UNIT I

ENVIRONMENT ENVIRONMENT ECOSYSTEM AND ECOSYSTEM AND BIODIVERSITYBIODIVERSITY

ENVIRONMENT

DEFINITIONSEnvironment: All living and non-living things around us influencing one another.Environmental science (or) environment study: It is the study of the environment, its biotic and abiotic components and their interrelationship.Environmental engineering: It is the application of engineering principles for the protection and enhancement of the quality of the environment which also promotes the public health and welfare.Universe:It is the matter and energy spread in space without any known boundary. As per bang-bang theory, 15 billion years old.Earth:Formed from Planetesimals and is 4.5 billion years old. Life on earth is 3.5 billion years old (originally single cell organism formed). Man appeared about 50 million years ago.Contains-Inner core (1270 km), outer core (2200 km), Lower mantle (2500 km), upper mantle (360 km), Crust (40 km).

BIOSPHERE

It is the part of lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere where living beings exist.Types of environment:(1) Natural (2) Man-made.Components of environment:(1) Abiotic (2) Biotic (flora, fauna and microbes) (3) Energy (different forms).

STRUCTURE OF ATMOSPHERETroposphere-up to 6-18 km ht (+53o to -73oC)Stratosphere- up to 50 km ht (-73o to +17oC)Mesosphere-50-90 km ht (+17o to -73oC)Thermosphere-90-800 km ht. (-73o to +23oC)Air-Composition:N2-78.084%O2-20.946%Ar-0.934%CO2-0.0383%Ne-0.001818%He-0.000524%CH4-0.0001745%Kr-0.000114%H2-0.000055%N2O-0.00003%Xe-0.09 ppmvO3-0-0.07 ppmvNO2-0.02 ppmvI2-0.01 ppmvCO-0.1 ppmvNH3-Tr.

LITHOSPHERELithosphere includes the crust and the uppermost mantle, which constitute the hard rigid outer layer of the planet. It extends from 0 to 70-100 km depth. Contains rocks and soil; it constitutes 99% by weight of earth; contains about 12 elements. Only 10-12 minerals constitute 99% of earth’s surface.

Feldspar-58%Pyroxene-16%Quartz-13%Micas-4%Types of rocks:(1) Igneous rocks - cooling of molten rock-magma.(2) Sedimentary rock - Weathering of rocks(3) Metamorphic rock - (Igneous rock + sedimentary rock Subjected to intense heat and pressure)

HYDROSPHEREOcean-97.6%Ice-1.87%Groundwater-0.5%Rivers, streams, lakes, ponds-0.01%

Soil moisture -0.0001%.Element ppm

Lithium 0.17Boron 4.5Fluorine 1.3Sodium 10800Magnesium 1290Phosphorus 0.09Sulfur 904Chlorine 19400Potassium 392Calcium 411Arsenic 0.003Bromine 67Rubedium 0.12Strontium 8.1Iodine 0.06Cesium 0.0003Barium 0.02

Lentic aquatic system-Static water.Lotic aquatic system-Flowing water.

LAKES SEALittoral CoastalLimnetic Euphotic zone

Profoundal Bathyal zoneBenthic Abyssal zone

SCOPE AND IMPORTANCE OF EVS: 1. Gain knowledge and experience; collect and consolidate all information about nature, environment and mankind and their interdependency.2. Realize our responsibilities and duties towards nature and environment.3. Inculcate social values and strong feelings of our oneness with environment. 4. Environment protection, improvement, prevention of pollution and reuse and recycling of wastes.5. Develop skills and knowledge to identify and solve environmental problems; conduct trainings, seminars, workshop, conferences etc.6. Implement environment related programs in terms of ecological, social, economic, aesthetic and educational factors. 7. Promote local, national and international cooperation among people in environment related activities.8. Know the potential and demand of natural resources; maintain an equilibrium; preserve for future generations.9. Action for formulating and enforcing laws and legislations.10. Improve the health and quality of life.

NEED FOR ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS1. Protect atmosphere (action against global warming, ozone depletion)2. Protect land resources (tackle desertification, drought, deforestation).3. Check environment degradation (Climate change, soil erosion etc.)

4. Control and prevent pollution.5. Industrial, urban wastes management- treatment-reuse and recycle.6. Prevent water pollution7. Conserve biological diversity8. Promote public participation.9. Enact laws and legislations.10. Forestation11. Realize the need for Population control

PUBLIC PARTICIPATION1) Pressure Groups2) Watch dog3) Advisory Council4) Enforcing environmental laws5) Eco clubs in Colleges and Schools4) Service through NSS5) Service through SHGs and Women’s Groups

IMPORTANT CONFERENCES ON ENVIRONMENT1970-EPA (USA)1972-Conference on human environment-Stockholm1992-Earth summit (Rio de jeneiro)1994-Population and development conference (Cairo).

BIOSPHERE – Diagram.ppt

ECOSYSTEM

It is understood by (1) Flow diagram for the structure and components(2) Characteristics and functions of eco system(3) Energy flow(4) Ecological succession(5) Tropical levels(6) Food chain(7) Food web

(8) Food pyramid.(9) Nutrient cycle-C,N,P.(10) Ecological succession(11) Key stone species(12) Tropical levels

(1) Eco system-Flow diagram (ppt-see)

(2) Characteristics & Functions of eco system1) Biotic & abiotic components interact and intercirculate matter and energy2) The primary source of energy is sun3) Energy transfer takes place from one tropic level to another tropic level through food chain4) Energy flow is unidirectional5) Climate change influences the eco system6) Local and regional shifts in energy, materials and population have effects on the eco system7) Rational use of resources maintains the equilibrium/stability of te eco system8) High temp and rainfall accelerates decomposition of dead organic matter (cyclic transfer of matter and energy is quick)9) It has three types of functions(i) Primary function: Production (photosynthesis of starch)(ii) Secondary function: Distribution of energy (in the form of food to all consumers)(iii) Tertiary function: Destruction (decomposition leading to cycling of resources).

(3) Energy Flow:(i) Energy flow is unidirectional:Sun Earth; Earth XSun.50% absorbed in atmosphere

1% of the sunlight falling on plants is utilized by photosynthesis(ii) I Law: Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed (light and heat)Solar energy Chemical energy

CO2 + 2 H2O + energy CH2O+O2+H2O(iii) II Law: During energy transfer there is increase in entropy and decrease in the amount of useful energy.i.e. Concentrated energy DissipatedEnergy transfer from one level to another level is accompanied by energy losses.When energy is transferred there is a loss of energy as heat energy E.g. Respiration, running, all manual works.

Flow of Energy (Relationship betn Structure and functions-Flow model):Flow of energySun Plant Animal

Bacteria Plant.

(4) Ecological succession T1T2T3T4T5T1-Green plant (algae, palnts)T2-Herbivores (Primary consumers-insects, rat, goat, deer, cow, horse)T3- Carnivores (secondary consumers-frog, cat, snake, fox etc.)T4-Carnivores (Tertiary consumers-tiger, lion, eagle)T5-Decomposers (bacteria, fungi, virus)

5) Food Chain:Defn: The sequence of food energy from the plants through a series of organisms is referredto as food chain.(a) Grassland: Plants (producer) rat (herbivore) Snake (primary consumer) Eagle (secondary consumer)

(b) Pond: Phyto plankton (producer Zoo plankton (primary consumer) Small fish (secondary consumer Large fish (secondary consumer Snake (Tertiary consumer.© Forest: Plant (producer) Deer (Primary consumer Tiger (secondary consumer)Types of Food chain(1) Grazing food chain(2) Detritus food chainGrazing: Green plants Herbivores (i) Terrestrial (plant butterfly frog Snake Hawk) (ii) Aquatic (phytozoosmall fishbig fishshark) Carnivores Decomposers.Detritus: (i) Dead organic matter Herbivores Carnivores Decomposer(ii) Mangrove leaves Detritus feeding organism Micro organisms Crabs and shrimps Small fish Big fish.Energy flow in food chain:(i) Grassland:Producer (Grass) (i) Grazing food chain (50% energy flow) - Herbivores (rat) Carnivores (snake) carnivores (eagle) (ii) Detritus food chain (50% energy flow) - Decomposers (bacteria) Carnivores (soil animal) Carnivores (soil animal)(ii) Forest:Producer (Grass) (i) Grazing food chain (10% energy flow) - Herbivores (deer) Carnivores (lion) (ii) Detritus food chain (90% energy flow) - Decomposers (bacteria) Carnivores (soil animal).Tropic level:T1T2T3T4T5Grass Grass hopper Frog Snake EagleSignificance of food chain:

(1) Shorter Food Chain:

CARBON CYCLE1) Atm Plants

2) Plants Animals

3) Plants & animals Soil (decayed matter or Fossil)4) Plant & animals Atm

5) Fossil Atmosphere

6) Atm Hydrosphere (sea & ocean-carbonates)7) Carbonates Shells and corals

8) Rocks Soil

9) Volcano Atm.

NITROGEN CYCLE1) Atm Soil

2) Atm Fertilizers Soil

3) Atm Soil

4) Atm Hydrosphere (water bodies)5) Soil Plants Animals6) Plants and animals Org. N2

NH3 NO2

NO3

7) NO3 Plants

8) NO3 N2 (air)

9) Volcano NO2 (air)

10) Fertilizer water bodies Loss to sediments11) Animals Protein, amino acids (organic nitrogen)

PHOSPHORUS CYCLE1) Phosphate rocks Fertilizers Rocks

2) Soil Plants Animals

3) Plants&Animals Soil

4) Plants Birds Excreta (Guano

deposits) Soil

5) Animals Excreta Soil

6) Soil Water bodies

Eutrophication Sediments

7) Sea Fish Soluble P.

BIODIVERSITYBio-lifeDiversity-varietyDefn: It is the variety and variability among all groups of living organisms and the ecosystem in which they occur.Significance: (1) man’s dependency on variety of living things (2) Cleaning and scavenging of air and water and protecting productive land (maintaining the equilibrium of ecosystem). (3) Fields of forestry, fishery, agriculture etc. (different activities). (4) Loss of diversity – leading to economic and social costs.Loss of Biodiversity:1) Since hybrid varieties are promoted, native varieties become extinct.2) Use of various types of drugs from wild plants-these plants become extinct3) Forest land lost due to agriculture, mining and logging.E.g. Taxus baccate – tree in sub Himalayan region, now endangered.Levels/Classification:1) Genetic diversity: It is the diversity within species (variation of genes within species E.g. different rice varieties, teak wood varieties.2) Species diversity: It is diversity between different species (plant/animal/fungus)

3) Community (or) Ecosystem diversity: It is the diversity at the ecological or habitat level E.g. Large regions with different eco systems; River and forest eco system within one region.

VALUES OF BIODIVERSITY1) Consumptive use value: These are direct use values when biodiversity products are harvested and consumed directly. E.g. Food, medicines, fuel etc.(a) Food: 80-90% food crops domesticated from wild plants(b) Drugs: 70% modern medicines derived from plants (20000 plant species medically useful).Germany-2500 used in homeopathyIndia-3000 used in Ayurveda, homeo and unani.E.g. Penicillin, streptomycin, tetracycline (all three antibiotic); quinine (malaria), Diosgenin (birth control), Reserpine (hyper tesnsion), morphine (analgesic-pain killer).(c) fuel: Fire woods.2) Productive use (commercial use): silk, wool, leather, tusk, musk.3) Social value: Useful relating to social life, religion and spiritual aspects-Tulsi, lotus/cow, snake.4) Ethical value: By custom –consciousness to conserve nature-Holy river Ganga, Vembu, Tulsi.5) Aesthetic value: Concern and interest for beauty, Eco tourism.6) Option value: Biotechnology, control of AIDS, any future use.

I. GLOBAL DIVERSITYThere could be anywhere from 5 million to 100 million species on the planet, but science has only identified about 1.56

million.

SpeciesNo. of species

VERTEBRATE ANIMALSMammals 5416Birds 9956Reptiles 8240Amphibians 6199INVERTEBRATE ANIMALSInsects 950000Molluscs 81000Crustaceans 40000Corals 2175Others 130200PLANTSFlowering plants (Angiosperms)

258650

Conifers (gymnosperms) 980Ferns and horsetails 13025Mosses 15000Red and green algae 9671OTHERSLichens 10000Mushrooms 16000Brown algae 2849

TOTAL 1559361

MAMMALS YEARS

Elephant 69

Horse 50

Hippopotamus 49

Chimpanzee 40

Grizzly Bear 32

Bison 30

Lion 30

Tiger 25

Elk 22

Mountain Lion 20

Beaver 19

Wolf 16

Squirrel 16

Chipmunk 12

Cottontail 10

House Mouse 4

REPTILES

Giant Tortoise 152

Box Turtle 123

Alligator 68

Snapping Turtle 57

Cobra 28

Cottonmouth 21

BIRDS

Turkey Buzzard 118

Swan 102

Parrot 80

Great Horned Owl 68

Eagle 55

English 23

Canary 22

Humming Bird 8

AMPHIBIANS

Giant Salamander 55

Toad 36

Bullfrog 30

Mud Puppy 23

Green Frog 10

Newt 7

FISH

Catfish 60

Eel 55

Carp 47

Mosquitofish 2

INSECTS

Cicada 17

Ant (queen) 15

1) Terrestrial Biodiversity:E.g. Tropical rain forest, Savana desert

(a) Tropical rain forests: Largest storehouse of biodiversity, 75% global diversity(i) Medicinal plants: 25% medicinal plants growing; 3000 plants for cancer fighting; 70% of these are in tropical rain forests.(ii) Flowering plants: 130000 flowering plants available (we know only 1-3% of them).Protection: Silent valley project in Kerala abandoned.(b) Temperate forests: Flowering plants-170000;Vertebrates-30000;Other species-250000.2) Marine diversity: Much richer than terrestrial (but less known); 34 of 35 existing pyla of multicellular animals.

II. NATIONAL LEVELNo. Area Geographical

habitat1. Trans

Himalayan5.7%

2. Himalayan mountains

17.0%

3. Desert 6.9%4. Semi arid 15.6%5. Western ghat 5.8%6. Deccan

peninsula4.3%

7. Gangetic plain 11.0%India ranks –(1) Plant rich countries – 10th

(2) Endemic species – 11th

(3) Agricultural crops – 6th

Species: Tulsi, Indian sandal wood, Indian tobacco, Edible mushroom, Ornamental plants, Flowers, Fruits

Some species of India:Species Nos.

Flowering plants 20000Insects 67000Fishes 1460Birds 1200Reptiles 420Mammals 340

Due to the wide range of climatic conditions, India holds rich variety of flora that no other country can boost of. India covers more than 45,000 species of flora, out of which there are several species that are not found anywhere else. Since ancient times, use of plants as a source of medicines has been the inherent part of life in India. There are more than 3000 officially documented plants in India that holds great medicinal potential. India comprises of seven percent of world's flora. Indiais divided into main eight floristic regions namely - Western Himalayas, Eastern Himalayas, Assam, Indus plain, Ganga plain, the Deccan, the Malabar and the Andamans.

India has some of the world's most biodiverse regions. The political boundaries of India encompass a wide range of ecozones—desert, high mountains, highlands, tropical and temperate forests, swamplands, plains, grasslands, riverine areas as well as island archipelago. It hosts three biodiversity hotspots: the Western Ghats, the Eastern Himalayas, and the hilly ranges that straddle the India-Myanmar border. These hotspots have numerous endemic species.

INDIAN FLORA AND FAUNAIndia boasts a wide variety of flora and fauna which are diversified in nature

and which depend upon the geography of the region.FAUNA

There are around 500 varieties of mammals, 2000 species of birds and 30,000 types of insects and a wide variety of fish, amphibians and reptiles are found in the country according to the latest census estimate.

Popular mammals include the Elephant, the famous white lions and some common lions, the Royal Bengal Tiger, Rhinos, Wild Bisons some varieties from the cat family, deer, monkeys, wild goats, etc. Elephants are found in the sparsely populated hill areas of Karnataka, Kerala and Orissa.

ELEPHANTS ON THE MOVE INMUDUMALAI SANCTUARY, TAMILNADU

INDIA'S FAME THE ONE-HORNED RHINO

Lions are found in the rocky hills and forests of the Gir area of Gujarat, Tigers in the Sunderbans and the Brahmaputra valley. The famous Project

Tiger is a scheme financed by the government of India to safeguard the tiger in its habitat in nine selected reserves. Indian Fauna also include the wild ass of Rajasthan, Nilgiri Langur, Lion-tailed macaque, Nilgiri mongoose and Malaber civer of the southern hills and the spotted deer. Leopards are found in many forests, Wolves roam the open country. Cheetahs are found in the Deccan plateau.

KING OF ANIMALS - THEMAJESTIC LION

A huge number of snake varieties, lizards and crocodiles account for the reptile count. Snakes include the deadly King cobras to the equally poisonous Kraits. Scorpions and insects are aplenty in this country. Disease carrying mosquitoes and destructive locusts are to be found. Useful insects include the bees, silkworms and the Lac insect.

Bird-Life in India is rich and colorful. The birds include the beautiful Peacock to the Parrots, and thousands of immigrant birds. Other common Indian birds are pheasants, geese ducks, mynahs, parakeets, pigeons, cranes, and hornbills. India now maintains 80 national parks, 441 wildlife sanctuaries and 35 zoological gardens.FLORA

Thanks to its wide range of climatic conditions, India has a rich variety of vegetation that no other country in this world can boast of. According to the distribution of the flora, India can be classified into, Western Himalayas, Eastern Himalayas, Assam, Indus Plain, Ganga Plain, Deccan, Malabar and the Andamans.

Indian flora varies from the Western Himalayan and Assamese, from the species of the Indus Plain to those of the gangetic plain, from the Deccan and Malabari to the vegetation of the Andamans. The floral wealth ranges from the Alpine to the temperate thorn, from the coniferous to the evergreen, from scrubs to deciduous forests, from thick tropical jungles to cool temperate woods.

The Western Himalayan region is abound in Chirpine and other conifers deodar, blue pine, spruce, silver fir, and junipers. The Eastern Himalayan region consists of oaks, laurels, maples,

rhododendrons, alder, and birch and dwarf willows. The Assam region is full of evergreen forests with lots of bamboo and tall grasses.

The Indus plain supports very scanty vegetation and the Ganges Plain is under cultivation. The Deccan region is full of scrubs and mixed deciduous forests. The Malabar region is under commercial crops like coconut, betel, pepper, coffee and tea. Andaman region is abounding in evergreen and mangrove forests.

India's original vegetation was mainly deciduous forest because of her tropical location. It is unfortunate that the forest cover has been reduced to 13% of the total surface area.

Of the deciduous trees Sal and Teak are the most important. Sal is found in eastern India and it is used for buildings because it is resistant to termites and fire. Deodars, Pines, cedars, firs ands spruce are found in the foothills of the Himalayas. Sandalwood is found in Karnataka and Tamilnadu. Coconut palms are dominant in Kerala.

MUNNAR TEA PLANTATIONSCrops native to IndiaRice, sesame, cotton, safflower, cucumber, eggplant, banana, Mango, pepper, tea, cardamom and citrus fruits.

Crops, which were introduced into IndiaWheat, maize, grams, jute, potato, carrot, cabbage, spinach, soyabeans, watermelon, tobacco, mustard, cashew, coffee, rubber, sapota, guava, custard apple, walnut, papaya, apple, pear, pomegranate, litchi, coconut and cinnamon.

A little less than 5% of India’s total area is formally classified under protected areas. India is home to several well known large mammals including the Asian Elephant, Bengal Tiger, Asiatic Lion, Leopard and Indian Rhinoceros.

There are about 2546 species of fishes (about 11% of the world species) found in Indian waters. About 197 species of amphibians (4.4% of the world total) and more than 408 reptile species (6% of the world total) are found in India. Among these groups the highest levels of endemism are found in the amphibians.There are about 1250 species of birds from India with some variations depending on taxonomic treatments accounting for about 12% of the world species.There are about 410 species of mammals known from India which is about 8.86% of the world species. The World Conservation Monitoring Centre gives an estimate of about 15,000 species of flowering plants in India.

III. LOCAL LEVEL(1) Point Richness: Refers to species at single point and in a given space.(2) Alpha richness: Refers to species in a small homogeneous areas.E.g. Species of Tunicates:Arctic water – 100

Temperate water – 400 Tropical seas – 600(3) Beta richness: Rate of change in species composition across different habitatsE.g. Ant species:North pole – 10Equatorial region – 2000(4) Gamma richness: It refers to the rate of change across large landscape.

IV. TAMILNADUDense forests like Kolli hills, Pachai malai and western ghats bordering Kerala are present.In western ghats, 1500 species of plants, 50 species of mammals and 90 reptiles are found.Anaimalai – elephantMundanthurai – TigerGuindy – DeerAdyar parkVedanthangal – bird sanctuary.Rich Flora and Fauna

Tamil Nadu is rich in flora and fauna and some of its major wildlife sanctuaries like Mudumalai, Anaimalai(Indira Gandhi W.S), Madras Crocodile Bank trust, Guindy national park, etc, are situated in the hills of the Western ghats providing home to elephants, tigers, bisons and a variety of monkeys and deers. There are more than 3000 plant species found in Tamil Nadu, out of which a majority are found in the mixed deciduous forests of this region.

MEGA BIODIVERSITYTwelve of the 170 countries have 70% of earth’s biodiversity.Countries: Australia, Brazil, China, Columbia, Equador, USA, India, Indonesia, Madagascar, Mexico, Peru, Dem. Rep of Congo.

They have selected few rich floral land and fauna zones.INDIA: One of 12 mega diversity countries.Animal species-89450-7.31%Plant-47000-10.8%Loss of Biodiversity (endemism)-33%Flowering plants-5000; Crop plants-166; Coral species-340; Crop species-167; Living organisms-200000; animals-75000 (including insects-5000);Several mangrove species and sea grasses available; Rice, mango, turmeric, ginger, sugarcane etc.-30000-50000 species.RED DATA BOOK (RED LIST)Catalogue of taxa facing risk of extinction Purpose: (i) awareness (ii) provide global index (iii) Identification of species at high risk of extinction (iv) Help for conservation (v) Information on International agreementsCritically endangered-44; endangered-54; vulnerable-143 species.India ranks 2nd for no. of threatened mammals; 6th for most no. of threatened birds.Endemic species-Pitchesw plantRed category-Taxus wallichinaENDEMIC SPECIESSpecies which are confined to particular area.Flower plants-33%; Fresh water fishes-53%; Ambiphians-60%; Reptiles-36%; Mammals-10%.

HOTSPOTS OF BIODIVERSITYHot spots: They are geographic areas which possess high endemic species and require higher priority for conservation.

2% land area is recognized as hot spots. About 50000 endemic species are found here.

Recognizing hot spots: (1) Richness of endemic species (2) Possess significant percentage of specialized/ rare species (3) Site under threat (4) Important gene pools of plants available (5) Contain at least 0.5% of endemic plant species.

Reasons for rich biodiversity in Tropics: (1) Stable climate (2) Warm temperature and high humidity (3) No single species dominates (equal opportunity for many species) (4) Rate of out-crossing high.

Global hot spots: (there are 25 hot spots – 2 of them are in India)(1) Meso American forests (2) Caribbean (3) Brazil’s Atlantic forest (4) Panama western Equador (5) Coastal chile (6) California Floristic (7) Madagascar (8) Coastal forest of Kenya (9) Western African forests (10) Philippines (11) Indo-Burma eastern Himalayas (12) South central Chile (13) South Western Australia (14) Newzeland (15) Polynesia (16) Western ghats (India-Srilanka).

Hot spots in India:(1) Eastern Himalayas (2) Western ghats.(1) Eastern Himalayas: Nepal, Bhutan, Sikkim, neighboring States of North India.35000 plant species found-30& of them endemic-wild plants of economic value available.(i) Species: Rice, banana, citrus, ginger, chilli, jute sugarcane.(ii) 63% mammals in India are in eastern Himalayas (iii) 60% birds in India are from north-east (iv) High wealth of fungi, insects, mammals, birds found.(2) Western Ghats: Maharastra, Karnataka, Kerala parts of Tamilnadu.

1500 endemic plant species available. 62% amphibians and 50% lizard species are endemic. Only 68% of original forests remaining-remaining destroyed.Plants: Ternstroemia, japonica, Rhododendion.Animals: Blue bird, lizard, hawk.

THREATS OF BIODIVERSITYCauses: (1) Disturbances in natural ecosystem (2) Pollution (3) Increase in population and human development activities.1. How Habitat loss occurs? (i) Deforestation (ii) Destruction of wetlands, estuaries, mangroves due to draining, filling and pollution (iii) Habitat fragmentation: Due to this, many wild animals and song birds are vanishing (iv) Use of raw materials: production of hybrid seeds destroys wild plants (v) Redn in habitat due to agriculture, industrialization and living (vi) loss of forests and land due to dams, hydroelectric projects (vii) grazing and hunting.2. Poaching (two types):Poaching is illegal hunting.(1) Subsistence poaching: (for self survival) (2) Commercial poaching: (for earning money)(i) Illegal hunting for meat, skin and internal organs (iii) Use as specimens, in medicine, hide, ivory, horn etc. (iv) Fish catch-100 million tones/yr (v) 632 species become extinct every year due to poaching (vi) Whale and fish stock used as food, oil (International Whale Commission) (vii) 400000 dolphins killed/yr (viii) Tiger population reduced from 100000 in 1950 to 7750 in 2009.Commercial Wild life products: Fur, horn, tusk, live specimens, herbal

products (ironically western countries are the major importers).e.g. (1) male gorilla (2) blue morpho butterfly (3) snow large egret (white plumes) (4) Blubber (lampcils) (5) Baleen (comb) (6) elephant feet (ashtray) (7) Bengal tiger (fur) (8) Bush meat (protein food for locals) (9) Dynamite fishing (10) Seahorse, star turtles.Remedy: (1) prevent hunting (2) avoid purchasing (3) Enforce laws strictly.3. Climate: Change in temp, rainfall, humidity-parks, wildlife reserves, wet lands and coral reef affected.4. Deforestation due to- (i) Pollution (ii) Cutting of wood for fuel (iii) More living space for human beings (iv) Forest fire (v) Green house effect.5. Urbanization: (i) Population growth (ii) Soil erosion (iii) Deeper wells (iv) Cause of more pollutionMAN-WILD LIFE CONFLICT(1) In Sambalpur, orissa: In 5 years time, 195 humans killed by elephants-in turn 95 elephants killed.(2) Kote, Chamrajnagar, Mysore: Elephants frequently intruding.(3) Use of explosives and barbed wires by humans kills many wild animals.(4) Man eating tigers killed 16 people in Royal Chitwan, national Park, Katmandu.Factors:(1) Shrinkage of forest cover (2) Human encroachment aggravates animals(3) Climate change and search for water(4) Injured animals are having the habit of attacking man(5) Forest dept. previously cultivated sugar cane, paddy, coconut trees for animals; this is not practiced now.(6) Cash compensation inadequate

(7) Garbage attracts animalsRemedy:(1) Crops and cattle compensation scheme to be more effective (2) Solar powered fencing (3) Change Cropping pattern in forest fringe areas (4) Provide adequate food and water for animals inside the forest (5) Stop developmental and constructional activities near the forests.(6) Smell of egg can drive away the wild animals.

ENDANGERED AND ENDEMIC SPECIES OF INDIA1. Extinct 2. Endangered (reduced to critical level) 3. Vulnerable (population on continuous decline) 4. rare species (restricted to specifi areas-localized).

ENDANGERED SPECIES OF INDIA:Endangered plant speies-450Endangered mammals – 100Endangered birds – 150.Reptiles: Tortoise, green sea turtle, gharial, python.Birds: Peacock, pelican, Indian bustard, Siberian white crane.Mammals: Indian wolf, red fox, sloth bear, tiger, Indian lion, golden cat, desert cat.Primates: Hoolock gibbon, lion-tailed monkey, capped monkey, golden monkey.Plants: Rauvolfia (medicinal plant), Santalum and cycasbed donei (sandalwood).Factors: (1) Pollution (2) Over exploitation of natural resources (3) Climate change (4) Lack in enforcement of laws.Remedy: (1) Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species, 1975 (CITES).

900 species not to be traded or made as live specimens.(2) Avoid pollution (3) Avoid overexploitation of natural resources (4) Avoid the factors causing climate change (5) Strictly enforce laws.

ENDEMIC SPECIES:The species which are confined to a particular area only. 7000 out of 40000 plants in India are endemic.62% of endemic species in India are available in Himalayas and Westernghats.62% amphibians and 50% lizards are endemic to western India.Flora: Sapria himalayana, ovaria lurida, Nepenthes, Khasiana pedicularis parrotes. Pteridophta-200Angiosperm-4950 species endangered.Fauna: Monitor lizards (varanus) reticulated python, Indian Salamander, Viviparous toad, Land-878;Freshwater-89;Insects-16214;Endemic species of animals:Amphibia-110;Reptile-214; Aver-69;Nannakua-38; species endangered.Factors: (1) habitat loss (2) Fragmentation (3) Pollution.E.g. Frog eggs, tadpoles and adults are sensitive to pollutants like pesticides; over hunting of frog legs; Introduction of non-active predators and competitors and disease causing organisms.

CONSERVATION Defn: It is the management of biosphere so that it will yield the greatest sustainable benefit to present

generation while maintaining its potential to meet the needs of future generations.Factors affecting Biodiversity:1) Human activities-dams, construction works, 2) Polln-Pesticide, oil spills3) Poaching4) Climatic factors-global warming, ozone depletion, acid rain5) Destruction of wet lands6) Habitat fragmentation7) Loss of herbal and medicinal plants8) Illegal tradeNeed for Biodiversity:1) Variety of products-paper, medicine, fire wood2) Food materials for sustenance3) Biodiversity of flora and fauna4) Sustainable utilization of life-supporting systems5) Ecology balanceStrategy:A. In-Situ: It involves protection of floara and fauna within its natural habitat, where the species normally occur.

Natural habitats are called-protected areas

In-Situ Conservation Methods: (i) Biosphere reserves (ii) national parks (iii) Wild life sanctuaries (iv) Gene sanctuary (v) Floristic areas (vi) Botanical gardensMethods of In-Situ Conservation:4% of the country is used for in-situ conservationBiosphere reserves-7National parks-80Wild life sanctuaries-492Botanical gardens-120(a) Biosphere reserves: Covered area > 5000 km2.

Aim: at long time conservation-Nanda devi (UP); Nokrek (Meghalaya); Manas (Assam); Sunderbans (WB); Gulf of Mananr (TN); Nilgiris (TN, kar, Kerala); Great Nicobars; Similaipal (Orissa).Role of Biosphere reserves: 1) Allows long time survival of ecosystems2) Protects endangered species3) Allows for maximum no. of species and communities4) A site of recreation and tourism5) Educational and research purposes6) Functions as an open system without allowing changes in land use.* No tourism and exploring activities permitted(b) National park: It is an area dedicated for conservation of wildlife along with its environment. Area: 100-500 km2-it may be located within a biosphere reserve also.Kaziranga (Assam-rhino); Gir national park (Gujarat-Indian lion); Bandipur (Karnataka-elephant); Dachigam (J&K-Hangul); Corbett (UP-Tiger); Kanha (MP-Tiger); Periyar (Kerala-Tiger and elephant); Dudwa (UP-Tiger); Sarirka (Rajastahn-Tiger); Ranthambore (Rajasthan-Tiger)Role: (i) Tourism-enjoyment without effecting environment (ii) Protects, propogates and develops wild lifeRestrictions: (i) Grazing of domestic animals (ii) Privatization and forestry activities – prohibited© Wild life sanctuaries: It is an area which is reserved for the conservation of animals only. There are 492 wild life sanctuaries in India.Hazaribag (Bihar-tiger and leopard); Ghand bird sanctuary (Rajasthan-300 species of birds);

Sultanpur bird sanctuary (Haryana-migratory bird);Abohar wild life sanctuary (Punjab-Black buck); Nal Sarvor bird sanctuary (Gujarat-Water birds);Mudumalai wild life (TN-Tiger, leopard, elephant);Vedanthangal bird sanctuary (TN-water birds); Wild ass sanctuary (Gujarat-wild ass, wolf, chinkara);Jaldapur wild life (WB-Rhinoceras, elephant, tiger)Role: (i) Protect animals (ii) allow timber harvesting and collection of forest products, private ownership rights and forestry operations Restrictions: Killing, hunting, shooting or capturing wild life.(d) Gene sanctuary: It is an area where the plants are conserved e.g. citrus (lemon family); pitches plant (insect eating plant) – in Nort India.(e) Other Projects (Spl projects): Project tiger, Gir lion project, Crocodile breeding project; Project elephant etc.Advantages: (i) Cheap and convenient (ii) Species get adjusted to natural disasters like droughts, flood, forest fire etc. Disadvantages: (i) a large surface area reqd. (ii) shortage of staff (iii) Polln.

B. Ex-Situ: Ex-situ conservation involves protection of flora and fauna outside the natural habitat. (it is used for conservation of crops and relatives of wild crops)Role: (i) It identifies those species which are at more risk of extinction (ii) It prefers the species which are most important to man in near future among the endangered species.

Examples: Botanical gardens, seed banks, microbial culture collections, tissue and cell culture, museums, zoological gardens.Methods: (1) National bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR): @ New Delhi – uses cryo preservation techniques to preserve agricultural and horti cultural crops.Cryo preservation @ - 190oC (liquid nitrogen)Rice, pearl millet, Brassica, turnip, radish, tomato, onion, carrot, chilli, tobacco.(2) National facility for Plant Issue Culture Repository (NFPTCR) (within NBPGR)Conservation of varieties of crop plants or trees by tissue culture.Adv: (i) It is carried out for endangered species. (ii) In captive breeding animals are assured of food, water, shelter and security and hence longer life (iii) Survival of endangered species increased due to spl care and attentionDisadv: (i) Expensive (ii) Freedom to wild life lost (iii) Such animals may not survive again in natural environement (iv) It can be followed for only a few selected species.

UNIT II-POLLUTION

Pollution: It is contamination of water or air or soil altering its composition and affecting the human health and other life in that environment.Types of Pollution: (1) Bio degradable-dead animals, vegetable, food wastes and (2) Non-biodegradable-plastic, glass.Kinds/Classification of Pollution: (1) Air (2) Water (3) Soil (4) Marine (5) Thermal (6) Noise (7) Nuclear – pollutions.

I. AIR POLLUTIONIntroducing of chemicals, dust, smoke, mist or odor in the atmosphere which affects the health and life of humans, animals and plants.Composition of air: N2-78.084%; O2-20.947%; Ar-0.934%;CO2-0.033%; SO2-1.0 ppm; Methane-2.0 ppm; H2-0.5 ppm;N2O-0.5 ppm; O3-0.07 ppm; NO2-0.02 ppm;CO-Trace.

Sources of Air Pollution: A. Natural: (1) Volcanic (2) Forest fire (3) bio-decay (4) Pollen grains (5) Marshes (6) Radioactive materialsB. Man-made: (1) Thermal power plants (2) Fossil fuel burning (3) Vehicular emissions (4) Agricultural activities (5) Chemical industries-sulphuric acid plant, cement plant, etc.

Classification of Air pollutants:(1) Primary air pollutants-SO2, NO2, CO2 radon (indoor pollutant) (2) Secondary air pollutants-H2SO4, HNO3, HCO3, Photochemical smog, etc.

AIR POLLUTANTS:(1) CO (colorless, odorless and tasteless): Source: 2 C + O2 2 CO (incomplete combustion of C)-Cigarette smoking, vehicle exhaust (nationwide-60% and citywide-95%), portable generator, cars left running in attached garages, iron smelting. Effect: (1) Combines with red blood cells (causing head ache, anemia, coma, brain cell damage and death) (2) CO in atmosphere reacts with OH- ions to form CH4 and tropospheric ozone (leading to global warming).

(2) NO2: Source: Fossil fuel burning, motor vehicle emissions (49%, power industries (49%). Effect: NO2 + moisture HNO3; lungs irritation, affects plants, soil quality, aquatic life in lakes; eats away stone buildings, statues,

monuments and fabrics.

(3) SO2:  Source: Present in crude oil, coal, and ore that contains common metals like aluminum, copper, zinc, lead, and iron. SOx gases formed when fuel containing sulfur, such as coal and oil, is burned, and when gasoline is extracted from oil, or metals are extracted from ore - SO2 dissolves in water vapor to form acid, and interacts with other gases and particles in the air to form sulfates and other products that can be harmful to people and their environment. Effects: (1) SO2 causes respiratory illness (2) SO2 causes acid rain, which damages trees, crops; and makes soils, lakes, and streams acidic (3) SO2 contributes to the formation of atmospheric particles that cause visibility impairment (4) SO2 accelerates the decay of building materials and paints, including irreplaceable

monuments, statues, and sculptures that are part of our nation's cultural heritage. (4) Suspended particulate matter (SPM): Source: Air can be contaminated by a range of very different particles such as dust, pollen, soot, smoke, and liquid droplets. Burning of coal in power plants and industries (40%), burning diesel and other fuels in vehicles (17%) Effect: (1) affects the lungs and reduces life-expectancy (2) nose and throat irritation; causes asthma, bronchitis, lung cancer, reproductive problems, cardiovascular issues (3) effect of particulate matter in combination with ozone or allergens is even greater than the sum of the individual effects (4) affects visibility.

(5) Ozone: It is a major component of photochemical smog. Effect: (1) Irritating (2) Unpleasant odor (3) Reaction with NOx and organic compounds produces O3 in troposphere (4) Moderates the climate.

(6) Photochemical smog: It is brownish smoke formed from NOx + hydrocarbons + h O3. Effects: Breathing problem, caugh, eye-nose-throat irritation, heart disease, resistance to cold and pnemonia reduced, ozone in photochemical smog damages plants trees, smog reduces visibility.

(7) Lead: Source: paint, smelters, storage battery, leaded petrol Effect: accumulates in body, mental retardation in children, damage to nervous system, cancer, harms wild life.

(8) Hydrocarbons: Source: burning of fuels, marsh, decay of organic/vegetable matter burning of wet logs Effect: carcinogenic, producing oil films

(9) Cr: Source: Paint, smelter, Cr-manufacture, Cr-plating Effect: perforation of nasal septum, chrome holes, gastrointestinal ulcer, central nervous system affected.

NATIONAL AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS:The levels of air quality of air with an adequate margin of safety, to protect the public health,, vegetation and property.

Pollutant

Time

Industrial, g/m3

Residential, g/m3

Sensitive g/m3

SO2 Annual

80 60 15

24 h 120 80 30NO2 Ann

ual80 60 15

24 h 120 80 30SPM Ann

ual360 140 70

24 h 500 200 100Pb Ann

ual1.00 0.75 0.50

24 h 1.50 1.00 0.75CO 8 h 5 2 1

1 h 10 4 2[S.O. 384(E), Air (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act, 1981, dated April 11, 1994] [EPA Notification: GSR 176 (E), April 02, 1996] CONTROL MEASURES1. Source control-unleaded petrol, low S&ash-content petrol and coal, less private vehicles, plant trees, catalytic converters for less CO emission2. Control at industries-air polln control and monitoring3. Equipments: (1) Sufficient oxygen and temp in combustion chambers (2) Wet scrubbers, cyclone separators, baghouse filters, electrostatic precipitators.

II. WATER POLLUTIONIntroducing contaminants that alter the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of water which affects human health and aquatic life.Types: physical, chemical, biological, bacteriological and radioactive.Chemical: Macro and Micro - Inorganic (metals and non-metals) & organicToxicity: toxic (Cr, Hg, pesticides) and non-toxic (Cl, SO4)Biological: Biological (algae) and microbiological (bacteria, virus)Point and non-point source pollution: DO, BOD, COD.

Water Quality Standards:BIS, CPHEEO, WHO guidelinesSignificant WQ parameters1. pH, alk, hardness, Chloride, sulphate, iron, manganese, fluoride, nitrate, etc.

SOURCES OF WATER POLLUTION:(1) Domestic wastes-sewage (2) Industrial wastes-sugar, distillery, tannery, petrochemical, paper (3) Agricultural run-off: pesticides, N&P-polln (4) Solid waste leaching (5) Biological wastes-Hospital wastes

Control of water pollution: 1. Effective monitoring by PCBs.2. Catchment area management3. Polln control measures in industries4. Proper treatment in the industries5. Modern process techniques and energy savings6. Recycling and reuse by industries7. Forestation8. Laboratories9. Public awareness10. Laws and regulations11. Research

SEWAGE/WASTEWATER TREATMENT:Objectives: 1. Reduce BOD load2. Reduce toxic substances below safe level3. Reduce the bacterial load4. make fit for reuseTREATMENT PROCESSOrganic and inorganic wastes1. Primary/ Physical treatment2. Secondary/ Biological treatment-Trickling filter (or) Activated sludge process3. Tertiary/ Chemical treatment4. Sludge disposal

III. SOIL POLLUTIONIt is the contamination of soil causing harmful effects on living things.Source: (1) Urban wastes (liquid and solid) (2) Industrial wastes-Organic: paper, petrochemical, distillery, tannery, etc. Inorganic: Steel mills, cotton industry, metal plating, iron foundry, tanneries, etc. (3) Agri chemicals-pesticides, N&P (4) Radioactive (5) Acid rain-HNO3, H2SO4 (6) Biological wastes1. Urban wastes: (a) Commercial and (b) Domestic (c) HospitalGenerates Sewage and refuse (solid waste)-the refuse contains garbage and rubbish materials like plastics, glasses, metallic cans, fibres, paper, rubbers, street sweepings, fuel residues, leaves, containers, abandoned and discarded materials2. Industrial wastes: (a) Liquid wastes (b) Solid wastes and sludgeIndustries-Pulp and paper mills, Chemicals, oil refineries, sugar,

distilleries, tanneries, textiles, steel, fertilizers, pesticides, coal and mineral mining, drugs, glass, cement, petroleum and engineering industries.3. Agri wastes:Fertilizers, herbicides, weedicides, farm wastes, manure, slurry, debris.4. Radioactive pollutants:5. Biological wastes:Derived from Bio-medical industries and sewageControl measures: 1. Prevent soil erosion-planting trees, contour cultivation, terracing2. Forestation3. Solid waste management4. Use of Bio-fertilizers5. Waste reuse and recycling-Cr recovery in tanneries6. Ban on toxic chemicals-DDT7. Public awareness

IV. MARINE POLLUTIONDischarge of wastes into the sea harming living resources and causing hazards to human health, hindrance to fisheries and other sea based activities.Benefits of Coral reefs:1. Coral reefs support more than 1 million species2. Provide feeding, breeding and nursery areas to fish and shell fish.3. Medicines prepared from see weeds and sea based chemicals4. Act as buffer to ocean waves and protect coastal lines from storms.How coral reefs affected?1. Sediments from deforestation carried by run off.2. Agricultural and industrial wastes reaching through rivers3. Boat anchors4. Rising ocean temperatureCoastal wetlands support more than 2000 species.

Sea grass beds also affectedPollution activities affecting the seas::1. Dumping of solid and liquid wastes-sewage, garbage, agricultural discharge, pesticides, heavy metals.2. Dumping of radioactive wastes3. Oil pollution- from cracks of oil tankers, accidental spillage, cleaning of fuel tanksEffects of Marine Pollution:1. Coral reefs, sea grass beds affected2. Oil films inhibit the growth of plankton; sea birds wetted by oil could not survive-about 250000 birds die every year by oil spillage; oil spilling causes low body temperature in birds.3. Pollutants reach human beings by food chain4. Yield of sea food affectedControl measures:1. Marine biodiversity should be conserved2. Awareness on marine eco system to be created3. Local communities should be involved4. Social and economic incentives should be offered5. Industrial units should discharge their effluents according to norms6. Urban growth near the coast should be restricted7. Oil spilling should be removed-skimming, use of absorbents like polyurethane foams, use of saw dust, chemical methods like dispersion and emulsification.8. Soil erosion of coastal land should be prevented.9. Recreational beaches should be maintained.

V. NOISE POLLUTIONIt is unwanted, unpleasant and disagreeable sound that causes discomfort for living beings. 35-60 dB – normal conversation>80 dB – hearing impairment>140 dB – painful

Types:1. Industrial-machines, mechanical saw, pneumatic drills2. Transport-metropolitan cities 90 dB.3. Neighborhood-household gadgets, public address systems.Effects:1. Affects human health, comfort and efficiency2. causes high B.P. mental distress, heart attacks, neurological problems, birth defects3. increases rate of heart beat, contraction of blood vessels, dilation of pupil of eye4. Cause damage to heart, brain, kidneys, liver.5. Impairment of hearing6. Psycological and pathological disorders7. Ultrasonic sound affects digestive, respiratory, cardiovascular systemsControl:1. Source control2. Transmission path intervention- noise absorber, noise barrier3. Receptor control4. Oiling of machines5. Planting of trees6. Absorptive materials7. Prescribe noise limits, ban on honking horns, declaring silent zones, proper building design, reduce vehicular traffic and increase public transport system.

VI. THERMAL POLLUTIONSources:1. Nuclear power plants2. Coal-fired power plants3. Industrial effluents4. Hydro-electric powerEffects:1. Redn in DO2. Increase in effect of toxicity 3. Interference with biological activities4. Interference with reproduction5. Direct mortality6. Food shortage for fishControl:1. Cooling towers2. Wet cooling towers3. Dry cooling tower4. Cooling ponds5. Spray ponds6. Artificial lakes

VII. NUCLEAR HAZARDSCauses:1. Atomic, nuclear bombings in war2. Accidents in nuclear power plants 3. Accidents during transport of nuclear materials4. Unsafe disposal of nuclear wastesEffects: 1. Nausea and vomiting2. Affects the cells in the body and the function of glands and organs.3. Blood cancer and bone cancer4. Genetic disorders5. Causes delirium, convulsions and death6. Cataracts and impairment of sight7. Vomiting and bleeding of gums8. Internal bleeding and blood vessel damageControl: 1. Prevention of nuclear wars2. Prevention of proliferation of nuclear weapons

3. Safe guards for nuclear plants4. Safeguards while transporting nuclear materials5. Safe disposal of nuclear wastes.6. Use of closed-cycle coolant system with gaseous coolants7. Fusion reactions may be preferred to fission reactions8. For nuclear mining, wet drilling may be employed

VIII SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENTTypes:1. Urban-domestic, commercial, construction, biomedical-Biodegradable and non-biodegradable2. Industrial-Chemical, thermal power, nuclear power and other industries3. Hazardous-Toxic and radioactiveEffect:1. Foul smell and breeding of various insects2. Soil productivity affected-Industrial solid wastes-metal and hazardous wastes affecting soil productivity3. Toxicity-Cr from tanneries4. Hazardous-Radioactive from nuclear plantsSOLIDWASTE MANAGEMENT1. Solid waste2. Collection3. Transportation4. Storage5. Segregation6. Disposal-landfill, incineration and composting

ROLE OF INDIVIDUAL

1. Plant trees2. Help in prevention of pollution3. Efficient use of water, energy and other resources

4. Use CFC free refrigerators4. Use natural gas than coal5. Reduce deforestation6. Use renewable energy sources7. Use efficient office machines8. Awareness on products and their harmful effects9. Use of eco-friendly products10. Reduce garbage production11. Control child birth12. Use organic manure13. Use rechargeable batteries

ROLE OF WOMEN

1. Plant trees; grow grass, vegetables in rural areas2. For shopping use cloth bags3. Energy saving at home; use of alternate energy4. Use green products5. Segregation of bio and non-bio wastes6. Use non-phosphate detergents7. Educate and culturally train children

NATURAL CALAMITIESI. CYCLONESIt is a meteorological phenomenon where intense depression forms over the open ocean move towards the land.It is powerful,destructive, atmospheric storm on earth. May be active for a few days or even few weeks. Speed – 180 to 500 km/hr.Tropical cyclone: Formed when sea surface temp < 25oC. They move like a spinning top at a speed of 10-30 km/hr.India: Bay of Bengal-Oct-Dec; Arabian sea-Apr-May.Different names: Hurricane, Typhoon, cyclone, Willy williesEffect: (i) Human life, cattle and crop loss (ii) Transport and communication affected-Roads and rail lines cut (iii)

Economic loss (iv) Social displacement (v) outbreak of epidemics.Management: (i) Meteorological forecasts-cyclone warning systems (ii) Use of satellite and communications (iii) More trees in the coastal areas (iv) Construction of dams, dykes, embankments and breaksFamous cyclones: (1) Orissa (1999) 18th and 29th Oct, 1999-260 km/hr; 15 million people in 14/30 districts affected; 95% crops affected-11500 school buildings affected.II. FLOODSFlow of water exceeding the carrying capacity of canals, rivers, etc.Causes: (1) Heavy rain to cyclones(2) Snow melt(3) Sediments in Rivers and water bodies(4) Sudden release of dam waters(5) Formation of roads, construction of buildings arresting percolation areas(6) DeforestationEffects: Human loss, Cattle loss, Crop loss, damage to roads & communication installations, ecomomic loss, spread of diseases, community displacement and community loss.Flood management: (1) Meteorological warning by analyzing satellite pictures (2) Banning of encroachment of flood ways (3) Diversion of excess water thro’ by-canals (4) check dams (5) create wild life habitat parks, recreational areas, avoid barren lands (6) river net working (7) increase infiltration; rain water harvestingBangladesh floods, 1974: 1500 persons died; 2.8 lakh people died of diseases; 4.5 lakhs houses destroyed; 35 million people lost their belonging.

III. EARTH QUAKEAn earthquake is a sudden vibration caused on the earth’s surface due to the sudden release of tremendous amount of energy stored in the rocks under the earth’s crust.

Tectonic plates of solid rocks move along their boundaries-friction prevents from slipping-stress develops-results in fracture along the fault lines within the plates-violent vibration and energy release takes place.Causes: (i) Movement of tectonic plates and disequilibrium in any part of earth’s crust(ii) Hydrostatic pressure of manmade water bodies(iii) Underground nuclear tests(iv) Decrease in groundwater level.Severity of earthquakes: <4 - insignificant4-4.9 - minor5-5.9 - damaging6-6.9 - destructive7-7.9 - major>8 - GreatEffects: (i) land slides (ii) damage of settlements (iii) disruption of transport and tele communication (iv) deformation of ground (v) may cause Tsunami (vi) outbreak of diseasesManagement: (i) Earthquake proof buildings (ii) wooden houses on plat forms (iii) seismic hazard map (iv) during earthquake run out of the building and lie flat.Case studies: (1) In Chile on 22.05.1960 – 9.5 Ritcher scale – 90000 km2 – 6000 people died.(2) Bhuj in Gujarat: 6.3 Ritcher scale – 20000 people died.(3) Iran: 1971-25000 died; 1990-50000 died; 2003-several thousand died.

IV. LAND SLIDEIt is the movement of earthy materials like rock, mud, soil & debris from higher regions to lower regions by gravitational pull.Causes: (i) rains & floods(ii) movement of heavy vehicles(iii) earthquake(iv) erosion(v) underground caves and mining(vi) Exposure of unconsolidated sediments exposed to logging, road or house buildingEffects:(i) Blockage of water(ii) Soil erosion(iii) Damage to houses, crops, live stockManagement: (i) Unloading of upper parts of slope(ii) Improve cultivation(iii) Steepness of slope reduced(iv) Concrete support barriers(v) Drawing out surface and subsurface water(vi) Soil stabilization (use of quicklime)Case study: Land slide in UP in 1998 (18.08.98)-Malpa village-180 people died (including 60 pilgrims).

V. TSUNAMILarge waves in water body when the sea floor is deformed by seismic activityCauses: Seismic activities like earthquakes, land slides, volcanic eruptions, nuclear explosions.Deformation of the sea floor due to the movement of plates.Tsunami wave-wavelength 500 km (ordinary 100 m) –Tsunami speed: 800-900 km/hr; wave ht-15-65 m ht.Effects: (i) attacks the coast

(ii) kills humans and livestocks(iii) salinates coastal water(iv) diseasesManagement: (1) can know 1-2 hrs in advance by floating buoys sensors (2) People living in the seashore should be evacuated.

UNIT III

NATURAL RESOURCES(1) Renewable – Soil, water, air, wild

life, natural vegetation(i) Continuous: solar energy, wind

energy, tidal energy(ii) Extrinsic: human skills,

institutions, management abilities(2) Non-Renewable: minerals, coal,

oil, gas, groundwater(i) Forest(ii) Water(iii) Mineral(iv) Food(v) Energy(vi) Land

1. FOREST RESOURCESTypes:

(1) Ever green forests: Equatorial region-rain and temp very high-rainfall throughout the year E.g. Silent valley in Kerala

(2) Deciduous forests: (a) Tropical deciduous-

seasonal rainfall, shed leaves during sunshine-Teak, sandalwood,

(b) Temperate deciduous: severe winter, heavy snowfall, trees shed leaves just before winter

(3) Coniferous forests: Needle type leaves-pine trees, spruce tree

Functions:(1) Habitats to millions of plants,

animals and wildlife(2) Recycle rainwater and remove

pollutants from water(3) Control water potential and

water quality(4) Moderate temp and weather

(5) Influence soil condition and soil erosion

(6) Promote tourism, and contribute for aesthetic beauty

Commercial use: fire wood, material for pulp, paper board, timber etc. gives-resins, dyes, rubber, mining, grazing, recreation etc.Ecological use: (i) O2 refreshed, CO2 reduced(ii) Soil conservation(iii) Hydrological cycle regulated(iv) pollution moderator(v) wild life habitatAesthetic value: bamboo huts, mats, baskets, cots, fruits, leaves, seeds, roots as food, alcoholic drinks, aromatic oils.Touristic value: Promoting Ecotourism

OVER EXPLOITATION OF FORESTS:

Over population is the reason for over exploitation.

Growing civilization-more demand for raw materials like timber, pulp, minerals, fuel wood (resulting in large scale logging, mining, road building and cleaning of forests).Causes for over exploitation: (i) increase in agricultural production(ii) increase in industrial activities(iii) increase in demand for wood

resourcesEffects of over exploitation: (1) Migration of tribal people(2) Environmental damages(3) Plant species and animals are endangered(4) Marine population and animals are endangered (4) Marine population affected – due to erosion and silt accumulation in sea bed.(5) Dumping of wastes in land, water and air.

Deforestation: It is the process of removal of forest resources due to many natural or man made activities. Percapita availability of forest – 0.08 hectare; world average – 0.8 hectare.Causes for over exploitation: (1) Development projects-big dams, hydroelectric projects, road construction(2) Mining operations-Mica, coal, Mn,

limestone.(3) Raw materials for industries-wood,

firewood, pulp, match box, herbals.(4) Fuel requirements:(5) Shifting cultivation: Non specific

plantations leads to disappearance of plants and animal species, tea gardens, coffee plantations.

(6) Forest firesIll-effects/Impact of over exploitation: (1) Cutting and burning of trees and CO2 emission(2) Loss of genetic diversity(3) Soil erosion(4) Loss of food grains(5) Flood and land slidesPreventions:(1) Reforestation(2) Avoid wood for fuel(3) Control forest pests(4) Control forest fires(5) Avoid overgrazing by cattle(6) Avoid developmental activities(7) Awareness(8) Laws and legislations to be followed strictly.

TIMBER EXTRACTIONPulp, furniture, firewood, railways, boats etc.Effects: (i) Causes deforestation(ii) Soil erosion, loss of fertility, land slide, loss of biodiversity(iii) Loss of tribal culture

MINING(i) Surface mining (ii) Underground

miningSteps involved in mining: (i) Extraction (ii) Development (iii) Exploitation (iv) Reprocessing (v) extraction & purification.Effects of mining:1) Trees destroyed2) Polln of soil, air and water3) Water logging in trenched areas4) Leads to earthquakes5) Sediments transported by erosion6) Noise pollution7) Forest areas reduced8) Landslides occur

DAMS India – 1600 dams Maharastra – 600 damsGujarat – 250 damsM.P. – 130 damsEffects of Dams: 1) Forest land submerged2) Biodiversity destroyed3) Water borne diseases4) salinity and loss of fertility of landNarmada Sagar Project – 3.5 lakhs hectares forest submergedTehri dam: 1000 hectares submerged; 430 species of plants affected.Effects of dams on Tribal people:1) Loss of habitation2) Mentally and physically affected; cultural life changed.

2. WATER RESOURCES80% of earth’s surface covered with water.All living things have water in them.(Trees have 60% water by weight; Animals have 50-65% water by weight)

Hydrological Cycle1) Evaporation (2) Condensation and precipitation (3) Transpiration and respiration.Distribution of Water resources1) 97.4% water in seas and oceans but saltish (2) 2.6% is fresh water (but locked up in ice or deep in underground)(3) Only 0.014% water is available directly for human use.Types of Fresh water Resources(1) Surface water (static and dynamic) (2) Underground water (3) Sub soil water in Riverbeds.Standing Water bodiesOligotropic lakes: Deep, clear and deficient in nutrients without much biological activity.Eutrophic lakes: Turbid but have more nutrients and support more life.Dystrophic lakes: Shallow, colored, low pH and clogged with plant life.Reservoirs: Larger water bodies.Estuaries: Deltas formed at river mouths joining the oceans. Mix up of fresh and salt water.Flowing water bodiesRivers and streams-carries sediments, more dissolved oxygen and mineralsUnderground waterShallow or deep-contain more minerals-less turbid.Groundwater aquifer: Layer of highly permeable rock locking water in voids and gaps.Sand and gravel will be good aquifers.Clay and crystalline rocks will be poor aquifers.Types of aquifers(a) Unconfined aquifers: It is a water table formed between the top permeable layer and bottom less-permeable layer of rock or compact clay. Water is charged

readily from the top and can flow to other areas easily.(b) Confined aquifers: It is a water table formed in between two layers of impermeable rocks. Water cannot move out easily.Uses of waterConsumptive and noon-consumptive uses1) Domestic-drinking, cooking, bathing, washing, gardening.2) Commercial-hotel, theatres, educational institutions, offices.3) Irrigation-70% fresh water utilized4) Industries-20% fresh water utilized5) Moderates climate6) Dilutes the pollutantsOver-Utilization of waterReasons-Increased population, rapid industrialization.Effects of Over utilization of groundwater1) Decrease in groundwater table and deterioration of water quality2) Decrease in pressure in the aquifers and changes in the speed and direction of water flow. 3) Ground subsidence-Due to high extraction vs. low recharge, sediments are compacted resulting in overlaying land surface-Causing structural damages to building, damage to pipelines and reverse flow of canals and tidal flooding.4) Intrusion of salt water5) Drying up of wells6) Water pollution (without scope for dilution)FloodsA flood is an overflow of water from its natural course due to their reduced carrying capacity by sediments and heavy rains. Causes of Floods

1) Heavy rainfall, melting of snow, sudden release of water from dams2) Overflowing of lakes and rivers during rainy season3) Reduction in carrying capacity of water courses due to sediments or blocking of drainage channels carrying the water (buildings and structures coming up)4) Deforestation, over grazing, uncontrolled mining, 5) DeforestationEffects of Flood1) Submergence of land2) Erosion, silting and sedimentation affecting cultivable land3) Extinction of species4) Death of human and livestock and damage to propertyFlood management1) Construction of dams and reservoirs2) Canal management-embankments3) Removal encroachments adjacent to water courses which are subject to floods4) Flood warning5) Check dams, percolation pondsDROUGHTDrought is inadequate or scarcity of water due to dry weather, poor rainfall, late arrival of monsoon and over extraction of groundwater-Sustenance problem to plants and animals.Types of Drought1) Meterological drought:Drought is caused when rainfall is <75%; severe drought when rainfall <50%2) Hydrological drought: When annual rainfall < average rainfall3) Agricultural drought: Due to late arrival or untimely rainfall 4) Socio-economic drought: Due to reduction in food cropsCauses of Drought

1) Low rainfall and more evaporation2) Increasing population and over utilization of water resources3) Intensive cropping pattern. E.g. Sugarcane crop has made parts of Maharastra as drought areas4) Deforestation-removal of top soil by erosion-nutrient depletion-not fit for any croppingEffects of Drought1) Scarcity of water; deterioration of water quality; causing hunger and death2) Failure of crops3) Cause desertification4) As raw materials for agro industries will become scarce, industries will be affected5) Accelerates degradation of natural resources6) Leads to migration of people and more urbanizationDrought management1) Rainwater harvesting2) Construction of reservoirs, check dams etc.3) Drip irrigation4) Reforestation5) Mixed cropping and dry farming6) Indigenous knowhow may be appliedConflicts over waterNearly 1.2 billion people do not have access to safe drinking water-Fresh water is becoming scarce; Conflict between States (Sharing of Cauvery between Karnataka and Tamilnadu; Sharing of Krishna water between Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh; Sharing of Siruvani water between Kerala and Tamilnadu) and between Countries (e.g. India vs. Pakistan over sharing of Indus; India vs Bangladesh over sharing of Brahmaputra; Iran-Iraq conflict over Shatt-al-Arab water; USA-Mexico conflict over Colorado river)

Causes of Water conflicts1) Conflict through use2) Conflict due to construction of Dams and Power stations3) Conflict due to pollution (Polln of Thenpennaiyar by Bangalore Sewage)Management of Water conflicts1) Enacting laws2) Pollution control3) Interlinking of rivers4) Nationalization of water 5) Powers for National Water Authority Local Managers1) Neerkatti in South India2) Havaldars in Maharashtra3) Churpun in ladakhCauvery Water DisputeDispute between Karnataka and Tamilnadu. Increasing demands for agriculture and industry by both States. Cauvery Water Dispute Tribunal awarded 205 TMCT to be available at Mettur. Karnataka refused to give this amount. Meantime the water flow is getting reduced even in the Karanataka side.Ethiopia-Sudan-Egypt water conflictThe Jordan, Tigris-Euphrates and Nile are shared by the above three countries. Ethiopia controls 80% of Nile’s flow and intends to increase it. Sudan tries to divert more. Egypt is badly affected. Nile delta basin is becoming a desert. As the population of Egypt will be doubled in the next 15-20 years the water crisis will become more critical.DAMSBenefits1) Control of floods2) Facilitates diversion of water through channels3) Useful to offtake water for drinking and irrigation4) Can generate electricity

5) Aquaculture can be developed6) Used for recreation and tourism7) Facilitates navigation and fishingProblemsA. Upstream problems1) Displacement of tribal people2) Loss of forest and non-forest lands3) Loss of flora and fauna4) Cause landslips, sedimentation and siltation5) Stagnation and water logging around reservoirs 6) Retards plant growth7) Breeding vectors and spread of water borne diseases8) Induce earth quake9) Navigation blockedB. Downstream problems1) Water logging and salinity due to over irrigation2) Reduced water flow and reduced silt deposition in the delta3) Salt water intrusion at river mouth4) Fertility of land reduced as the nutrients are deposited in the dam on its storage side5) Structural defects may cause cracks and sudden flooding

3. MINERAL RESOURCESMinerals: Minerals are naturally occurring substances having definite chemical composition and physical propertiesOres: Ores are minerals from which useful substances particularly metals can be extracted for profitable use.Formation of mineral depositsThe mineral deposits have been formed at particular spots on earth by biological processes over millions of years.Biological processes1) Biological decomposition of dead animals and organic matter

2) Concentration of minerals during cooling of molten rock3) Evaporation of seawater4) Weathering, transportation and sedimentationClassification of mineral resources1) Identified Resources: Identified by geological measurements2) Undiscovered resources: Assumptions on the basis of geological knowledge and theory3) Reserves: Identified reserves with extractable mineralsUses/Exploitation of minerals1) Industrial plants and machinery2) Housing and settlement materials3) Energy generation4) Defense equipments5) Ornaments and Jewellery6) As fertilizers (phosphates)7) Communication equipments (telephone wires, cables, electronic devices)8) Making alloys for various purposes9) Medicines (Ayurvedic medicines)Examples of Metallic MineralsAluminum-food packingChromium-alloys, chrome tanningCopper-vessels and electrical wiresIron-heavy machineries and household articlesLead-Leaded gasoline, car batteries, paints and ammunition, pipesManganese-high resistant steel alloysPlatinum-automobiles, automatic converters, JeweleryGold-Ornaments, medical useSilver-photographyNickel-Chemical industryExamples of Non-metallic mineralsSilicate minerals-bricks, pavementsLimestone-concrete, neutralizing acidic soils, cement industryGypsum-Plaster, wall-board,agriculture

Sulphur pyrites-Medicine and car batteryClassification of Minerals1) Based on compositiona) Non-metallic minerals: quartz, feldspar, dolomite, calciteb) Metallic minerals: Iron, aluminum, copper zinc2) Based on usagea) Critical minerals: Iron, aluminum, copper and goldb) Strategic minerals: Manganese, cobalt, platinum and chromiumMineral wealth of India

STATE MINERALS AVALABLE

Andhra Pradesh

Coal, manganese, Copper, mica, lead

Assam PetroleumBihar Iron, coal, copper,

aluminum, tin, micaGoa Iron, manganeseGujarat Copper, aluminum,

petroleum, lead, zincKarnataka Iron, manganese, copper,

Gold, aluminum, chromium

Kashmir Aluminum, gypsumKerala Monazite, ilmenite(Ti),

rutile(Ti)Madhya Pradesh

Coal, manganese, aluminum, marble

Maharashtra Iron, Coal, manganese, aluminum, chromium, petroleum

Orissa Iron, coal, copper, aluminum, tin, chromium, lead

Rajasthan Manganese, copper, tin, marble, mica, lead, zinc, precious stones, gypsum

Sikkim Copper, magnesiteTamilnadu Iron, manganese,

aluminum, chromium,

magnesite, ilmenite(Ti), rutile(Ti), gypsum,

West Bengal

Coal

MININGDefn: Mining is the process of extraction of metals from a mineral deposit.Types of mining1) Surface mining2) Underground mining(i) Open-pit mining: for Fe, Cu, limestone, sandstone and marble mining(ii) Strip mining: Stripped using bulldozers and stripping wheelsEnvironmental damage due to mining1) Devegetation2) Defacing of landscape3) Groundwater contamination-S into H2SO4

4) Surface water pollution5) Air pollution6) Subsidence of land: Caused due to underground mining-Cracks in building, tilting of buildings, bending of rail tracksEffects of mining1) Rapid depletion of minerals2) Leading to wastage and dissemination of mineral deposits3) Environmental pollution4) heavy energy requirementManagement of Mineral Resources1) Efficient use2) Protection from illegal mining3) Search for new deposits4) Re-use and Re-cycling of metals5) Eco-friendly mining technology6) Microbial leaching technique for concentrating low-grade ores

4. FOOD RESOURCES

Components of food-Carbohydrates, fats, proteins, mineralsTypes of Food supply1) Croplands: Provides 76% of world’s food-Rice, wheat, maize, barley, sugarcane, potato etc.2) Rangelands: Provides 17% of world’s food-Meat, milk, fruits etc.3) Oceans: Provides 7% of world’s food-Fish, prawn, crab etc.Major food sourcesMore than thousands of edible plants on earth- only 15 plants and 8 terrestrial animal species supply 90% of global food intake in calories.World Food Problems1) Growing population2) Shrinking cultivable land3) Soil erosion and depletion of nutrients4) Urbanization encroaching rural agricultural lands5) Since the major food items are limited to rice, wheat, maize etc. only the problem is raising6) Human activities degrading earth’s net primary productivityUnder Nutrition and MalnutritionMinimum calorie required is 2500 calories/day1) Under nutrition-not able to buy or eat enough feed-measles, diarrhea caused2) Malnutrition-Deficiency or lack of nutrition-lack of proteins, minerals, vitamins, iron, iodine etc.Effects of MalnutritionLack of Proteins – affects growthLack ofIron – causes anemiaLack of Iodine – causes Goitre and CretinismLack of Vitamin A – causes BlondnessOVERGRAZING

Defn: It is a process of eating away the forest vegetation without giving it a chance to regenerateIndia leads in livestock population. Grazing exceeds carrying capacity of that piece of land.Effects of Overgrazing1) Land degradation-cover vegetation removed, soil gets compacted and roots cannot penetrate, lack of soil moisture2) Soil erosion-Initially soil becomes loose and gets eroded3) Loss of useful speciesAGRICULTURETypes1) Traditional AgricultureSmall area, simple tools, dependent on surface water and organic fertilizers, mixed crop-enough to feed agricultural families and sell the surplusEffects: Deforestation, Soil erosion, Loss of nutrients2) Modern AgricultureDepends on hybrid seeds, single cropping, high-tech equipments, use of large amounts of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, use of more water (groundwater)Problems of Modern Agriculture1) Micronutrient imbalance-e.g. imbalance of zinc.2) Blue baby syndrome-due to excess use of N-NO3 in groundwater >45 mg/l thus causing blue baby disease (methemoglobinemia)3) Eutraphication-Algal blooming due to N & P.4) Problem of using Pesticides(i) harmful and toxic to humans (ii) Some are non-biogradable leading to biomagnifications and accumulation of chemicals like DDT in the brain(iii) Death of non-target organisms(iv) Development of resistance

(v) May produce new pests(iv) Risks of cancerAn ideal pesticide1) Kill only targeted species2) Biodegradable3) Should not produce new pests4) Its vapor phase should be non-toxic5) Chlorinated pesticides are highly harmful and to be bannedWater LoggingCauses:1) Excessive water supply to crops2) heavy rains3) poor drainageRemedy1) Prevent excess irrigation2) Adopt sub-surface bio-drainage using trees like EucalyptusSALINITYWater not absorbed by soil and hence evaporating leading to salt concentrationSaline soils have excessive amount of soluble salts like NaCl, CaCl2, NaHCO3

and Na2CO3. The pH exceeds 8.0 (hence soil is alkaline)Excess salinity causes-salinity of soil resulting in fewer yieldsRemedy1) Flushing with excess water2) Use Sub-surface drainage by growing trees like eucalyptus.

5. ENERGY RESOURCESWood Coal Oil Alternate energyGrowing energy needsMining, transport, lighting, heating, cooling etc. (95% commercial energy is available as fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas)Energy distributionUSA and Canad having 5% of world population consume 20% of available energy resources

In USA and Canada the annual consumption is 300 GJ (Giga Joules=60 barrels of oil) per person. In poor countries (Nepal, Ethiopia etc.) it is 1 GJ per year.Non-renewable energyCoal, petroleum, natural gas and nuclear fuelsRenewable energyWood, solar energy, wind energy, hydropower, tidal energyMerits of renewable energy1) Unlimited supply2) Provides energy security3) Promotes sustainable development4) Reliable and modular in size5) Decentralized energy productionSolar energyEnergy released due to nuclear fusion reactions in the Sun. Energy is released as heat and light.Method of collecting Solar energy1) Photo voltaic cells2) Solar heat collectors3) Solar water heaterOcean Energy1) Tidal energy-flow of seawater into the reservoir during high tide and reverse flow during the low tide-Such units are located near the bays and estuaries; seawater is inexhaustible, pollution free.2) Ocean Thermal Energy (OTE)In tropical oceans the difference in temp. betn surface level and deeper sea level is high (>20oC). Warm surface water boils a low boiling liquid like ammonia. The vapor is used to drive a turbine. The cool water is used to condense the vapor back into liquid.Significance of OTE(1) OTE is continuous and renewable(2) Pollution free(3) The electric power generated can be used to produce hydrogen

3) Geo Thermal Energy High temp. and press. steam fields exist below the earth’s surface. The energy harnessed from this is called geothermal energy.Natural geysers: Hot water or steam come out through cracks on the surface of earth.Artificial geysers Sometimes the heated water or steam comes out through drilled holes.

The hot water or steam coming out from these geysers is allowed to rotate the turbines in generators.Significance of Geothermal energy(i) Power generation rate is higher than solar and wind energies(ii) These plants can be brought to function very quickly(iii) can be used for hot water bath, resorts, aquaculture, green houses.BIOMASS ENERGYBiomass is the organic matter produced by plants or animals.E.g. Wood, crop residues, seeds, cattle dung, sewage, agricultural wastes, etc.Biogas is obtained by the anaerobic fermentation of animal dung or plant wastes in the presence of water.Biofuels are the fuels obtained by the fermentation of biomass (ethanol, methanol)-ethanol is obtained from sugar cane; methanol is obtained from ethanol.Hydrogen Fuel2 H2 + O2 2 H2O + 150 kJ.Hydrogen is produced by thermal dissociation or photolysis or electrolysis of water. It possesses high calorific value; it is non-polluting.Disadvantages of hydrogen fuel1) H2 is highly inflammable and explosive2) Safe handling is required

3) It is difficult to store and transportSignificance of Bioenergy1) Cost of bio-energy from bio-gas is cheaper than energy from fossil fuels2) More CO2 is absorbed than released3) Suitable for vehicle propulsion

NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES1) COAL: Coal is a solid fossil fuel formed from plants that lived 300-400 million years and were subjected to intense heat and pressure.

Anthracite contains 90% carbonBituminous coal contains 80% carbonLignite contains 70% carbonPeat contains 60% carbon.India has 5% of world’s coal reserve but of poor heat capacity.Disadvantages of using coal1) CO2 produced on burning of coal causes global warming2) Produces oxides of sulfur and nitrogen causing pollution2) PETROLEUM:It is a thick liquid fuel containing combustible hydrocarbons with small amounts of S, O, N as impurities.

It is a liquid fossil fuel formed by decomposition of dead animals and plant that were buried under ocean and subjected to high temperature and pressure for millions of years.Fractional distillation

The various hydrocarbons in petrol/crude oil are separated by fractionating.

About 25% of world’s crude poil reserves are in Saudi Arabia. The crude oil reserves in the world can last for another 40 years.

3) LPG:The petroleum gas obtained during cracking and fractional distillation is converted into liquid under high pressure which is called LPG.

LPG is colorless and odorless gas. Some mercaptan is added to produce bad odour for easy detection of leaks.

4) NATURAL GAS:It is found above oil in oil wells. It is a mixture of 50-90% methane and small amount of other hydrocarbons. Its calorific value is 12000-14000 kcal/m3.Dry gas: If the natural gas contains lower hydrocarbons like methane and ethane it is called ‘dry gas’.Wet gas: If the natural gas contains higher hydrocarbons like propane, butane along with methane it is called wet gas.

NUCLEAR ENERGY Nuclear Fission: Energy is obtained on bombardment with fast neutrons.Here heavier nucleus is split into lighter nucleiE.g. U235

92 + n10 Ba139

56 + Kr9436 + 3

n10 + energy

Nuclear Fusion (at 1 billionoC):2 H2

1 He22 + 2 n1

0

Comparison of Coal with Nuclear Power1) Coal is a fossil fuel2) Coal power meets 90% energy needs of the world.3) Energy changes taking place are very very small4) Generation of coal power is governed by temp and pressure.5) Products formed are not new6) Atomic No. of elements involved do not change.

Wood Peat Lignite Bituminous coal Anthracite

7) No loss in mass during combustion8) During nuclear reaction, no change occurs in nucleus9) CO2 causes Green House Effect.10) Air pollution can be minimized11) Pollutants themselves may be radioactive.USES OF ALTERNATE ENERGY SOURCESNeed for Alternate energy sources1) Fossil fuels have impact on environment so we need alternate energy sources2) Least pollution generating energy sources needed3) Hydroelectric power causes ecological imbalance4) Hydel power plants pollute aquatic and terrestrial biota.5) Radioactive pollutants are chronically hazardous6) Burning of coal, oil, wood, dung cakes and petroleum products pollute air, soil and underground water.7) Disposal of fly ash requires larger land.Objectives1) Provide more energy for growing population2) Reduce environmental pollution3) Reduce safety and security issues related with the use of nuclear energy.Alternate energy sources1) Wind energy2) Hydrogen fuel cell3) Tidal energy4) Geothermal energy5) Solar energy

LAND RESOURCESLand resources provide-food, fiber, wood, medicine etc.Top soil is renewed by natural processesUses of Land resources

1) Provide food, wood, minerals, etc.2) Land nurtures plants and animals3) Land functions as the watershed or reservoir4) Land is acting as a huge dustbin due to human activities5) Land is used for construction of buildings, industries etc.Land DegradationLand degradation is the process of deterioration of soil or loss of fertility of the soil.Harmful effects of land/ soil degradation1) Soil structure and texture is deteriorated2) Loss of fertility due to loss of essential nutrients3) Increase in water logging, salinity, alkalinity and acidity problems4) Economic loss, loss of social values and loss of biodiversity.Causes of land degradation1) Growing population2) Growing urbanization3) Use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides4) Deterioration of top soil5) Water logging, soil erosion, salination and pollutionSOIL EROSIONIt is the process of removal of superficial layer of the soil from one place to another place. It removes soil nutrientsTypes of Soil erosion(i) Normal erosion: Gradual erosion of top soil by natural processes(ii) Accelerated erosion: Due to man made activities.Effects of Soil erosion(i) Soil fertility lost(ii) Loss of ability to hold water and function as drainage channel

(iii) Loss of sediments. Sediment run off can pollute water and affect aquatic life.Causes(i) Rain, floods and wave action(ii) Wind(iii) Biotic agents(iv) Over grazing-35% of world soil is due to overgrazing(v) Deforestation-30% of soil erosionControl of Soil erosion1) No-till farming: here the tilling machines make slits in the unploughed soil and inject seeds, fertilizers and water in the slit. 2) Contour farming: Here crops are planted in rows across small dams to hold soil and slow the water run off3) Terracing: Steep slopes are converted into series of broad terraces which run across the contour. This retains water for crops and reduces soil erosion by controlling run off.4) Alley cropping (Agro forestry): It involves planting of crops in strips or alleys between rows of trees of shrubs that can provide fruits and wood for fuel. Even after harvesting of main crop the trees/shrubs will remain and prevent soil erosion.5) Wind breaks or Shelter belts: Here trees are planted in long rows along the boundary of cultivated lands, which block the wind and reduce soil erosionDESERTIFICATION Desertification is a progressive destruction or degradation of arid or semiarid lands to desert.Effects of Desertification1) Around 600 million people are threatened by desertification2) Fertile lands and usable lands are affected3) Affects biodiversity4) Agricultural productivity falls

5) Groundwater is depleted6) Salination7) Soil erosionCauses of desertification1) Deforestation2) Over grazing3) Poor water management4) Mining and quarrying5) Climate change6) PollutionLANDSLIDESLandslides are downward and outward movement of a slope composed of earth materials such as rock, soil, artificial fills.Causes1) Removal of vegetation2) Deforestation3) Underground mining4) Over exploitation of groundwater5) Heavy vehicles movement6) Construction works on sloppy areasEffects1) Turbidity of water increases2) Blockade of roads and railway tracks3) Severing of communication lines4) Loss of habitat and biodiversity5) Loss of infrastructure and economic loss

ROLE OF INDIVIDUAL IN CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCESMeasures for conservation of Natural Resources1) Conservation of Energy(i) Switching of lights, fans and electrical gadgets when not in use(ii) Use solar heater(iii) Dry the clothes in sun light(iv) Growing of trees near houses and office buildings to keep them cool and minimize use of air conditioners need not be used always

(v) Use Pressure cooker(vi) Use bicycles or go by walking2) Conservation of Wateri) Minimize water useii) Arrest water leaksiii) Reuse wastewater generated from kitchen washings and cloth washingiv) Use drip irrigationv) Rainwater harvesting3) Conservation of Soili) Grow different types of plants, herbs, trees and grass in open areas and house backyardsii) Do not uproot trees for construction of buildingsiii) Irrigate plants with less amount of wateriv) Use sprinkling irrigationv) Use green manure in gardensvi) Use mixing cropping so that soil nutrients will be restores4) Conservation of Food Resourcesi) Eat minimum food/Avoid over eatingii) Don’t waste food and food materialsiii) Cook only reqd amount of foodiv) Don’t store large amount of food grains that could not be stored properly.5) Conservation of Foresti) Use non-timber productsii) Plant more trees and protect themiii) Control grazing in forest landsiv) Minimize use of papaers and fuel woodv) Avoid constructing dams, roads in forest areas.

EQUITABLE USE OF RESOURCES FOR SUSTAINABLE LIFE STYLESustainable development is use of natural resources without getting them depleted and without affecting the environment.Lifestyle in most developed countries

22% of world population in most developed countries consuming 85% of natural resources utilized. Their contribution towards pollution id very high.Lifestyle in less developed countries78% population consuming 12% natural resources. People suffer from Poverty.Causes of Unsustainabilityi) Over populationii) Opportunity to consume less resourcesConditions for Sustainable life stylei) Need to achieve balanced and equitable use of natural resources by allii) Rich countries should sacrifice something

UNIT IVSOCIAL ISSUES AND THE ENVIRONMENTSUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENTDefn: Sustainable development means meeting the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generation to meet their own needs. Reasons foe unsustainable development:(i) Over exploitation of natural resources(ii) Polln of air, water and soilAims for sustainable development:(i) Optimum use of natural resources(ii) High degree of reusability/recycling(iii) minimum wastage(iv) Least generation of toxic products and pollutants(v) Multidimensional concept of Society↔Ecology↔Environment (∆)(vi) (a) Inter-generational equity: handover healthy, safe and resourceful environment (b) Intra-generational equity: Technological development of rich countries should support the economic growth of the poor countries.

EARTH SUMMIT1992 UN conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) @ Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. It emphasized “a new and equitable global partnership through the creatin of new levels of cooperation among States”.

Agenda 21 proposes – a global program of action on sustainable development in social, economic and environmental context for the 21st

century.Approaches for Sustainable Development:

(i) Developing appropriate technologies-locally adoptable, eco friendly, resource-efficient, culturally suitable and affordable(ii) Reduce, Reuse, Recycle (3 R approach) (iii) Environment education and awareness(iv) Consumption of renewable resources only-consumption should not exceed regeneration capacity(v) Conservation of non-renewable resources(vi) Population control(vii) cooperation among people and among nationHow to switch over from unsustainable to sustainable development?(1) Adopt modified ecofriendly technologies(2) Preserve ecological diversities and stability(3) Conservation of land, water and other natural resources; restrict to development activities like dams, roads, railways and tracks(4) Controlled urbanization(5) Population control(6) Use of bio-fertilizers(7) Water resource management(8) Prevent global warming, depletion of ozone layer etc.(9) 3-Rs-Reduce, Reuse and Recycle(10) Prevention of wastes and waste management11) Alternate and renewable energy use.Indicators of Sustainable Development:(i) Clealiness of air and water (air quality & water quality).(ii) Percentage forest coverage(iii) Biodiversity index (No. of species in an area over time)

(iv) % Use of Renewable energy sources(v) Level of CO2 in air(vi) Level of ozone layer thickness(vii) Level of non-usable and non-recyclable wastes generated at home and at industries(viii) Availability of various natural resources(ix) Population growthUrbanization and Energy needs:Urbanization: Urbanization is the movement of human population from non-urban areas to urban areas for search of better jobs, education, communication, health, civic facilities, recreation and social gatherings - meeting energy needs etc. (1/10 (1900), 3/10 (2000), 5/10 (2015)Urbanization and energy needs (energy demanding activities):(1) Development is directly related to energy demand(2) Life style requires more energy(3) 37% of world energy production consumed by urban industries.(4) Big markets, housing and shopping complexes require more energy - lighting, lift, air conditioning etc.(5) Transport-More 2 wheelers and carsTransport consumes 32% of world energy consumption (of which 82% is consumed on roads).(6) More street lights, more electrical gadgets at home(7) Water supply and sewage (pumping more ground water)Solution:(1) More use of public transport systems(2) Energy saving at all places (street lights in local bodies, home appliances)(3) Water saving (energy requirement for water lifting will be reduced)(4) Use of energy saving technologies(5) Use of solar energy

(6) More production without polln and exhausting non-renewable resources(7) Strict laws, penalties, energy audit etc.Social issues:(1) Sustainability(2) Urban energy needs(3) Water conservation and water shed(4) Resettlement and rehabilitation of people(5) Environmental ethics(6) Environemntal problems-(i) climate (ii) green house effect (iii) acid rain (iv) ozone layer (v) nuclear accidents(7) wasteland management(8) Consumerism and waste products(9) Environment legislation and laws-(i) water (ii) air (iii) forest (iv) wild life (v) Environemnt protection (10) Environmental audit(11) NGOs and awareness

WATER CONSERVATIONWater Conservation: It is the process of saving water for its optimum utilization and sustain the equilibrium in the water cycle. Also conserve fresh water for future utilization.Water cycle: Quantity and quality sustained-Climate change and vagaries of monsoon restrained.Needs of Water Conservation:(1) Changes in environmental factors(2) Better life style requires more fresh water. 1900 2000 (ten times increased).(3) Population increase demand increases(4) Deforestation causes decrease in annual rainfall (5) