 Keratinization, 211, 212, 221 Keratinized layer of epidermis, 211 Keratinizing system, 212 Keratinocytes, 211, 212, 221 Keratins,211-12 Kiaeraspis, cranial nerves of, 628f Kidney organization, tripartite

concept of, 541-43 Kidneys

acid-base regulation by, 439 endocrine system and, 604-5 fish, 82 function and structure,

546-55 phylogeny, 544-46 renal arteries and, 453-54 renal portal veins and, 454 structure (mammals), 538-40

Killfish, copulatory organs in, 569 Kinematic chain, 144 Kinetic skulls, 246-48 King, A. S., 574f, 577f Kinocilium, 685 Kiwi,116 Knudson, E. I., 699f Koalas, 190

alimentary canal of, 519f feces,529 toxin digestion, 535

Komodo dragon, 127f

Labial pits, 685 Labyrinthodonts, 103-4, 105f, 106f

axial skeleton, 303, 305 pectoral girdle of, 334f teeth, 101, 255, 505, 506f vertebral column, 315f

Lacerta viridis, cutaneous respiration of,413f

Lacrimal bone, 242 Lacrimal glands, 524 Lactation, 224, 225 Lacteals, 492 Lactic acid, 439 Lacuna, 178 Laerm, J., 300f Lagena, 688, 690f Lagomorphs, teeth in, 501 Lake Titicaca frog, cutaneous

respiration of, 414f Lamarck; J.-B. de, 5-6, 7, 10 Lamella, 179 Lamellar, 213 LamelLlr bone, 179, 180f Lampreys, 86-87, 91, 91b

alimentary canal, 520-21 aortic arches, 455 autonomic nervous system, 637 axial skeleton, 287, 297, 298f brain, 647f, 648f cardiovascular system, 455f cerebral hemispheres, 656f cloacal and anal regions of, 576f cranial nerves, 628f embryonic development, 168f eyes, 675-76, 677f gills, 421 heart, 470 integument, 212f, 213 kidneys, 544, 546 muscular pumps, 440 nephrons,547f pallium, 655 pancreas, 528 pineal complex, 682, 684f pituitary gland, 598, 599t respiratory system, 418-19 skull phylogeny, 248 somatic and visceral circuits

in, 634f spinal cords, 643f suspension feeding, 279 venous vessels, 465f visual accommodation, 679f

Land. See Gravity; Terrestrial environment

Langerhans cells, 221 Larch Mountain salamanders, head

of,672f Large intestine, 497, 516, 517f Larsen, J. H., 672f Larus, adrenal tissues of, 593f Larvaceans, 69-72, 279 Larynx, 429b, 504b, 512 Lateral abdominal veins, 454, 460 Lateral cilia,S 7 Lateral cranial fissure, 249 Lateral geniculate nuclei, 681 Lateral line, 186, 187t Lateral line canals, 686 Lateral line nerves, 626t, 629f, 630 Lateral line system, 103, 256,

686-87, 689f Lateral musculature, 391 Lateral pallium, 655, 658 Lateral plate mesoderm, 166 Lateral rotation, 290f Lateral-sequence gait, 343, 344f, 345 Lateral undulatory locomotion, 304f Latero-bronchi,432 Laterosphenoid,237t

Index 767

Lateroventral spinothalamic tract, 643

Latimeria, 100, lOlf air-breathing organs, 441 appendicular skeleton, 329, 329f axial skeleton, 302f brain, 647f cranial nerves, 626 pancreatic islets, 595 pituitary gland, 599t water balance, 550, 553

Latissimus dorsi, 392, 395t Laurasiatheria, 124 Law of the general to the

specific, 199 Leading foot, 350 Leaf-eating monkeys, stomach

of, 521f Leakey, Mary, 31 Leaping, 360, 362f Lecithotrophic embryos, 161 Left aortic trunk, 475 Left atrial chamber, 471 Left systemic arch, 458 Lemurs, 122, 593f Length, 126, 129-30, 135-36 Lens, 156,674,675,676-78 Lens primordium, 674 Lepidosauria, 111, 112f, 596t Lepidosauromorpha,110 Lepidosiren (South American

lungfish), 10 If, 441-42,471

Lepidotrichia, 96, 319 Lepisosteus, pectoral girdle of, 334f Lepospondyls, 103, 104-5, 289,303 Letdown, 225 Leucocytes, 446 Levation, 384f Levator palatoquadrati, 401 Levators, 384, 391, 395t Lever advantage, 380 Lever arm, 139 Levers, 139-40 Lever systems, bone-muscle, 379-81 Leydig cells, 215 LH. See Luteinizing hormone Life cycle, of frogs, 159f bfe history, 158-60

coelom development, 192-94 embryology, 160-72, 173f,

174f, 192 extraembryonic membranes,

186-92 maturation, 194-98 ontogeny and phylogeny,

198-206 organogenesis, 173-86 overview, 207

Lift, 353, 358f, 360f Ligamentum arteriosum, 486 Light, 672, 675-77, 702b Lightfoot, Dr. John, 9 Light organs, 701b Limbic system, 653, 659-60 Limb loss, in snakes, 204f Limb muscles, in lizards and

horses, 349f Limb posture, changes in, 345-46 Limbs, 319-20

lizards, 203-4 pelycosaurs, 131f strength versus speed in,

379f,380f See also Appendicular skeleton

768 Index

Limiting membrane, 428 Lines of arrested growth (LAGs),

179, 180f Lingual feeding, 262, 265f, 280, 509 Lingual glands, 524 Lingual process, 262 Lingual vein, 463, 466 Lining epithelium, 176-77 Linnaeus, Carolus, 4, 5f, 7, 10 Lions, 350t, 716f Lipases, 529 Lips, 497 Lissamphibia, 103, 105-7 Liver, 497, 526, 527f Living fossils, 45b Livingstone, Dr. David, 184, 185f Lizards, 110, 111, 112f

adrenal tissues, 593f alimentary canal, 519f, 522 autonomic nervous system, 638f axial musculature, 390f body cavities, 193f brain, 652f cloaca, 577f, 578f copulatory organs, 570f cranial kinesis, 261, 264f cutaneous respiration, 413f dentition, 505f dermatocranium evolution, 260f diversity and patterns in, 716f epigenetics in, 203-4 extraembryonic membranes, 191f eyes,677f facial muscles, 405f fossoriallocomotion, 363 functional coupling of

locomotion and respiration, 712

gastralia, 292 gliding and parachuting by, 353f heart, 474f, 478-80b, 485 hemipenes, 572, 574f hemodynamics,478-80b Hox genes, 721f, 722 integument, 217, 219, 220f limb muscles, 349f lingual feeding, 265f lungs, 427, 428f manus, 338f muscle development

(embryonic), 386f muscle homology, 385f, 402t pectoral girdle, 332 pelvic girdle, 335f pes, 339f pineal complex, 682, 684f placenta, 190-91 skulls, 261-62, 263f snake evolution and, 686b sternum, 293f thyroid glands, 588f, 589 vestibular apparatus, 690f

Llamas, stomach of, 521f Load, 146, 147t370 Load fracture, 146-47, 148f Lobe fins, 340-41 Lobsters, allometry of, 135f Lobules, 225 Locomotion

aerial, 342, 353-60, 361f appendicular musculature and,

394,396-97 arboreal, 342, 362f axial skeleton and, 304f, 305-6 body size and, 128f

cursorial, 342, 346f, 348-53, 362f fossorial, 342, 363, 364f gaits, 343-45 lateral undulatory, 304f mucus and, 230 saltatorial, 342 swimming, 342-43 terrestrial, 342, 343-45 ventilation and, 428, 432f, 434f See also Appendicular skeleton;

Flight Locomotor modules, 717, nOf Loewi, Otto, 42b Longisquama, 114 Longissimus, 391 Loop of Henle, 545 Lophodont teeth, 507 Lorises, 122 Lower jaw, 246 Lower temporal bar, 107 Low gear muscles, 380

cLumbar lymphatics, 489 Lumbar region, 315 Lumen, 176 Luminal glands, 497 Lunar valves, 477 Lungfishes, 43f,.99, 100b, 100-101

accessory air-breathing organs, 484

air-breathing by, 414f alimentary canal, 520f ammonia and, 548, 555 anal region, 576f aortic arches, 456 appendicular skeleton, 328 buccal pump, 417 circulation, 450 cloaca, 575, 576f cranial musculature, 404f diversity and patterns in, 716f genital ducts (female), 562, 564f genital ducts (male), 567f gill-arch theory and, 320-21 hearts, 471-72 limb development, 325f lobe fins, 340-41 lungs, 411, 422 nephrons,547f pallium, 656 pituitary gland, 598 respiratory system, 427 skull phylogeny, 254-55, 256 venous vessels, 463, 465f

Lungless salamanders cutaneous respiration of, 413f hearts of, 472, 474

Lungs, 410, 441-42 alveolar, 434 birds, 434, 435f, 436f, 443-44 fishes, 422-24 frogs, 426, 427f gas bladders and, 411 mammals, 434f parabronchial, 434 reptiles, 427

Luteinizing hormone (LH), 602, 605, 606,608t 612b, 614

Lyell, Charles, 34 Lymph, 445-46, 489 Lymphatic circulation, 490f Lymphatic cisterns, 491 Lymphatic sacs, 491 Lymphatic system, 445-46,

489-92,493 Lymphatic tissue, 491

~ymphatic vessels, 489-91, 492f Lymph "hearts," 489, 491 Lymph nodes, 490f, 491 Lymphocytes, 178 Lymph return, 491

Mabuya, extraembryonic membranes in, 191 f

Machines, 144-45, 146f Macrolecithal,160 Macula, 688, 689f Macula neglecta, 693 Magnetic fields, 705 Main beam, 227 Major calyx, 539 Malapterus; electric organs in, 367 f Male genital systems, embryonic

development of, 559f Male reproduction, in mammals,

605-6 Male reproductive system, 557f,

565-75, 576f Mallatt, Jon, 502b, 503b Malleus, 241, 274, 692 Malthus, Thomas, 7, 9 Mammals, 118, 119-24

acid-base regulation, 439 adrenal glands, 592f, 594f adrenal tissues, 593f akinesis, 246f, 275, 284-85 alimentary canals, 517f, 519f,

523-24 aortic arches, 459-60, 462f appendicular musculature, 397 aspiration pump, 418 autonomic nervous system,

634-35, 636t 638-39 axial musculature, 391 bcdy cavities, 193f bombesin-secreting cells,

615, 616f branchial arches, 240t buccal cavity, 498 cardiovascular system design,

484-85 . castration of, 610b

CCK cells, 615 cerebral cortex, 654 cerebral hemispheres, 656f cerebrospinal fluid and

meninges, 642f cervical vertebrae, 307f chondrocranium, 237t cleavage, 162f, 163-64 cloaca,575 cooling, 489f cranial nerves, 627f cutaneous respiration, 413f dehydration, 548b depth perception, 680f dermatocranium evolution, 260f digits of, 350f diversity and patterns, 716f ear functions, 697, 700f embryonic development, 192 emergence of, 282-84 endocrine tissues and

secretions, 586t extraembryonic membranes,

188-92 fetal circulation, 485, 486f, 487f gaits, 351f gas exchange, 431, 434f gastrocnemius, 394 gastrointestinal hormones, 604f

I III

gastrulation and neurulation, 170-72, 174f

genital ducts (female), 564f genital ducts (male), 566,

568, 569f genital systems, embryonic

development of, 559f gliding and parachuting, 353f gonadotropic hormones, 606 gut (embryonic

development), 514f hearts, 468, 481, 483 . heat blocks, 488f heat distribution in, 488f integument of, 210f, 220-25 kidneys, 538-40, 545, 546,

551, 552f locomotion and ventilation, 434f lungs, 434f mastication, 530f maturation of ovarian

follicles, 607f medulla and breathing, 653f midbrain, 651 molar patterns of, 509f muscle homology, 385f, 395t nasal passages, 669, 672f nephrons,547f nitrogen elimination, 548 olfactory bulb and tract, 668f oral glands, 525-26 pallium, 658 pancreas, 596t pancreatic islets, 595f pars nervosa, 602f pectoral girdle, 333f pelvic girdle, 335f, 348f penis, 571, 575 pineal complex, 682, 683 pituitary gland, 599t, 600 prolactin, 601 reproduction, 605-12 reproductive organs, 580f reproductive system, 556, 557f rib cage movements, 433f saber-tooth, 512b scales, 229 skulls, 258, 267-68, 270, 272f,

