Exam ReviewFeb 12, 2013

OutlineChapters 1-4Outline of things I find interestingFeel free to ask any questionsI do not know what will or will not be on the

exam

Chapter 1Methods of InquiryScientific MethodPseudoscience

Methods of InquiryHow do we know things?AuthorityUsing our ReasonExperience

Experience WARNING! – Social Cognition biases. Ways in which the way we experience the

world could bias what we learn from it. Belief Perseverance

Being stubborn about a belief that is often reinforced Examples? Sports teams? Iphone.

Confirmation Bias Only looking for and attending to data that supports our current beliefs Examples? Reporters only interviewing people who share the point of view they are reporting

on. We read magazines and papers that we know support our beliefs. Availability Heuristic

When we overestimate the importance of a rare or weird event. Examples? Changing answers on multiple choice exams. Friends calling when you are thinking

about them.

Scientific MethodHow is Science different from the other ways of

knowing?Researchers assume determinism and discoverability.

What are these things?Events have causes (one event determines the next)

and these causes can be discovered.What about free will, fate, etc???Statistical Determinism – Causes can be determined

with a probability greater than chance but less than 1.

Scientific Method Science is objective or public. Everyone can know it Objectivity vs. Introspection. Science produces data-based conclusions Conclusions come AFTER data is collected. Scientists expect conclusions to be supported by objective information

gathered systematically. Example? Conclusions are tentative. They are based the current data and will be

thrown out when they are no longer supported by data. Do you see how the social biases are not an issue with the scientific

method? Does this mean there are no biases in Science?

Scientific MethodA few more pointsQuestions must be answerable.Example?What am I thinking? A question for science? Why or

why not?Falsifiability. There must be an outcome that will falsify

your hypothesis/theory/conclusion.Example? All humans speak English.

Pseudoscience What is Pseudoscience? Something that seems “sciency” but on closer inspection is not. Example? Mythbusters. Phrenology (text example). Often associates with true science. Phrenology had journals, faculty

positions, etc. Relies almost exclusively on anecdotal evidence. Stories and hearsay. Problem with anecdotal evidence? Effort Justification – If I invest my

time or money I am more likely to report a positive outcome purely to save face.

No real data. 3/5 Dentists recommend…

PseudoscienceSidesteps DisproofAll negative outcomes are explained away with on the

fly adjustments to the theory.Often predictions made by pseudoscience theories are

kept unspecific so as not to be directly proven wrong.Oversimplify concepts. A phrenologist may claim that

one part of the skull represents submissiveness. How is this different from true science? Is Psychology a pseudoscience?

Chapter 2 - Ethics What is Ethics? A set of standards governing the conduct of a person or the

members of a profession. Why do we need it? 3 examples from the txt Watson – Little Albert McGraw – Pin Pricks Dennis – Twin Isolation Study What was the problem?

Ethics.What was done?APA asked people to contribute Critical Incident

reports. These were reviewed. APA then proposed guidelines for ethical research in Psychology.

First published in 1953, continuously revised, most recently in 2002.

EthicsThe APA 5 general principles

Beneficence and Non-Malfeasance – Must weight the positives against the negatives, and maximize the benefits

Fidelity and Responsibility – Obligates researchers to be constantly aware of their responsibility to society and to always act with the highest standards of professionalism

Integrity- Compels researchers to be honest in all aspects of the process

Justice – Obligates researchers to treat everyone involved with fairness and maximum expertise with no bias

Respect for people’s rights and Dignity – you must be vigorous in how you safeguard your volunteers’ rights

Research with HumansInstitutional Review Board (IRB)Typically in place at all institutions that perform

research Minimum of 5 members, from multiple

disciplinesAt least one non-scientistApprove or deny research proposals based on

Ethics.They work well however they are not perfect.

Problems with IRBWhat are the problems?They lack an appeals process Studies can be refused for many reasons that

have nothing to do with ethics. Lack of understanding by some of the board members outside of the discipline.

Lack of consistency between IRB from different institutions.

Informed Consent and Deception

Subjects or Participants(?) must give signed consent to take part in a research study in most cases.

Not needed for naturalistic observation and anonymous questionnaires.

As researchers you are required to inform subjects about any risks, what is required of them, how they can exit the study, when they can exit the study, and any compensation they might receive

What about Deception?What is Deception?Is deception an necessary evil?Why or why not?Would the Milgram study have worked without

deception?

Informed Consent and Deception

Why do we need informed consent? Nuremburg Trials of Nazi Doctors that forced prisoners to be subjects

in brutal experiments. Not just the Nazis! Willowbrook hepatitis study. Tuskegee Syphilis Study MK-ULTRA CIA lsd experiments All three took severe advantage of unknowing and un-consenting

subjects, some with lethal consequences. What do you think, is it always necessarily bad to brutalize subjects?

We learned a lot of what we know about Syphilis and Hepatitis from those studies.

Consent from special populations.

What about Children or those that are institutionalized (prisons, home for seniors, mental institutions etc.)?

Society for Research in Child Development (SRCD) builds on and strengthens existing codes of conduct.

Children must give assent to participate This involves a verbal communication between the child and the researcher

which shows that the child understands what he is capable of understanding. SRCD also tells us when rewards can be offered and the limits on these

rewards. Rewards cannot be offered during the explaining of the protocol and they

cannot be different than what the child is already getting. Anything more could be considered coercion.

Infants and non-language users need fully informed consent from a guardian.

Consent for Special CasesPrisoners, residents in mental health facilitiesMust not feel coerced into participatingPrisoners often feel like if they refuse to

participate their parole board will find out and judge them harshly.

Rewards cannot be above and beyond any rewards that an inmate might have access to anyway. This is another form of coercion.

Treat Your Participants Well!

Participants Must be debriefedInformed about the real purpose of the study.

Although this can result in leakage in certain populations.

Deceptions revealedSteps are taken to alleviate any remaining

stressesConfidentiality must be ensured

Animal Research Why use animals for research? Institutional Animal Code and Use Committee (IACUC) Very similar to IRB It ensures that animals are used, and maintained in a way that meets

the APA guidelines: Studies must be Justified. Justification requirements go up as

discomfort to the animal increases. Caring for Animals. Husbandry must be performed to the highest level. Animals for Educational purposes. IACUC attempts to keep animals

being used purely for education at a minimum. It is better to use one animal, video tape him and then show the video over and over as opposed to using a new animal for each lesson.

Scientific FraudWhat is scientific fraud?“deception deliberately practiced in order to

secure unfair or unlawful gain”Plagiarism and Falsifying data.Usually discovered when other labs attempt to

replicate a study, or data is requested.

Chapter 3 – Ideas in Psychology

Where do our Ideas come from?What kind of research is done in Psychology?Basic vs. Applied, Lab vs. Field, Quantitative vs.

Qualitative.

Varieties of ResearchBasic vs. Applied?Basic research looks at fundamental systems in

Psychology. Sensation and Perception, Memory, Vision, etc.

Applied research looks for solutions to real-world problems. How do lighting conditions change the work habits of shift workers.

Is one more valuable?

Varieties of ResearchLaboratory vs. Field Work?Lab work is done in the lab under controlled

conditions. Field work is done in real world dynamic

conditions.Is this real vs. artificial?Is one better than the other?

Varieties of ResearchQuantitative vs. QualitativeQuantitative is research where data can be

represented by numbers and operated on like numbers.

Examples?Reaction time, speed, spike timing…Qualitative is a bit more elusive to define, but

usually involves research where findings are reported as case studies.

Where do researchers get ideas?

Observation, Serendipity, TheoriesSerendipity?The act of discovering something while looking

for something else.Examples?Edge detectors in cats.This is why looking at your data is VERY

important.

Where do researchers get ideas?

Observation?Noticing something in the world and then

developing research to explain it.Examples?Gravity? Zeigarnik Effect was discovered after a scientists

saw how German waiters could remember a tables order right up until the bill was created.

This is why most scientists keep journals!

Where do researchers get ideas?

Theories – Test, modify, falsify.In Psychology what is a theory?Set of logically consistent statements that 1)

best summarizes empirical knowledge, 2) Organizes this knowledge in the form of precise statements of relationships among variables, and 3) Serve as the basis for making predictions about behaviour.

TheoriesScientists collect data. How do data relate to theories?Deduction, Hypothesis, InductionDeduction is the act of reasoning from a set of general

statements to a specific outcomes (Theory->Data)

Hypothesis is the prediction about specific outcomes resulting from deduction. (Theory+Data)->New Data

Induction is the reasoning from specific events to general theories. (Data+New Data) -> Theories

Theories What makes a theory a ‘good’ theory? Productivity, Falsification, Parsimony Productivity - Does a theory actually produce new

knowledge? Gravity, Quantum Mechanics, vs Phrenology? Falsification – Can a theory be disproven? When a theory is

well formed it is immediately clear how it could be disproved. All birds are black. How would I falsify this? Parsimony – A theory is usually seen as superior if it contains

the fewest possible statements or constructs. Electromagnetism.

MisunderstandingsTheories cannot be proved. The can only

acquire more and more data that support them.Theories are a “working truth” about some

phenomenon.Theories are not facts, they explain facts. Fact when I let go of my pencil it falls towards

the planet. The theory of gravity is our best explanation of that fact.

QuestionsThis is where you as questions and I attempt to

answer them.