273f, 274-75, 276f spinal accessory nerve, 629-30 spinal reflexes, 633f, 633t splanchnocranium, 286f sromach,521f supracoracoideus muscles, 400f systemic arches, 462f teeth, 500-501, 504f, 505,

507-9, 531b telencephalon, 654 temporal fenestrae, 261f thyroid gland, 587f, 588f, 589 trapezius muscle group, 391 urinary bladder, 581f urogenital sinus, 579f venous vessels, 466, 467f ventilation, 429-31, 433f, 434f vertebrae development,

200f,296f vertebral column, 309 visual accommodation, 679f

Mammary glands, 21Of, 224-25 Mammillary bodies, 651 Mammoths, 30-31 Manatees, 122 Mandible, 246 Mandibular arch, 238, 400-401

Mandibular bone, 249 Mandibular condyle, 246 Mandibular glands, 525 Mandibular ramus, 628, 632t Mandibular series, 242t, 243 Mandibular symphysis, 243 Maneuvering (swimming), 393b Manubrium, 292 Manus, 319, 335-36, 337f, 338f,

339-40 Marsh, O. C., 117b Marsupials, 122, 123

adrenal tissues, 593f alimentary canal, 519f cardiovascular changes at birth,

486-87 cleavage, 163, 164f cloaca, 577 f, 578 embryonic development, 192 extraembryonic membranes,

188t, 191f gastrulation and neurulation in, 0

171, 174f genital ducts (male), 568 glands, 225 pectoral girdle, 334f pelvic girdle, 336f placenta, 190 reproductive organs, 578, 580f saber-teeth, 512b skull phylogeny, 268, 273f

Mass, 126, 129f, 130-31, l35-36, 137, 138f

Masseter, 401 Massospondylus, 121b Mastication, 275, 281, 285,

529, 530f Masroid muscle group, 391, 395t Mastoid process, 270 Materials, strength of, 145-47, 148f Matrix cells, 222 Matrotrophic embryos, 161 Maturation, 194-98, 556, 606, 607f Mature bone, 179 Maxilla, 242 Maxillary ramus, 628, 632t Maxilloturbinate bone, 270 McMahon, T., 132f, 133f Measurement, units of, 136. See also

Acceleration; Force; Length; Mass; Time; Torque; VelOcity

Mechanical advantage, 140 Mechanical breakdown, of food,

529, 530f Mechanical effectors, 618 Mechanical stress

bones responsiveness to, 148, 149b, 150, 151f

tissue response to, 148-52 Mechanism, 144-45 Mechanoreceptors, 685-86

auditory system, 688, 690, 691f,692

ear functions, 693-701 lateral line system, 686-87, 689f vestibular apparatus, 687-88,

689f,690f Meckel's cartilage, 238, 239 Medial musculature, 39l Medial pallium, 655, 658 Medial region, 15 Median eminence, 597 Medulla, 539, 556, 593, 594f Medulla oblongata, 644, 647

Medullary bone, 179 Megaleia rufa (red kangaroo),

608,609f Meibomian glands, 224 Meinwald, ]., 217b Meiotic cell division, 560 Meissner's corpuscle, 665 Melanin, 602 Melanophore, 231, 602-3 Melanophore-stimulating hormone

(MSH),602 Melanosomes, 231 Melatonin, 603 Melville, Herman, 425b Membranes, extraembryonic,

186-92 Memory, 659-60 Meninges, 639, 641f, 642 Menopause, 581 Mental bone, 246 Merkel cells, 221 Meroblastic cleavage, 161 Merycism, 533 Mesencephalon, 639 Mesenchyme, 166,385 Mesenteric ganglia, 623 Mesentery, 194 Mesethmoid, 237t, 270 Mesocoel, 58 Mesoderm, 49, 160, 165f, 166, 175f Mesokinesis, 261 Mesolecithal, 160 Mesomere, 165f, 166 Mesonephric duct, 543 Mesonephric tubules, 543 Mesonephros, 541f, 543 Mesopterygium,327 Mesorchium, 565 Mesosaurs, 108-9 Mesotarsal joint, 340 Mesothelium, 176 Mesovarium, 560 Mesozoic era, 39, 40 Metabolism

body size and, 130f nitrogen, 546, 548 thyroid gland, 587,589

Metacarpals, 335 Metacoel, 58 Metakinesis,261 Metamere, 16 Metamerism. See Segmentation Metamorphic climax, 612, 613f Metamorphosis, 159

ascidian, 67, 68f echinoderms to chordates, 76 frogs, 159f, 612-13 life history and, 194-95 Salientia, 106 thyroid gland and, 589

Metanephric duct, 559 Metanephric tubules, 543 Metanephros, 541f, 543 Metaphysis, 179f, 180 Metaplasia, 148 Metapoidal element, 335 Metapterygeal fin, 320 Metapterygeal stem, 320 Metapterygium,327 Metapterygoid, 249 Metatarsals, 335 Metatherians,119 Metautostylic jaw suspension, 241 Metric system, 136 Meyer, Hermann von, 152

Mice Hox genes in, 202f thyroid glands in, 588f

Microcirculation, 448-49 Microglia, 618, 619f Microlecithal, 160 Microridges, 212 Microsaurs, 104 Microvilli, 160-61,516,685 Midbrain, 639, 640f, 644, 651, 653f Middle ear, 690, 69lf, 692f Middle ear bones, 270, 274-75,

276f,277f Middle ear cavity, 690 Middle eilr ossicles, 690 Midsaggftal plane, 15 Migration, 405 Migratory waterfowl, flight of, 356 Milk, 224, 225 Mineralization, 178 Mineralocorticoids,591 Mink

alimentary canal of, 519f muscle homologies of, 402t

Minor calyx, 539 Missing-linkfallacy, 717, 719f Mites, 127f Mitotic cell division, 560 Mitral cell, 667 Mixed nerves, 625 Mnierpes, accessory air-breathing

organs of, 412 Moas, 114, 116 Modularity, 717, 719, 720f Molariform teeth, 507 Molars, 507, 509f Molecular mechanisms, of muscle

contraction, 370-71 Moles, 122

extraembryonic membranes in, 191f

fossoriallocomotion of, 363, 363f Molting, 217, 589 Moment, 139 Moment arm, 139 Monkeys, 122

alimentary canal of, 519f buccal cavity of, 498 stomach of, 521f

Monocular vision, 155, 680 Monoecious protochordates, 54 Monokinesis,261 Monophyletic groups, 27 Monopterus albus, cutaneous

respiration in, 411, 414f Monospondyly, 288 Monotremes, 119, 122, 123f

adrenal tissues, 593f cleavage, 163, 164f cloaca, 575, 577f, 578 extraembryonic membranes, 188t gastrulation and neurulation in,

170, 174f glands, 225 pectoral girdle, 333f, 334f skulls, 268, 272f

Mori, A., 217b Morph, 76 Morphogenesis, 207 Morphological cross section,

376-77 Morphology, 1,706-7, 708f, 709f

comparative, 1-3 concepts, l4-18 ecological analysis, 714

Index 769

Morphology-Cont. evolution, mode and tempo of,

719-22 evolutionary, 18-20 evolutionary analysis,

714-19,720f functional analysis, 710-14 historical predecessors

(evolution), 3-10 historical 'predecessors

(morphology), 10-14 overview, 46 paleontology,29-41 phylogeny, 20-29 promise of, 722 skull, 243-46 structural analysis, 709-10 tools, 41-46

Morula, 160, 162f, 164f Mosaic evolution, 717, 718f, 719f Moschops, 120f Moss, Melvin, 712 Motion, second law of, 138, 139f, 141 Motor end plate, 369 Motor neurons. See Efferent neurons Motor pattern, 382 Motor unit, 375 Mountain sheep, horns of, 228f Mouse. See Mice Mouth, 670-71, 674f. See also

Buccal cavity Movement. See Locomotion MSH. See Melanophore-stimulating

hormone Mucosa, 513, 517f Mucous cuticle, 212 Mucous glands, 216 Mucus, 230 Mudpuppies, 196, 413f Mudskippers

cutaneous respiration of, 413f land, movement on, 442 mucus of, 230

Mule deer, teeth of, 507 Muller, Gerd, 205 Mullerian duct, 558, 559f Multicellular gland, 177 Multipolar neurons, 619, 620f Mummification, 31f Muscle actions

sequencing of, 381-82, 383f types of, 382, 384

Muscle-bone lever systems, 379-81 Muscle cells, 370 Muscle classifications, 367-69 Muscle contraction, 370-71 Muscle fibers, 370, 371-73

muscle organs and, 373-78 orientation, 377-78

Muscle force, 373-74, 377f Muscle homologies, 384-85 Muscle mechanics, overview of, 382 Muscle organs, 370, 373-78 Muscles, lever principles in, 141f Muscle spindles, 665, 666f, 667f Muscularis externa, 513 Muscular mechanisms, for

ventilation, 415-18 Muscular pumps, 440 Muscular ridge, 475 Muscular system, 366-67

comparative anatomy, 388-405 embryonic development of,

385-87, 385f-386f function, 371-85

770 Index

organization, 367-71 overview, 405-6

Musculature. See Cranial musculature; Postcranial musculature

Mus musculus, Hox genes in, 202f Mutation, 10 Myocoel, 166 Myelin, 619 Myelinated nerves, 619, 620f Myelocytes, 178 Myeloid tissue, 178 Myenteric plexuses, 637 Myllokunmingia, 87,321,324 Mylohyoid, 401 Myocardium, 450 M yoepithelial cells, 177, 600 Myofibrils, 368 Myofilaments, 368 Myoglobin, 371 Myomeres, 52, 388 Myometrium, 600 Myomorphs, 122 Myopia, 155 Myosepta, 291, 388 Myosin,373 Myotomes, 165f, 166,209,386,

387,405,625 Mysticetes, 122, 283b, 315f Myxine, cranial nerves of, 628f Myxinoidea, 84, 86f

Nail matrix, 226 Nails, 226-27 Namib Golden mole, fossorial

locomotion of, 363, 364f Narwhals, teeth of, 508f Nasal bones 242, 257 Nasal capsules, 235, 255-56, 257f Nasal chamber, 668 Nasal glands, 524 Nasal passages, 667-69, 670f,

671f,672f Nasal placode, 498 Nasal sacs, 90, 255, 257f, 668, 671f Nasohypophyseal opening, 86,

90,248 canal, 499f, 628f

Nasolabial grooves, 668 Nasolacrimal duct, 256 Nasopalatine duct, 669 Nasopharyngeal duct, 669 Nasopharynx,504b Nasoturbinate bone, 270 Naturalists, 5 Natural selection, 7, 717

critics and controversy, 9-10 Darwin, Charles, 4, 7, 8-9 DNA and, 13 Huxley, T. H., 10 vertebrate design, 3, 14 Wallace, A. R., 7-8

Natural taxon, 25 Natural Theology (Paley), 5 Neandertals, 33, 34 Nectridean lepospondyls, 104, 105f Necturns

adrenal tissues, 592 f aortic arches, 457 appendicular musculature, 396f cranial and shoulder

musculatUre,392f genital ducts (male), 566 manus, 338f muscle homologies, 402t

pelvic musculature, 396f pes, 339f pineal complex, 684f skull, 259f venous vessels, 463, 466

Necturus maculosus, 196,413f Neoceratodus (Australian lungfish),

100b, 101f air-breathing organs, 441-42 aortic arches, 456 appendicular skeleton, 320-21,

328-29 axial skeleton, 302f cranial musculature, 404f gas bladder, 411 hearts, 471, 472 limb development, 325f

Neognathae, 116 Neomorphs,324 Neopterygii, 98, 99 Neoteny, 196, 197f

ONepetalactone,667 Nephric duct, 541 Nephric ridge, 540 Nephric tubules. See Nephrons Nephridial pore, 58 Nephridium, 58, 63f Nephrocoel, 165f, 166,540 Nephrogenic region, 543 Nephrons (nephric tubules), 539,

540-41, 547f Nephrotome, 540-41 Nerve endings. See Sensory receptors Nerve fibers, 618-19, 620f, 664 Nerve impulses, 619 Nerves

cranial, 186, 187f, 187t, 622, 625-32,670

evolution, 630-31 myelinated, 619, 620f olfactory, 667 phrenic, 194 somatic, 621, 622f, 626t spinal, 622-24 unmyelinated, 619, 620f visceral, 621, 622f, 626t

Nerve tracts, 67, 619, 643, 645f, 646t Nervous system, 618

information transmission, 619,621

neurogenesis, 620b neuroglia, 618, 619f neurons, 618-19, 620f neurosecretory cells, 621 overview, 660-62 See also Central nervous system;

Peripheral nervous system Nervous tissue, 174 Nervus terminalis, 626 Neural arches, 81, 82f, 288 Neural control, 609f Neural crest, 67-69, 186. See also

Cranial neural crest Neural crest cells, 82, 165 Neural folds, 165 Neural keel, 165 Neural plate, 52, 165 Neural spine, 81, 82f, 312-13 Neural tube, 164, 165f Neuroanatomy, 657b Neurocoel, 52, 164, 165f Neurocranium, 235 Neurogenesis,620b Neuroglia, 618, 619f Neurohormones, 600

N'eurohypophysis, 586t, 597, 598t i 600-601, 602f ' Neurology, 650b Neuromast organ, 685-87 Neurons, 618-19, 62Qb, 620f, 621,

622f, 632, 633 Neurosecretory cells, 621 Neurotransmitters, 621, 635f Neurula, 160 Neurulated nerve cord, 52 Neurulation, 164-72, 173f, 174f Newton, Isaac, 138 Nilsson, S., 637f, 638f Nlmravids,512b Nipples, 225 Nittogen,441b,442b Nitrogen narcosis, 441b Nitrogenous wastes, excretion of,

546, 547f, 548 Nodal, 311 Nodes of Ranvier, 619 Nonglandular epithelium, 515 Nonlamellar bone, 179, 180f Norepinephrine, 591, 635 Nottis, Kenneth, 425b Northcutt, Glenn, 710 Northwestern salamanders, 194-95 Noses, of dinosaurs, 121b. See also

Nasal passages NostriL See External naris N othosaurs, 111 Notochords, 18,50-51, 200f, 287,

297,302 Notophthalmus, sperm storage in, 583f Nuchal crest, 268 Nuclear bag intrafusal fiber, 665 Nuclear chain intrafusal fiber, 665 Nucleus, 619 Nucleus pulposus, 51, 82, 290 Nuptial pads, 215 Nutrition, bones and, 148

Obliquus abdominis, 428 Obturator externus, 393, 395t Obturator internus, 394, 395t Occipital arch, 235 Occipital bones, 237t, 243 Occipital condyle, 243 Occipital nerves, 625 Occipitospinal nerves, 625 Occlusal surfaces, 500, 507f, 508 Ocellus, 67 Octaval nerve. See Auditory nerve Octavo lateralis system, 630 Oculomotor nerve, 626, 63 Of, 632t Odocoileus hemionus, teeth of, 507 Odontoblasts, 186,501 Odontocetes, 122, 283b, 315f Oikopleura, 71f, 72f Oken, Lorenz, 12, 244b Olfaction, 667. See also Nasal

passages Olfactory bulbs, 653, 667, 668f Olfactory epithelium, 667, 669f Olfactory nerve, 626, 630f, 667 Olfactory placodes, 186, 187f,

187t, 667 Olfactory sensory cells, 667 Olfactory system. See

Chemoreceptors; Nasal passages; Vomeronasal area

Olfactory tract, 667, 668f Oligocene whale, skull of, 283b Oligodendroglia, 618, 619f

Omasum, 523 Omosternum, 292 One-way valves, in veins, 448f Ontogeny. See Embryonic

development Oocytes, 560, 562 Oogenesis, 560 Oogonia, 560 Opercular bones, 253 Opercular,is, 695 Operculum, 95, 249, 410, 695 Ophiacodon, cervical vertebrae

of,307f Ophthalmic nerve, 628, 632t Opisthocoelous centra, 289, 290f Opisthonephric duct, 559f Opisthonephros, 541f, 543 Opisthoproctus, 702b Opossums

adrenal tissues, 593f alimentary canal, 519f brain, 652f cerebral cortex, 654 extraembryonic membranes, 191f food and air passages, 513f muscle homology, 385f pectoral girdle, 334f pelvic girdle, 336f reproductive organs, 578, 580f skulls, 273f supracoracoideus muscles, 400f

Opsins,678 Optic capsules, 235, 237t Optic chiasma, 155,681 Optic cup, 674 Optic nerve, 626, 630f, 674 Optic placodes, 186, 187t Optics, 155-56 Optic stalk, 674 Optic vesicles, 674 Optimum design, 713 Oral contraceptives, 607b Oral glands, 524-26 Oral hood, 60 Oral opening, 497 Oral valve, 426 Orangutans, 122, 593f Orbital region, 250 Orbital series, 242 Orbitosphenoid bones, 237t, 257 Ordovician era, 39 Organization

kidneys, 541-43 muscles, 367-71

Organ of Corti, 688 Organogenesis, 160, 173-74, 175f

bone development and growth, 179-86

connective tissues, 177-79 epithelium, 174, 176-77 histogenesis, 174 neural crest and ectodermal

placodes, 186 Organs. See Air-breathing organs;

Copulatory organs; Endocrine organs; Muscle organs; Respiratory organs; Sensory organs; specific organs

Origin of Species, The (Darwin), 4f, 9,10

Origins bird flight, 360-63 birds, 116

chordates, 73-78 jaws, 239-40 muscles, 384 paired fins, 320-24, 325f pectoral girdle, 333f vertebrates, 82-84, 555-56 See also Evolution

Ornithischians, 112, 113, 114f cervical vertebrae, 307f pelvic girdle, 335f, 336f

Omithomimus, digits of, 350f Ornithopods, 113, 114f Ornithurine,116 Oropharyngeal cavity, 498 Osmoconformers, 549f, 550,

552-53 Osmoregulation, 546, 548-55 Osmoregulators, 549f, 550 Osmotic pressure, 489 Ossification, 178 Osteichthyans, 96

pancreas, 596t 0

pectoral girdle, 333f pituitary gland, 599t, 600

Osteoblasts, 179, 184f Osteoclasts, 179, 184f Osteocytes, 179 Osteolepis, 101f, 302 Osteon, 179, 181f, 184f Osteostracans, 90, 91f, 297 Ostium, 559 Ostracoderms, 84, 88, 89f, 90, 91

appendicular skeletons, 324 axial skeleton phylogeny, 297 cranial nerves, 628f nasal passages, 668 pineal complex, 682 skull phylogeny, 248,

249f, 250f Ostriches, 114, 116, 127f

cloaca,577-78 cursoriallocomotion of, 349 digits of, 35 Of intromittent organs, 572 skulls of, 267, 270f

Otic capsules, 235, 237 t Oticoocciptal region, 250 Otic placode, 186, 187f, 187t, 688 Otic vesicle, 187f Otoconia, 688 Otolith, 67 Otolith receptor, 688 Outgroup,27 Out-torque, 139 Ova, 556 Oval, 424 Ovarian arteries, 453 Ovarian cells, 161 Ovarian cycles, in humans, 608f Ovarian ducts, 562 Ovarian follicles, 560, 607f Ovaries, 560, 561[, 562t, 586t

castration of, 610b Oviducts, 556, 559f, 561f,

562-63, 565f Oviparity, 582 Oviparous vertebrates, 161 Oviposition, 161 Ovis ammon ammon, 135f Ovulation, 161,556, 606 Ovum, 160. See also Eggs Owen, Richard, 1I:-14, 15, 244b Owls, 117, 697, 699f Oxygen, SCUBA diving and, 441b Oxygen consumption, 130f

Oxygen delivery, 408-9, 437, 438. See also Circulatory system; Respiratory system

Oxyphil cells, 590 Oxytocin, 225, 600, 601, 602f

Pace, 349, 351[ Pacemaker, 468 Pachycephalosaurs, 114f Pachystomias, 702b Pacinian corpuscles, 665 Paddlesfish, 99, 297 Pads, 227 Paedocypris progenetica, 127f Paedomorphosis, 76, 195f, 196,

197f, 198 Paired fins, 92, 319, 320-24, 325f Palaeonisciformes, 98-99 Palaeoniscoids, 98, 297 Palaeophis, 127f Palatal folds, 498 Palatal series, 242t, 243 Palate, 498-99, 500f Palatine bone, 243 Palatine glands, 524 Palatoquadrate, 238, 249 Paleognathae,116 Paleognathous birds, skulls of,

267, 270f Paleontology, 29

animal-to-fossil process, 34, 35f fossil dating, 34, 36-41 fossilization and fossils, 29-31 recovery and restoration, 31-34

Paleostylic stage, 240 Paleothyris

cervical vertebrae of, 307f skull of, 260f

Paleozoic era, 39-40 Paley, William, 5 Pallas, P. S., 64b Pallidum,658 Pallium, 655-56, 658 Palmate, 22 7 Pampiniform plexus, 569 Pancreas, 497, 527-28, 595, 596t Pancreatic diverticulum, 527, 595 Pancreatic ducts, 528f Pancreatic islets, 527, 586t, 595-97 Pancreatic juice, 527 Pancreatic polypeptide (PP), 597 Panda, pancreatic ducts of, 528f Panda's thumb, 206b Panderichthyids, 101 Panderichthys, 102 Pangolin, alimentary canal of, 519f Papez, James, 659 Papez circuit, 651, 659 Papilla amphibiorum, 694 Papilla basilaris, 694 Papillary cone, 675 Papillary layer, 221 Parabranchial compartments, 420 Parabronchi,431 Parabronchiallungs,434 Parachordals, 235 Parachuting, 353, 353f, 362f Paradise snake, 361f Parafollicular cells, 590 Parakeets

alimentary canal of, 523f superficial musculature of, 399f

Parallax, 155, 681 Parallel muscle, 377, 378 Paraphyletic groups, 28

Paraphysis, 682 Parapineal organ, 682 Parapophyses, 290, 291 Parareptilia, 107 Parasitic drag, 359 Parasphenoid bone, 243 Parasympathetic nervous system,

634-35, 636f Parathormone (parathyroid

hormone), 589, 591 Parathyroid glands, 586t, 589,

590-91 Paraxial mesoderm, 166,386

-Parexus, 96f Parietal arteries, 453 Parietal cells, 515 Parietal organ, 682 Parition, 161 Paroophoron, 558 Parotid glands, 525 Parotoid glands, 106 Parrots, 354 Pars distalis, 597, 598, 598f Pars intermedia, 597, 598, 598f Pars nervosa, 597, 602f Pars tuberalis, 597 Pars ventralis, 600 Partial pressures, 153 Parturition, 161 Passeres, aortic arches of, 459f Passive diffusion, 407-8 Passive tension, 374 Patagialis muscle, 398 Patagium, 398 Patten, William, 74, 78 Pattern

gas transfer, 432, 434, 437f phylogeny, 22, 24-25 unity of, 715, 716f

Patterning, 54, 76 Pattern theory of sensation, 666 Pecten, 675 Pectineus, 393, 395t Pectoantebrachialis, 392, 396f Pectoral fins, 92

. Pectoral girdle, 319 Amia,328f dual origin of, 340 forelimb and, 391-92, 395t locomotion and, 346f phylogeny, 331-32, 333f, 334f

Pectoralis, 355, 392, 395t Pectoralis major, 392, 395t Pectoralis minor, 392, 395t Pectoral region, 15 Pedicel, 505 Peduncle, 393b Pelage, 120, 223 Pelagic protochordates, 54 Pelagic sea snake, cutaneous

respiration of, 413f Pelamis platurus, cutaneous

respiration of, 413f Pelicans, 593f Pelvic fins, 92 Pelvic girdle, 332, 335, 336f, 348f Pelvic region, 15 Pelvis, in humans, 313b Pelycosaurs, 118, 120f, 131f

cervical vertebrae, 307f pectoral girdle, 334f pelvic girdle, 336f skeleton, 312f skulls, 258, 271[, 274, 277f

Penguins, 114, 343f

Index 771

Penile erections, in dogs, 576f Penis, 571-72, 574f, 575 Pentadactylous limbs, 336 Peramorphosis, 195, 197f Perception. See Sensory organs Perception mechanisms, 666 Perch

alimentary canal of, 520f muscle fiber colors in, 372

Percomorphs, 99 Perfection, concept of, 7 Performance, 713-14 Perfusion, 409, 437, 438f Periblast, 162 Pericardial cavity, 68, 192,468 Pericardium, 468 Perichondral bones, 181 Perichondrium, 178 Perichordal rings, 296 Perichordal tube, 296 Periderm, 209 Perikaryon, 618, 619f Perilymph, 687-88 Perimysium, 370 Periodontal ligament, 501 Periodontal membrane, 500 P enophthalmus cantonensis,

cutaneous respiration of,413f

Periosteal bones, 181 Periosteum, 178, 18lf Peripheral blood, 446 Peripheral nervous system (PNS),

618,621-22 cranial nerves, 624-30, 631f evolution, 630-32 functions of, 632-39 overview, 660-62 spinal nerves, 622-24

Perissodactyls, 122, 338f, 397 Peristalsis, 496 Peristaltic waves, 637 Peritoneal funnel, 540 Perivitelline space, 161 Permanent dentition, 500-501 Personality, 657b Pes, 319, 335-36, 337f, 338f,

339--40 Petrolacosaurus, 110 Petromyzontida, 86-87 Petrosal, 270 Phalanges, 335 Phalarope, appendicular skeleton

of,343f Phanerozoic eon, 38, 39-41 Pharyngeal bars, 55, 57 Pharyngeal basket, 51-52 Pharyngeal complexes, 62 Pharyngeal musculature, 387 Pharyngeal pouches, 510-11 Pharyngeal ramus, 625 Pharyngeal slits, 50f, 51-52,410 Pharyngobranchial element, 238 Pharynx, 51, 55, 57f, 497, 499f,

502b,504b,510-13 Phasic fibers. See Twitch fibers pH balance, 439, 440f Pheasants, 117, 357f Pheromones, 667 Philosophie Zoologique (Lamarck), 5 Phonemes, 504b Phorusrhacus, 114, 116f Phosphate, 183b

772 Index

Photophores, 702b Photopic photoreception, 678 Photoreception, 678-80 Photoreceptors, 673-83 Phrenic nerve, 194 Phrenology, 657b Phylogenetic systematics, 27 Phylogeny, 20-21

actinopterygian, 97f adrenal gland, 591-93 agnathans, 85f allometric trends in, 133f amniotes, 108f appendicular skeleton, 324,

326--40 axial skeleton, 297-309 brain, 644--45, 647 cardiovascular system, 451,

453-66,467f chordates, 47, 48f, 49-50,

76-78 cranial nerves, 632f dendrograms, 21-22 deuterostomes, 79f dinosaurs, 114 electroreceptors, 701, 703f epigenomics and, 203-6 euagnathans, 89f eyes, 674-75, 677f gnathostomes, 89f, 92f grades and clades, 25-29 hemichordates, 58-60 integument, 212-25 kidneys, 544--46 life history and, 198-206 mammals, 123 nasal passages, 668-69,

671f,672f olfactory organs, 672f pancreatic islets, 595, 596f patterns of, 22, 24-25 pineal complex, 682-83, 684f pituitary gland, 597-98, 599f,

599t, 600 respiratory system, 418-32,

433f, 434f, 435f, 436f,437f

saber-tooth mammals, 512b simplification, 22, 23f skull, 248-77, 278f Synapsida, 118 Teleostomi, 97f, 102 tetrapods, l03f thyroid gland, 585-87, 588f transformation grids in, 134f

Physeter, axial skeletons in, 315f Physical processes, 153-56 Physiological cross section, 377 Physiological properties, of muscle

fibers, 373f Physoclistous swim bladder, 422,

423f,424 Phystostomous swim bladder,

422,423f Pia mater, 639 Picus, tongue protlUsion

in,51Of Pigeons

form-function models, 711 prolactin in, 601 synsaclUm and iru10minate

of,309f Pigment, 230

Pigs, 122 Pikaia, 60, 61f Pike

muscle fiber colors in, 372 swimming specializations in,

393b,394b Pineal complex, 682-83, 684f Pineal formane, 603 Pineal gland, 603, 651, 682 Pinealocytes, 683 Pineal organ, 682 Pink muscles, 382, 383f Pinna, 690 Pinnate muscle, 377-78 Piriform lobe, 667 Pisiform, 339 Pitch,320 Pit membrane, 685 Pituitary dwarfism, 601 Pituitary gigantism, 601 Pituitary gland, 597-603 Pit vipers

infrared receptors in, 685 striking features of, 267b

Placenta, 122, 189-90, 586t Placenta development, 189-90,

191f, 192 Placental mammals. See Eutherian

mammals Placoderms, 92-93, 127f

appendicular skeleton phylogeny, 326f, 327

axial skeleton phylogeny, 297,300f

copulatory organs, 569 skull phylogeny of, 249, 251f

Placoid scales, 210f, 213 Plaice

cutaneous respiration of, 413f mucus of, 230

Plankton, 282b Planktonic protochordates, 54 Plantaris, 394, 395t Plantigrade posture, 348, 349f Plasma, 446 Plasma membrane, 160 Plastron, 109,230,292 Platelets, 446 Platypus. See Duckbill platypus Platyrrhine monkeys, 122 Pleisochelys, skull of, 262f Plesiosaurs, 111 Pleural cavity, 193,429 Pleurapophyses, 292 PleurocentlUm, 287, 303f, 305f, 306 Pleurodires, 11 0 Pleurodonts, teeth of, 505 Pleuronectes platessa, cutaneous

'respiration of, 413f Pleuroperitoneal cavity, 192 Pleuroperitoneal membrane, 193 Pleurosphenoid,237t Plexuses, 637 Plies, 210 Plug cells, 701 Pneumatic duct, 410 Podocytes, 58, 63-64 Poecilia reticulata, ovaries of, 561f Points, 227 Poison dart frogs, 214b Poison glands, 216 Poisonous birds, 222b Polar body, 560

Polar cartilages, 235 Polarity, 160,201 Poliomyelitis, 650b Polydactyly, 336 Polyphalangy, 335 Polyphyletic groups, 27, 28 Polyphyodont dentition, 500 Polyphyodonty, 275 Polypteriformes, 99 PolYPterus, 99

axial skeleton, 30lf brain, 647f cerebral hemispheres, 656f genital ducts (male), 568f oviducts,56lf pituitary gland, 599t

Polyspondyly, 288-89 Pongids, 122 Pons, 644, 647 Porolepiforms, 101 Porpoises, 122

convergent design, 714f teeth of, 508f vertebrae of, 316f

Portal heart, 470 Portal system, 454 Port Jackson sharks, 301f, 505f Positional information, 201 Positions, Hox genes and, 201, 202f Postanal tail, 50f, 52 Postaxial sides of fins, 320 Postcardinal vein, 454 Postcava, 454-55 Postcranial musculature

comparative anatomy, 388-99, 400f,401f

embryonic development, 385f, 386-87

Postcranial skeleton, 234 Postdisplacement, 196, 197f Posterior cardinal veins, 62,

454,460 Posterior chamber, 674 Posterior lobes, 597 Posterior mesenteric artery, 454 Posterior region, 15 Posterior thoracic air sacs, 432 Posterior vena cava, 454-55 Postfrontal bone, 242 Postganglionic neuron, 633 Posthepatic diaphragms, 194 Posthepatic septum, 428 Postorbital bone, 242 Postorbital ligament, 267, Postsacral region, 288 Posttemporal, 328 Posttrematic branches, 455 Posttrematic ramus, 625 Posture

bipedal, 313b, 314b cursoriallocomotion and, 348 limbs, 345--46

Potency, 581 Pouches, 410 Power, 137 PP cells, 597 Prairie dogs, 363 Prairie falcon, 117 Preadaptation, 19-20,555,720 Prearticular bone, 243 Preaxial sides of fins, 320 Precambrian eons, 38, 39f Precapillary sphincters, 448

Precardinal vein, 454 Precava, 454-55 Predator-to-prey ratios, among

dinosaurs, 115b Predisplacement, 195, 197f Prefrontal bone, 242 Preganglionic neuron, 633 Pregnancy tests, 612b Pregnathostome jaws, 502b, 503b Prehension, 281 Prehepatic diaphragm, 194 Premaxilla, 242 Premaxillary glands, 524 Premetamorphosis, 612, 613f Premolars, 507 Preorbitalis, 400 Preotic myotomes, 387 Preservationism, 199f, 200 Pressure, 153, 219 Pressure drag, 142, 143,359 Pretec;:tal area, 681 Pretrematic branches, 455 Pretrematic ramus, 625 Prevertebrate, 82-83 Prey capture, 278-81 Primary afferent sensory nerve, 665 Primary bronchi, 432 Primary egg envelope, 160 Primary feathers, 353 Primary lamellae, 418 Primary neurulation, 165 Primary oocytes, 560 Primary palate, 243,498 Primary pharyngeal bars, 55, 57 Primary sclerotomes, 297 Primary spermatocyte, 565 Primates, 122

cerebral cortex of, 654 embryonic development, 189f extraembryonic membranes

in, 191f eye structure, 67 Sf mastication by, 530f olfactory bulb and tract, 668f visual perception, 681f

Prime motion, 382 Primitive amniotes

digits, 350f pectoral girdle, 331, 333f pelvic girdle, 335f skulls, 257-58, 260-61, 266f,

269f,272f vertebral column, 315f See also Amniotes

Primitive condition, 25 Primitive groove, 168 Primitive groups, 714-15 Primitive meninx, 642 Primitive node, 168 Primitive streak, 168 Primitive synapsids, skulls of, 267 Primitive terapods, 103-5. See also

Tetrapods Principal cells, 586 Principal islet, 595 Principles of Geology (Lyell), 34 Probainognathus, 284, 285f Pro boscidea, 122 Proboscis, 55 Procoelous centra, 289, 290f Procoracoid bone, 331, 332, 334f Procoracoid plate, 292 Proctodeum, 497, 575

Profile drag, 143 Proganochelys, 11 0 Progenesis, 196, 197f Progesterone, 607b, 608f Progestogens, 591, 603 Prokinesis, 261 Prolactin (PRL), 601 Prometamorphosis, 612, 613f Pronators, 384 Pronephric duct, 559f Pronephric tubules, 542-43 Pronephros, 541f, 542-43 Pronghorns, cursoriallocomotion

of, 350t Pronghorns, horns of, 228f Pronk, 349, 351f Prootic bones, 257 Proportional relationships, 129 Proprioception, 665 Proprioceptors, 639, 664 Propterygium,327 Propulsion, 344f Prosauropods, 113 Prosencephalon, 639 Prosimians, 122 Prostate, 556 Protandrous, 71 Protarchaeopteryx, 114 Proteases, 529 Proterozoic eon, 38, 39f Protoceratops, cervical vertebrae

of,307f Protochordates, 53-54

cephalochordata, 60-65 chordates and, 78f hemichordata, 54-60 integument of, 2llf overview, 72-73 urochordata, 65-72, 73f

. Protocoel, 58 Protoderm, 163, 164f Protopterus (African lungfish),

100b, 101f air-breathing by, 414f air-breathing organs, 441-42 aortic arches, 456 buccal pump, 417 genital ducts (female), 562, 564f genital ducts (male), 567f hearts, 471, 472 lungs, 422 venous vessels, 465f

Protorohippus, epigenomics in, 205 Protostomes, 47, 49f, 49t, 50 Protraction, 384f Protractor lentis muscle, 675 Protractors, 384 Proventriculus, 522 Proximal convoluted tubule, 540 Proximal pars distalis, 598 Proximal region, 15 Prozeuglodon, skull of, 283b Pseudemoia, extraembryonic

membranes in, 191f Pseudemys

adrenal tissues of, 593f cloaca, 577 f manus of, 338f penis, 574f

Pseudemys scripta cutaneous respirp.tion of, 413f lymphatic vessels in, 491f, 492f

Pseudopods, 602

Pseudostratified epithelium, 176 Psoas, 393, 395t Psoas minor, 392-93, 395t Pteranodon, 113f Pteraspidomorpha, 90 Pteraspis, skull phylogeny of, 250f Pterobranchia, 55, 58, 59f Pterolepis, skull phylogeny of, 250f Pterosaurs, 112, 113f, 114, 121b,

127f,354 Pterygiophores, 319 Pterygoid bone, 243 Pterygoideus muscles, 401 Pterylae, 218 Pubioischiac bars, 327 Pubis, 329, 335 Puboischiofemoralis externus,

393, 395t Puboischiofemoralis internus,

393, 395t Puboischiotibialis, 394, 395t

Cl Pudu, digits of, 350f Pulmocutaneous artery, 458 Pulmonary arch, 458 Pulmonary artery, 456 Pulmonary fold, 193 Pulmonary system, 462-63 Pulmonary trunk, 475 Pulmonary veins, 463 Pulp, 500 Pulp cavity, 500 Pulsatile vesicle, 58 Pulse pump, 417 Pulvinar nucleus, 681 Pumps

aspiration, 417-18, 443 buccal, 416-17, 422f, 443 ciliary, 440 dual, 415-16 muscular, 440 pulse, 417

Punctuated equilibrium, 25 Pupil, 674 Purkinje fibers, 468 Putamen, 655, 658 Pyloric ceca, 521 Pyloric glands, 515 Pylorus, 515 Pyramidal tract, 657f Pyriformis, 393, 395t Pyriform recess, 512 Pythons, 127f, 685

Quadrate bone, 246, 692 Quadratojugal bone, 243 Quadratus femoris, 393, 395t Quadriceps, 393 Quadrupeds, 84 Quail, adrenal tissues of, 593f Quantities

basic, 135-36 derived, 136-37

Quantum evolution, 24 Quetzalcoatlus, 112, 12 7 f Quills, 223

Rabbits alimentary canal of, 519f coprophagy, 535 cranial kinesis in, 247b fossoriallocomotion of, 363 olfactory bulb and tract, 668f pregnancy tests and, 612b

Raccoons, adrenal tissues o( 593f Rachis, 218 Radial cleavage, 49 Radiale, 339 Radials, 319 Radial symmetry, 15 Radiation receptors, 671-73

infrared receptors, 683-85 photoreceptors,673-83

Radiometric dating, 36-38 Radiopaque, 478b Raja, electric organs in, 367f Raja laevis, electroreceptors in, 703f Ramus, 246 Ramus communicans, 622 Ram ventilation, 415, 421 Rana

adrenal tissues of, 592f copulatory organs, 570f genital ducts (female), 564f pelvic girdle of, 336f

Rana cancrivora, dehydration in, 548b Rana catesbeiana

cutaneous respiration of, 413f hearts of, 473f thyroid and parathyroid glands

in, 590f Raptors, 11 7 Rate, 375 Rate modulation, 375 Ratfish, 95, 421 Rathke's pouch, 598t Ratites, 116 Rat snakes, swallOWing by, 281f Rattlesnakes

alimentary canal of, 519f hemipenes,574f lungs in, 430f striking features of, 267b

Ray, John, 5 Rays, 93-95

copulatory organs, 569 electric organs in, 367f forebrain, 644 genital ducts (female) of,

562,564f intromittent organs in, 571f telencephalon, 653-54

Razorbills, appendicular skeleton of, 343f

Reaction. See Action/reaction, third law of

Recapitulation, 196, 198 Receptors, 614, 618 Recovery, offossils, 31-34 Recrudescence, 615 Rectal gland, 521 Rectangular Cartesian reference

system, 137 Rectocoprodeal fold, 575 Rectum, 516 Rectus femoris, 393, 395t Red blood cells, 446 Red-eared turtle, cutaneous

respiration of, 413f Redfish, cutaneous respiration

of,413f Red kangaroos, reproductive cycle

of, 608, 609f, 612 Red muscles, 367, 382, 383f Redstart, adrenal tissues of, 593f Red-tailed hawk, alimentary canal

of, 519f

Index 773

Refection, 528 Reference, units of, 136. See also

Acceleration; Force; Length; Mass; Time; Torque; Velocity

Reference systems, 13 7 Reflex. See Spinal reflexes Refraction, 156 Refractive index, 156,676 Regulatoty genes, 201 Reissner's membrane, 692 Relativity, theories of, 138' Release-inhibiting hormones, 600 Remodeling,720-21 Renal arteries, 453-54 Renal capsule, 540 Renal corpuscle, 540 Renal pelvis, 539 Renal portal system, 461-62, 463f Renal portal veins, 454 Renin, 594, 604 Replacement bones, 179 Reproduction

mammals, 605-12 thyroid gland and, 589

Reproductive potential, 4 Reproductive system, 538, 556

cloaca, 575, 576f, 577-78, 579f,581f

embryoninc development, 556, 558-60

female, 560-65 function and evolution, 581-82 gestation delays, 582, 583f male, 565-75, 576f overview, 582, 584 structure (mammals), 556, 557f urinary bladder, 579, 581

Reproductive tracts, 558, 559f Reptiles, 107, 109-17, 672f

adrenal tissues, 593f air-breathing mechanisms, 443 alimentary canal, 519f, 522 aortic arches, 458-59, 462f aspiration pump, 418 autonomic nervous system, 638f axial musculature, 390 body cavities, 193f branchial arches, 240t breathing and embryos, 412-13 CCK cells, 615, 616f cerebral hemispheres, 656f cervical vertebrae, 307f chondrocranium, 237t circulation, 450 cleavage, 162-63 cloaca, 575, 577f cranial kinesis, 261 cutaneous respiration, 411, 413f ear functions, 696, 697f embryonic development, 192 epigenomics,203-5 extraembryonic membranes,

187, 188f, 188t eyes, 675 gait, 349 gastrulation and neurulation,

168, 169 genital ducts (female), 564f genital ducts (male), 569f gliding and parachuting, 353f hearts, 468-69, 474-81,

482f,485 integument, 216-17, 219, 220f

774 Index

intromittent organs, 572 lymphatic system, 492f mesotarsal and intratarsal

joints, 340f midbrain, 651 muscle development

(embryonic), 386f muscle homology, 385f, 395t nasal sac, 668 nephrons, 547f nitrogen elimination, 548 olfactory bulb and tract, 668f oral glands, 525f pallium, 656, 658 pancreas, 596t pectoral girdle, 332, 333f pelvic girdle, 335f, 336f, 348f penises, 571-72, 574f pineal complex, 682 pituitary gland, 599t, 600 placenta, 190, 192 respiratory system, 427-29,

430f, 431f, 432f salt balance, 554 scales, 229 secondary palate, 277f skull phylogeny, 261-65, 266f,

267b,268f splanchnocranium, 286f stomach,52lf supracoracoideus muscles, 400f systemic arches, 462f teeth, 506-7 telencephalon, 654 thyroid glands, 588f urinary bladder, 581f venous vessels, 466 water balance, 549

Respiration, 408-9 Respiratory gas bladders, 411 Respiratory membrane, 188t Respiratory organs, 409

evolution of, 438-44 types of, 410-14, 415f

Respiratory system, 407-10 form and function, 432, 434,

437-38, 439f overview, 444 phylogeny, 418-32, 433f, 434f,

435f, 436f, 437f respiratory organs, types of,

410-14, 41St 438-44 ventilatory mechanisms,

415-18 Respiratory tree, 431 Respiratory unit, 420 Resting muscle, 370 Resting state, 370 Restoration, offossils, 31-34 Rete mirabile, 423f, 424 Rete testis, 556 Reticular formation, 660 Reticular groove, 533 Reticularlamina, 176 Reticular layer, 221 Reticular systems, 653 Reticulated python, 127f Reticulum, 523 Retina, 155, 674, 675f Retractors, 384, 675 Reverse recapitulatiqn, 198 Reynolds number, 143 Rhachitomous vertebra, 289, 303f Rhamphorhynchoids, 112

Rhamphorhynchus, 113f Rheas, 116, 350f Rhesus, buccal cavity of, 499f Rhinoceroses

alimentary canal of, 519f faCial muscles of, 403f horns of, 228f

Rhipidistians, 100-101, 102f appendicular skeleton, 329, 330f axial skeleton, 302, 303f gaits, 345 land, movement on, 442 limb development, 325f lobe fins, 340, 341 skulls, 256, 258f

Rhombencephalon, 639 Rhomboideus complex muscles,

391, 395t Rhynchocephalian, skull of, 263f Rhynchokinesis,270f Rib cage, 292

(J Rib cage movements, in mammals, 433f

Ribs, 291-92 Richardson, M., 198f Ridge soaring, 357f Right aortic trunk, 475 Right atrial chamber, 471 Right systemic arch, 458 Right-to-Ieft shunt. See Cardiac

shunt Right whales, 282b, 508f RNA, 202 Roadrunners, digits of, 350f Rockskippers, accessory air-

breathing organs of, 412

Rodents, 122 cerebral cortex, 654 cloaca,578 coprophagy, 535 fossoriallocomotion, 363 teeth, 501

Rods, 674, 678 Roll, 320 Romer, Alfred, 29 Root, 222,500,501 Root canal, 500 Rorquals, 282b Rostral, 598 Rostrum, 95 Rotators, 384 Rough-legged hawks, wing shape

. of, 357f Rubrospinal tract, 643 Ruf, Irina, 700f Ruffed grouse, alimentary canal

of, 519f Rugae, 515 Rumen, 523 Ruminants, 122

alimentary canal of, 523 gastric fermentation in, 532,

534,535 stomach of, 521f

Ruminating, 532 Rumination, 532, 533 Running gait, of humans, 381f

Saber-teeth, 512b ' Sacciform cell, 212 Sacculus, 688 Saccus vasculosus, 600 Sacral region, 288, 315

/ Sagittal plane, 15 . Sahelanthropus tchadensis, 717

Saint-Hillaire, Geoffroy, 74, 77, 78 Salamanders, 105, 106

alimentary canal, 519f aortic arches, 456f, 457,

458f,473f appendicular musculature, 396f axial musculature, 389 axial skeleton, 303 copulatory organs, 570 courtship,S 73f cranial and shoulder

musculature,392f cutaneous respiration, 413f diversity and patterns in, 716f ears, 696 facial muscles, 405f fertilization, 582 functional coupling of

respiration and feeding, 711-12

gait, 349 genital ducts (female), 564f genital ducts (male), 566, 568f hearts, 472, 474 integument, 215 locomotion, 304f, 346f lymphatic vessels, 491f maturation, 194-95, 196 muscle homologies, 395t nasolabial grooves, 668 pectoral girdle, 331, 334f pelvic girdle, 336f pelvic musculature, 396f respiratory systems (larvae),

424,426 skull, 238, 257, 258f sperm storage, 583f stomach, 521f suction feeding by, 259f suspension feeding, 280 teeth, 505-6 thyroid and parathyroid

glands, 590f urogenital organs, 545f venous vessels, 463, 466 vestibular apparatus, 690f

Salientia (Anura), 106 Saliva, 525 Salivary glands, 497, 524, 525-26 Salmo, pectoral girdle of, 334f Salmon

brain of, 645, 647f cloacal and anal regions of, 576f spinal cords of, 643f

Salmonids, 99 genital ducts (female) of, 562 genital ducts (male), 566

Salmo trutta, cutaneous respiration of,413f

Saltatorial locomotion, 342 Salt balance, 548-49, 553-55 Salt gland, 218, 554 Saltwater crocodile, 127f Sarcolemma, 367 Sarcomeres,368 Sarcoplasmic reticulum, 368 Sarcopterygians, 98, 99-102

appendicular skeleton, 328-29, 330f

axial skeleton phylogeny, 302 pelvic girdle, 335f skull phylogeny, 254-55, 257f

Sartorius, 393, 395t Saurischians

digits of, 350f pelvic girdle of, 335f, 336f

Sauromalus obesus, cutaneous respiration of, 413f

Sauropodomorphs, 112-13, 114f Sauropods, 113 Sauropsids, 107, 108-17,332,

333f,335f Sauropterygians, 110, 111 Savitzky, Alan H., 217b Scalar quantiry, 13 7 Scala tympani, 692 Scala vestibuli, 692 "Scale of nature" (scala naturae),

6-7 Scales, 21Of, 214,215,229 Scaling, 126 Scaly-tailed squirrels, 122 Scapula, 331, 334f Scapulocoracoid, 327, 331, 332 Sceloporus, 112f Scent glands, 217, 224 Schizocoelom, 49 Schizocoely, 166 Schroeder, R C, 217b Schwann cells, 618 Schwenk, K., 510f Scientific method, 42b Sciuromorphs, 122 Sclera, 673 Scleral ossicles, 242, 673 Sclerotome, 165f, 166, 209,

297,386 Scotopic photoreception, 678 Screens, 70 Scroll valve, 520 Scrotum, 566 SCUBA diving, 441b, 442b Sculpin, swimming specializations

in, 393b, 394b Scyliorhinus canicula, cutaneous

respiration of, 413f Scyllium, jaws of, 239f Seabirds, pharynx of, 511 Sea cows, 122 Seals, 441b, 442b Sea snakes, cutaneous respiration

of, 411, 413f Sea squirts. See Ascidiacea Sea turtles, magnetic fields and, 705 Sebaceous glands, 224 Sebum, 224 Secondary afferent sensory

nerve, 665 Secondary bronchi, 432 Secondary cartilage, 181 Secondary egg envelope, 161 Secondary endocrine organs, 603-5 Secondary lamellae, 418 Secondary meninx, 642 Secondary neurulation, 165 Secondary oocytes, 560 Secondary palate, 275, 277f,

498-99 Secondary pharyngeal bars, 55, 57 Secondary plant compounds, 535 Secondary sclerotomes, 297 Secondary spermatocyte, 565 Second law of motion, 138,

139f,141 Secretary birds, digits of, 350f Secretin, 604

Sectorial teeth, 508 Segment, 16 Segmentation, 16-18 Seismic sound waves, 695 Selenodont teeth, 507 Semen (seminal fluid), 556 Semicircular canals, 688 Semilunar valves, 470 Semimembranosus, 394, 395t Seminal fluid. See Semen Seminal vesicle, 556 Seminiferous tubules, 556 Semitendinosus, 394·, 395t Senescence, 160 Sensation, pattern theory of, 666 Sensory neurons. See Afferent

neurons Sensory organs, 663-64

associated sensory receptors, 665, 666f, 667f

chemoreceptors, 666-71, 674f, 673f,674f

components of, 664 electroreceptors, 701-5 encapsulated sensory

receptors, 665 free sensory receptors, 664-65 magnetic fields and, 705 mechanoreceptors, 685-701 overview, 705 perception mechanisms, 666 radiation receptors, 671-85

Sensory receptors, 663, 664f associated, 665, 666f, 667f encapsulated, 665 free, 664-65

Sensory vesicle, 67 Septa, 17,655,658,667. See also

Primary pharyngeal bars Septal,424 Septomaxilla, 242 Serial homology, 14-15 Serial theory, 239, 240f Serosa, 515 Serratus muscles, 391, 395t Sertoli cells, 565 Sesamoid bones, 181 Sessile protochordates, 54 Seymouria, 105f

locomotion of, 306 pectoral girdle of, 334f

Seymouromorpha, 108 Shaft, 222 Shape, 125-26, 131-33, 134f

dynamic fluids and, 143 Hox genes, 201, 202f wings, 357f

Sharks, 93-95 adrenal tissues, 592f alimentary canal of, 520f anal regions of, 57 6f aortic arches, 457f appendicular musculature, 396f appendicular skeleton, 320,

323f, 326f, 327 autonomic nervous system, 637f axial skeleton phylogeny, 297,

299f,301 brain, 647f, 648f, 651f, 652f branchial arches, 240t branchiomeric musculature, 403f buccal cavity, 498, 499f, 503b cerebral hemispheres, 656f circulatory pattern, 454f

cloaca, 575, 576f copulatory organs, 569 cranial musculature, 392f, 404f cranial nerves, 628f, 630f cutaneous respiration, 413f diversity and patterns in, 716f extrinsic eye musculature, 388f eyes,677f feeding in, 252f fins and squalene, 424 forebrain, 644 genital ducts (male), 568f gills, 420f gill ventilation, 420f intromittent organs, 57lf jaws, 239f, 240-41 locomotion, 304f mandibular arch, 400 medulla oblongata, 647 muscle development

(embryonic),386f muscle fibers, 383f muscle homology, 385f, 402t nasal sacs, 671f nephrons, 547f oviducts,56lf pancreas, 528 pelvic musculature, 396f pineal complex, 684f ram ventilation, 415 respiratory system, 420-21 salt balance, 554f scales, 229 shoulder musculature, 392f skull phylogeny, 250-51, 252f spinal cords, 643f stomach,521f swimming forces in, 389f teeth, 232f, 505f, 506f telencephalon, 654 venous vessels, 463f, 465f vestibular apparatus, 690f

Sharman, G. G., 609f Shear forces, 145, 146t Shear strength, 145, 146t Shearwater, wing shape of, 357f Sheep, 122, 127f, 135f, 228f Shell, of turtles, 292, 294f Shell glands, 560 Shell membrane, 163, 164f Shell-secreting regions, 560 Shh expression, 323-24 Shingles, 625b Shock. See Hypotensive shock Shortening, 379 Shoulder girdle. See Pectoral girdle Shrews, 122, 593f Shunts, 448 Siberian argali, 135f Sight. See Optics Silurian era, 39 Siluroids, 99 Similarities, 14-15, 16f Simons,]. R. 301f Simple epithelia, 176 Simple glands, 177 Simplex uterus, 578 Simplification, 22, 23f Simpson, G. G., 24, 25, 29 Single circulation, 449-50 Sinoatrial (SA) node, 468 Sinoatrial (SA) valves, 468 Sinus, 454 Sinus venosus, 62, 450

Sirenia, 122 Siren salamander (male), urogenital

organs of, 545f Sister group, 25 Size, 125-26, 127f, 128f, 129-31,

134, 143, 535 Skates, 95

adrenal tissues, 592f electric organs in, 367f electroreceptors in, 703f telencephalon, 654 thyroid glands, 588f

Skeletal muscles, 367 classification, 368-69 structure of, 369-70

Skeletahystem, of pteraspidomorpha, 90. See also Appendicular skeleton; Axial skeleton; Skull

Skeletal tissues, organization of, 235f Skimmers, 284 Skin. See Integument Skin color, 230-31 Skin derivatives, 210f Skinks, extraembryonic membranes

in, 19lf Skull,234-35

chondrocranium, 235, 237f, 237t

composite, 236f cranial kinesis, 246-48 dermatocranium, 241-43 function and design, 277-81 modularity and, 717, 720f morphology overview, 243-46 overview, 281~85, 286f phylogenyof, 248-77, 278f splanchnocranium, 237-41 theories related to, 12

Skull bones, mobility of, 246f Skull fenestrae, 258, 260, 261f Skull fenestration, 107, 109f Slider-crank mechanism, 267 Slime glands, 213 ·Slip, 384 Sloth, alimentary canal of, 519f Slow twitch fibers, 372-73 Small intestine, 497, 516, 517f Smilodon, teeth of, 512b Smith, A. B., 28f Smith, H. M., 64lf, 700f Smith, Homer w., 82, 553b, 555 Smith,]. L. B., 45b Smolt, 589 Smooth muscles, 367, 369 Snails, 127f Snakes, 110, 111, 112f, 127f

adrenal tissues, 593f alimentary canal, 519f axial skeleton, 308 cloaca,577f cranial kinesis, 261, 266f cutaneous respiration, 413f depth perception, 68lf dermatocranium evolution, 260f ears, 696 facial muscles, 405f fossoriallocomotion, 363 functional matrices in, 712-13 gliding, 359-60, 36lf hemipenes, 572, 574f hypaxial musculature, 391 Hox genes, 72lf, 722

Index 775

Snakes-Cont. infrared receptors, 685 limb loss, 204f liver, 526 lungs, 430f mosaic evolution, 718f pharynx, 511 placenta, 190-91 respiratory system, 427, 428 sensory organs and origins,

686b, 687b skulb, 264-65, 266f stomach,521f striking features, 267b teeth, 505f, 506-7 thyroid glands, 588f tongue flicking, 673f toxins in prey, 217b venom glands, 525 vestibular apparatus, 690f

Sniffing, 669, 672f Soaring flight, 355-56, 357f Socket, 500 Soft palate, 275, 499 Soleus, 394, 395t Solitary protochordates, 54 Soma, 618 Somatic mesoderm, 165f, 166 Somatic muscles, 367 Somatic nerves, 621, 622f, 626t Somatic reflex arcs, 632-33, 634 Somatic sensory organs, 664 Somatopleure, 165f, 166 Somatosensory system, 639 Somatostatin, 597 Somites, 165f, 166,386 Somitomeres, 166,386,387 Songbirds, aortic arches of, 459f Sonic hedgehog, 204,322, 323f Sound detection, by swim

bladders, 424 Sounds, speech and, 504b. See also

Ears; Auditory system Sound vibrations, distribution of,

697-98, 701f South American lungfish. See

Lepidosiren Southern musk turtle, cutaneous

respiration of, 413f Special cranial nerves, 625 Special sensory organs, 664, 666

chemoreceptors, 666-71, 672f, 673f,674f

electroreceptors, 701-5 magnetic fields and, 705 mechanoreceptors, 685-701 radiation receptors, 671-85

Specific nerve energies, theory of,666

Spectacle, 686b Speech, of humans, 504b Speed,141

strength versus, 140f, 379f, 380f Speed advantage, 140 Sperm, 160,538 Spermatheca, 570, 583f Spermatic arteries, 453 Spermatid,565 Spermatocyst, 565 Spermatocytes, 565 Spermatogenesis, 565, 566f Spermatogonia, 565 Spermatophore, 106, 569, 573f Sperm production, in teleosts, 567f

776 Index

Sperm storage, in salamanders, 583f Sperm whales, 425b Sphenethmoid,237t Sphenodon, 107,111, 112f

axial musculature, 390f cloaca, 577 f dentition, 505f gastralia, 292 genital ducts (female), 564f intromittent organs, 571 pectoral girdle, 334f pineal complex, 682 skulls, 258, 260f, 261, 263f, 265 vestibular apparatus, 690f

Sphenoid bones, 237t, 243 Sphincter muscles, 384 Spinal accessory nerve, 626t, 627f,

629-30, 632t Spinal autonomic system, 637 Spinal cord, 642---43, 644f, 645f,

646f,646t Spinal nerves, 622-24 Spinal reflexes, 632-34, 642-43,

644f,645f Spinal tracts, 643, 645f, 646f, 646t Spine. See Axial skeleton; Neural

spine; Vertebrae Spinocerebellar tracts, 643 Spinocortical associations, 660 Spinothalamic tract, 661f Spiracle, 250, 420, 455 Spiracular pseudobranch, 420 Spiral cleavage, 49 Spiral valve, 471-72, 518 Splanchnic mesoderm, 165f, 166 Splanchrtocranium, 235, 236f,

237-41, 243t 285, 286f Splanchnopleure, 165f, 166 Splenials, 243 Splitting, 406 Spongy bone, 151, 179, 181f Squalene, 424 Squalus

appendicular skeleton, 327f axial skeleton phylogeny, 299f cranial musculature, 404f cranial nerves, 628f, 630f eyes, 677f skull phylogeny, 252f

Squamates, 111 cranial kinesis in, 261f hearts of, 475, 476f, 477 See also Lizards; Snakes

Squamosal bone, 241, 243 Squamosal-stapedial ligament, 696 Squamous cells, 176 Squirrels, 122. See also Flying

squirrels Stagnation lines, 358 Stance phase, 382 Stapedial muscle, 695 Stapes, 241, 274, 690, 692, 694 Stargazers, electric organs in, 367f Static fluids, 144, 145f Statics, 139 Stegocephali, 103 Stegosaurs, 113 Stem-amniotes, 107-8 Stem group, 29 Stenohaline animals, 551b, 553 Stereocilia, 176, 685 Stereoscopic vision, 155, 680 Stereospondylous vertebra, 289 Sterility, 581

Sternal (diaphragm), 429 Sternal plate, 292 Sternal rib, 292 Sternebrae, 292 Stemotherus minor, cutaneous

respiration of, 413f Sternum, 292, 293f Steroids, 591 Stigmata, 67 Stize, T. E., 660f Stolons, 68-69 Stomach, 497, 515-16, 517f, 519f,

521f, 532f, 533f Stomochord,57 Stomodeum,497,597 Strata, 34 Stratified epithelia, 176 Stratigraphy, 34, 36 Stratum basale, 209 Stratum compactum, 209 Stratum corneum, 211, 212f, 221

g Stratum externa, 226 Stratum germanitivum, 209 Stratum granulosum, 221 Stratum internum, 226 Stratum lucidum, 221 Stratum medium, 217, 226 Stratum spinosum, 221 Streamlining, 142, 143f, 310 Strength, 145, 146t

speed versus, 140f, 379f, 380f Streptostyly, 261 Stress

intermittent, 151 mechanical, 148--52

Stress trajectories, 151f Stretch reflex, 665, 667f Striatum, 655, 658 Stride length, 348 Stride rate, 348-49 Structural analysis, 709-10 Structural coupling, 712f Structural genes, 201 Structure

adrenal gland, 591-93 electroreceptors, 701, 703f eyes, 673-74, 675f hormonal control, 613, 614f kidneys, 538-40, 546-55 pancreatic islets, 595, 596f pineal complex, 682, 683f pituitary gland, 597, 598f, 598t reproductive system

(mammals), 556, 557f skeletal muscles, 369-70 thyroid gland, 585-87, 588f

Sturgeons, 99 alimentary canal of, 520f axial skeleton phylogeny, 297,

300f,301f cloacal and anal regions of, 57 6f genital ducts (male), 568f gill ventilation in, 423b oviducts of, 561f vestibular apparatus, 690f

Stumus, pectoral girdle of, 334f Styloichthys, 100-101 Styloid process, 246 Stylophora, 59-60 Stylopodium, 319 Suarischia, 112-13, 114f Subcardinal anastomosis, 462 Subcardinal veins, 462 Subclavian arteries, 453

Subclavian lymphatics, 489 Subclavian vein, 454, 460 Subcortical region, 653 Subgerminal space, 162f, 163 Subintestinal vein, 460 Sublingual glands, 524, 525 Submucosa, 513 Submucosal plexuses, 637 Subneural gland, 68 Subpallium, 655, 656f, 658 Subscapularis, 392, 395t Substantia nigra, 658 Subterranean animals, 363 Subunguis, 226f Subungulates, 122 Suction feeding, 253, 256f, 259f,

i 278, 279-80 Suction phase, 416 Sugars, 530 Sulci,654 Summation, 621 Superficial fascia, 208 Superficial musculature, 398f, 399f Superior colliculi, 651, 681 Superior region, 15-16 Supinators, 384 Supportive rods, 60 Supracardinal anastomosis, 462 Supracleithrum, 328, 334f Supracoracoideus muscles, 392,

395t,400f Supralabial glands, 524 Supraoccipital bone, 243 Suprarenal,593 Supraspinatus, 392, 395t Supratemporal bone, 243 Surangular bone, 243 Surface area, 126, 129, 130 Surface tension, 129f Surfactant, 415 Survival of the few, 4 Suspension feeding, 278--79, 280f Suspension-feeding organisms, 52 Suspension mucous feeding, 56f Suspension phase, 350, 352f Sluspensorium, 240, 253-54 Suspensory ligament, 674 Sustentacular cells, 667 Sutures, 184 Swallowing, 281 Swallows, 355, 356, 357f Sweet, Samuel S., 133f Swifts, 355 Swim bladders, 96, 411, 422,

423f,424 Swimming, 342-43

functional analysis of, 710 musculature and, 393b, 394b sharks, 389f

Swimming birds, appendicular skeleton of, 343f

Swing phase, 382 Symbranchus, air-breathing by, 414f Symmetrical gaits, 350 Symmetry, 15-16, 17f Sympathetic chain, 622 Sympathetic nervous system, 634,

635t, 636f Symphyses, 184 Symplectic bone, 241 Synapses, 621 Synapsids, 107, 118-24

cervical vertebrae of, 307f dermatocranium evolution, 260f

pectoral girdle, 333f pelvic girdle, 335f skull,107,267-68,270-75,

276-77f, 278f Synapticules, 60 Synarthroses, 184 Syncytiotrophoblast, 190 Syndesmosis, 184, 186 Synergists, 382 Synovial <;:apsule, 184 Synovial fluid, 184 Synovial joint, 184 Synovial membrane, 184 Synsacrum, 308, 309f Syntrophoblast, 190 Systeme Internationale (SI), 136 Systemic arches, 462f Systemic system, 460-62, 463f Systolic pressure, 447

Tabular bone, 243 Tachycardia, 467 Tadpoles, gill ventilation by, 426f Tailed frogs, 426, 581 Talons, 117,226 Tapetum lucidum, 674 Tapeworm, segmented body of, 17f Target tissues, 585, 614 Tarpon, 127f Tarsals, 335 Tarsiers, 122, 508f Tarsometatarsus, 339 Tassle-finned fish, 100 Taste buds, 670-71, 674f Taste pore, 670 Taxa,25,26~ 27-28 Taxonomists, 2 Taylor, David, 33f T-box gene, 322, 323 Tbx4, 322, 323 TbxS, 322, 323 Teat, 225 Tectorial membrane, 692 Tectospinal tract, 643 Tectum, 644,651, 653f Teeth, 21Of, 499-501, 504f, 505-9,

512b, 530f, 531b Tegmentum, 644, 651 Teiid lizard, dentition of, 505f Telencephalon, 644, 653-54, 655t,

658-59 Teleosts, 92, 96-102

adrenal tissues, 592f alimentary canal, 521 aortic arches, 456f appendicular musculature, 387 autonomic nervous system, 637f axial musculature of, 390f axial skeleton phylogeny,

297,300f branchial arches, 240t branchiomeric musculature, 403f calcium regulation, 591 CCK cells, 616f cloaca, 575 contraction cycle, 471f copulatory organs, 569 cutaneous respiration, 411 diversity and patterns, 716f embryonic development, 192 eyes,677f forebrain, 644 genital ducts (female),

561f,562

genital ducts (male), 566, 567f,568f

gill ventilation, 421f heart, 467, 470f, 4?1f kidneys, 546, 551 land, movement on, 442 midbrain, 645 muscle fibers, 382 nephrons, 547f ovaries, 561f pallium, 656 pectoral girdle, 333f pineal complex, 684f pituitary gland, 599t, 600 skulls, 254, 255f, 256f sperm production, 567f stomach,52lf suction feeding, 256f thyroid gland, 587, 588f urinary bladder, 581f vertebrae, 295f, 316f vestibular apparatus, 690f ~' visual accommodation, 679f

Teleost scale, 215 Telmatobius coleus, cutaneous

respiration in, 414f Telolecithal, 160 Temnospondyli, 104, 106f

lineage of, 303f, 305, 306 pectoral girdle of, 334f pelvic girdle of, 336f

Temporal arches (bars), 107 Temporal bone, 270, 274f Temporal fenestrae, 107, 258, 261f Temporalis, 401 Temporal notch, 106,242-43 Temporal series, 242-43 Tendons, 370 Tennyson, Alfred Lord, 496 Tensile force, 145, 146f, 370 Tensile strength, 145, 146f Tension-length curves, 371,

374,375f Tensor fascia latae, 393, 395t Teres minor, 392, 395t Terminal nerve, 626 Terminal web, 685 TelTestrial environment

appendicular skeleton and, 341-42

axial skeletons in, 311-12 breathing in, 438 dehydration in, 548b locomotion of, 304f, 306 vision in, 677, 679f water balance, 549f

Terrestrial feeding, 278-80 Terrestrial locomotion, 342,

343-45. See also Locomotion

Tertiary egg envelope, 161 Tertrapods, pelvic girdle of, 336f Test. See Tunic Testes, 565, 566f, 567f, 571f, 586t

castration of, 610b Testicular duct, 566 Testosterone, 565, 603, 605-6 Testudines, 109-10, 260f Testudo, shell of, 294f Tetraiodothyronine, 585-86 Tetrapods, 84, 102-7

alimentary canal, 521-24 appendicular musculature,

391-99

appendicular skeleton, 329, 330f,331-40

autonomic nervous system, 638 axial musculature, 389-91 axial skeleton, 296-97,303-9 cerebrospinal fluid and

meninges, 641f cloaca, 575, 577f ears, 693-94, 699 fore brain, 644 gaits, 345 genital ducts (female), 562, 564f genital ducts (male), 566,

567-68, 569f, 570f, 571f integument, 215-25 kidneys, 545-46 limbs, 324, 325f, 338f locomotion, 304f muscle homology, 385f nasal passages, 668, 669 pancreas, 528 pectoral girdle, 331, 332,

333f,334f pelvic girdle, 335f pituitary gland, 599f, 599t, 600 postcranial muscle

development, 385f respiratory system, 424 skull phylogeny, 256-57,

258f,259f splanchnocranium, 286f sterna, 293f swimming, 343 systemic arches, 462f terrestrial environment and, 310 tongue, 509, 510f urinary bladder, 579, 581 vertebra (embryonic

development),295f vertebral column, 288, 314

Thacher,]. K., 321, 322f Thalamus, 644, 651, 653 Thaliacea, 72, 73f Thamnophis, adrenal tissues of, 593f Theca, 606 Theca lutein cells, 606 Thecodonts, 112, 505 Thelodonts, 90, 91f Theory of specific nerve

energies, 666 Therapsids, 118-19, 120f

cervical vertebrae, 307f locomotion, 346, 348 pectoral girdle, 333f pelvic girdle, 335f, 336f secondary palates, 27 8f skulls, 258, 267, 271f supracoracoideus muscles, 400f temporal fenestrae, 261f vertebral column, 315f

Therian mammals, 119, 122 ear anatomy of, 692f pectoral girdle of, 333f urinary bladder of, 581

Theriodontia, skulls of, 271f Thermals, 356, 357f Thermoreceptors. See Infrared

receptors Theropods, 112, 114f Thescelosaurus, pelvic girdle of, 336f Thick filaments, 368 Thin filaments, 368 Third eye, 682 Third law of action/reaction, 138

Thompson, D'Arcy, 131 Thoracic lymphatics, 489 Thoracolumbar outflow, 634 Thoracolumbar region, 314 Thorax region, 31,5 Thread cells, 213 Thrinaxodon

cervical vertebrae of, 307f supracoracoideus muscles

of,400f Thrombus, 446 Thylacosmilidae, 512b Thymus, 589f

. Thyreophora, 114f Thyroid gland, 50f, 52, 590f Thyroid hormones, 585-89 Thyroid secretion and

mobilization, 588f Thyroid-stimulating hormone

(TSH), 587, 588f, 601, 612,613

Thyrotropin. See Thyroid-stimulating hormone

Thyroxine, 585 Tibialis anterior, 393, 395t Tidal ventilation, 410 Tidal volume, 410 Tiger keelback snake, 217b Tiger salamander, 196

alimentary canal of, 519f cutaneous respiration

of,413f Tiktaalik, 102 Time, 135-36 Tinamous, 116 Tines, 227 Tissue fluid, 489 Tissue response, to mechanical

stress, 148-52 Tissues

adrenocortical, 591, 592 f, 593 chromaffin, 591 connective, 174, 177-79 endocrine, 586t lymphatic, 491 nervous, 174 target, 585, 614

Titanophoneus, 120f Titanotheres, 133f Toads, 106

alimentary canal, 519f pancreatic islets, 595 toxic glands in, 217b vocalization by, 429b

Tongue, 509-10 Tongue bar, 55 Tongue flicking, in snakes, 673f Tonic fibers, 372-73 Tooth anatomy, 500 Tooth attachment, types of, 505f Tooth development, 501, 505 Toothed whales, 122 Tooth fractures, 147 Tornaria larva, 54-55, 58 Torpedo

electric organs in, 367f genital ducts (female), 563f genital ducts (male), 567f

Torques, 139-40 Torsion, 298 Tortoise, 11 0 Total group, 29 Total tension, 374 Toucans, 354

Index 777

Toxins birds,222b digestion of, 535 snakes and toads, 217b

Trabeculae, 152, 180, 235,467 Trabeculate, 467 Trachea, 410, 432 Traditional systematics, 27 Trailing foot, 350 Transcranial j0int, 261 Transducer, 664 Transfer, 416 . Transformation grids, 131, 133, 134f Transitional epithelium, 176-77 Transverse plane, 15 Transverse process, 290 Transverse septum, 192 Transverse tubules, 369 Transversospinalis,390-91 Transversus abdominis, 428 Trapezius muscle group, 391, 395t Triceps, 392, 395t Triceratops, 33f, 113 Trigeminal nerve (trigeminus),

626t, 628, 630f Triiodothyronine, 586 Trimming, 301 Trionyx

axial skeleton of, 308f skull of, 262f

Tripartite concept, of kidney organization, 541-43

Tripodal gait, 344f T riturus viridescens, thyroid and

parathyroid glands in, 590f

Trochlear nerve, 626,628, 630f, 632t Trophoblast, 163-64 Tropical catfish, accessory air­

breathing organs of, 411-12

Tropical frogs, 127f Tropical salamanders, 196 Tropidonotus, cloaca, 577 f Trot, 343, 344t 345,349, 351f Trout

cutaneous respiration, 413f differentiation in, 169f eyes, 678 fluid mechanics, 711f gastrulation in, 169f swimming specializations in,

393b,394b visual accommodation in, 680f

True horns, 227 True ribs, 292 Truncus arteriosus, 467 Trunk, 55 Trunk region, 288 Trunk vertebra, 291f, 300f, 311f Trypsin, 527 TSH. See Thyroid-stimulating

hormone Tuberculum, 291 Tuberous receptor, 701, 703f T ubotympanic recess, 511 Tubular, 52 Tubular exocrine glands, 177 Tubuli recti, 556 Tulerpeton, 104,336 Tuna

ram ventilation in, 415 swimming specializations in,

393b,394b thyroid glands in, 588f

778 Index

Tunic, 65-66 Tunica adventitia, 446 Tunica albuginea, 556 Tunica intima, 446 Tunica media, 446 Tunicates,65 Tunicin, 67 Turbanates,270 Turbinals,668 Turbinate bones, 488 Turkey, muscle fiber colors in,

371-72 Turtles, 109-10

alimentary canal, 519f axial skeleton, 308 cloaca, 577 f cutaneous respiration, 411, 413f fossoriallocomotion, 363 heart, 476f, 477 integument, 217 lymphatic vessels, 491f, 492f magnetic fields and, 705 manus, 338f mucus, 230 nitrogen elimination, 548 pectoral girdle, 333f, 334f, 392 penis, 571-72, 574f plastron, 292, 294f skulls, 261, 262f stomach, 521f thyroid glands, 588f venous vessels, 466f ventilation, 428, 431f visual accommodation, 679f

Turtle shell, 229f, 230 Tusks, 508 Twitch fibers, 372-73 Two-stroke buccal pump, 416, 417f Tympanic bulla, 270 Tympanic ear, 699 Tympanum, 690, 694 Type, diversity of, 715, 716f Typhlosole,518 Tyrannosaurus, 112, 127f, 336f

Ulnare,339 Ultimobranchial body, 589-90 Ultraviolet (UV) radiation, 671,

679-80 Umbilical arteries, 485 Umbilical vein, 485 Umbilical vessels, 188 Uncinate process, 292 Underfur,223 Undulatory locomotion, lateral, 304f Unguis, 226f Unguligrade posture, 348, 349f Unicellular gland, 177, 212 Unidirectional food flow, 257 Unidirectional ventilation, 409f Uniform pool, 434, 437f Unilaminar protoderm, 163 Unipolar neurons, 619, 620f Units, 136 Unmyelinated nerves, 619, 620f Upper jaw, 246 Upper temporal bar, 107 Up-regulation, 536 Upstroke, 353, 354, 355f Upstroke-downstroke transition,

353-54 Uranoscopus, electric organs in, 367f Ureotelism, 546, 547f Ureter, 539, 559f Ureteric diverticulum, 543

Urethra, 539 Uricotelism, 546, 547f Urinary bladder, 539, 579, 581 Urinary ducts, accessory, 566 Urinary system, 538

embryonic development, 540-43 evolution, 555-56 kidney function and structure,

546-55 kidney phylogeny, 544-46 kidney structure (mammals),

538-40 overview, 582-84

Urine, 538, 553b Uriniferous kidney, 559 Uriniferous tubule, 539 Urochordata, 65-72, 73f Urodela, 106, 596t Urodeles

genital ducts (male), 569f sternum, 293f

f) venous channels, 465f Urodeum, 522, 575 Urogenital papilla, 575 Urogenital ridge, 558f Urogenital sinus, 538, 575, 579f Urogenital system. See

Reproductive system; Urinary system

Uroproctodeal fold, 575 Uropygial gland, 218 Ussher, James, 9. Uterine cycles, in humans, 608f Uterus, 189f, 190f, 556,563-65,578 Utriculus, 688 Uvea, 673-74

Vagus nerve, 626t, 627f, 629, 632t,670

Vallecula, 512 Vane, 218 Varanid lizards, hemodynamics of,

478-80b Varanus, copulatory organs

in, 570f Varanus exanthematicus, heart of,

478b,480b Varanus niloticus, heart of, 47 8b Variation, 9-10 Vascular bone, 179 Vascularization, 209, 520 Vascular supply, within pituitary

gland,601f Vas deferens, 556, 559f Vasoconstriction, 447 Vasodilation, 447 Vasopressin, 600, 602f Vastus, 393, 395t Vault series, 242t, 243 Vectors, 137-38 Vegetal pole, 160 Veins, 446-49, 454 Velarfolds (velum), 418 Velar tentacles, 61 Velociraptors, 112 Velocity, 136-37, 143,379 Velocity ratio, 140 Velum,61 Venom gland, 525 Venous vessels, 460-66, 467f Ventilation, 409

birds, 436f ciliary pumps, 440 crocodilians,431f dogs, 433f

frogs, 427f hagfishes, 419f lampreys, 419f lizards, 428f locomotion and, 428, 432f, 434f mammals, 429-31, 433f, 434f muscular pumps, 440 perfusion and, 437, 43 8f sharks, 420f sturgeons, 423b tadpoles, 426f teleost,421f turtles, 428, 431f .see also Respiratory system

Ventilatoryinechanisms, 415-18, 443f

Ventral abdominal vein, 466 Ventral aorta, 451 Ventral arches, 288 Ventral blood vessel, 57 Ventral branchial muscles, 400 Ventral horns, 642 Ventral lobe, 598-99 Ventral mesentery, 165f Ventral muscles, 391, 393-94, 395t Ventral pancreatic diverticulum, 527 Ventral ramus, 388 Ventral region, 15 Ventral ribs, 291 Ventral roots, 622, 634 Ventral thalamus, 651, 653 Ventricles, 450, 639, 640f Ventro-bronchi,432 Venules, 446f, 447 Vermiform appendix, 523 Verne, Jules, 441b Verrell, P., 573f Vertebrae, 12, 81

components of, 288-90 design of, 311-13 embryonic development

and,200f See also Axial skeleton

Vertebral column, 81-82, 287, 309 deSign of, 310f

. form and function, 309-16 regionalization of, 313-16 regions of, 288

Vertebral rib, 292 Vertebral segment, 288 Vertebrate archetype, 13f Vertebrate design. See Design;

Form; Function; Morphology; Structure

Vertebrate morphology. See Morphology

Vertebrates, 80 agnathans, 84--91 amniotes, 107-24 classification, 84 diversity of, 81f gnathostomes,92-95 innovations, 81-82 origin of, 82-84, 555-56 teleosts, 96-102 tetrapods, 102-7

Vessels arterial, 455-60, 461f, 462f blood, 446f lymphatic, 489-91, 492f venous, 460-66, 467f See also Arteries; Capillaries;

Veins Vestibular apparatus, 687-88, 689f,

690f,698f

Vestibular epithelium, 688 Vestibule, 668 V-formation flying, 359, 360f Viagra,572b Vibrissae, 120, 223 Villi,516 Viperid snake, venom gland in, 525f Vipers, striking features of, 267b Visceral cranium. See

,Splanchnocranium Visceral ganglia, 67, 623 Visceral muscles, 367 Visceral nerves, 621, 6221, 626t Visceral reflex arc, 633, 639 Visceral sensory organs, 664 Visceral skeleton, 387 Viscosity, 143 Visual accommodation, 676-78,

679f,680f Visual perception, 681-82, 683f Vitelline membrane, 160 Vitelline veins, 187,460 Vitellogenin, 160 Vitreal chamber, 674 Vitreous body, 674 Viviparity, 161,582 Viviparous vertebrates, 161 Vocalization

amphibians, 429b humans, 504b

Volkmann's canal, 181f Volume, 126, 129, 130-31, 144 Voluntary muscles, 367 Vomer bone, 243 Vomeronasal area, 669-70, 673f Vomeronasal organ, 509, 668,

669,673f Von Baer, Karl Ernst, 199 Von Baer's law, 199

Vortices, 359, 360f Voyage of the Beagle, The (Darwin), 4f Vultures, flight of, 356

Wake, D., 510f Walk,351f Wallace, A R., 7-8, 9, 10 Walls, G. A, 677f, 679f, 686b Walruses, teeth of, 508f Warblers, adrenal tissues of, 593f Warrens, 363 Water

breathing in, 438 feeding in, 278-80 vision in, 678, 679f See also Fluid environment

Water balance, 548-53 Waterbirds, lifestyles of, 116f Water conservation, 551-52 Water conservers, 549 Water elimination, 550-51 Water flea, 127f \I

Water fluxes, 549 Waterfowl, flight of, 356 Water moccasin, skull of, 266f Water pressure, 145f Water-to-land transition,

440--443 Water ventilation, through dual

pump, 415-16 Watt, 137 Watt, James, 137 Wax glands, 224 Weasels, fossoriallocomotion, 363 Weberian ossicles, 693 Weddell seals, jaws of, 277, 279f Weight, 137 Weight disttibution, 142f Weijs, W. A, 41f

Wells, G. P., 127f Wells, H. G., 127f Whalebone. See Baleen Whales, 122, 127f

axial skeletons, 315f baleen, 229 blowholes, 425b diversity and patterns in, 716f evolution of, 282b, 283b heat transfer, 488 stomach,521f teeth,508f

Wheel organ, 60 White matter, 642, 646f White muscles, 367, 382, 383f Whole muscle force generation,

373-74 Whole muscle tension-length

curves, 374, 375f Wilbur, Bryan, 60f Wing-assisted inclined running

(WArR), 363 Wing design, 356f Wing shape, 357f Wisdom of God Manifested in the

Works of the Creation, The (Ray), 5

Wolffian duct, 558, 559f Wolff's Law, 152 Woodburne, R. T., 641f Woodpeckers

adrenal tissues, 593f tongue protrusion in, 51 Of

Woolly mammoths, 30-31 Woolly monkey, alimentary canal

of,519f Work,137 Worms

acorn, 54f, 55, 56f, 57,58

segmentation of, 17 Woven bone, 179 Wulst, 658

Xenarthra, 123-24 Xiphihumeralis, 392 Xiphisternum, 292 Xiphoid cartilage, 292

Yarrell, William, 64b Yaw, 320 Yolk, 163, 164f, 497 Yolk accumulation, 160t Yolk platelets, 160 Yolk sac, 167, 187, 188t Yolk sac placenta, 189 Yolk stalk, 497 Young, Bruce A, 40f Younginiformes, skulls of, 261 Yunnanozoon, 87

Zebra fish, discoidal cleavage in, 163f Zebras, alimentary canal of, 519f Zeugopodium, 319 Zona fasciculata, 594 Zona glomerulosa, 594 Zonal bone, 179 Zona pellucida, 160, 164f Zona reticularis, 594 Zooid,58 Zygantrum, 308 Zygapophyses, 290 Zygomatic arch, 267 Zygomatic gland, 526 Zygorthiza, axial skeletons in, 315f Zygosphene, 308 Zygotes, 160, 162f

Index 779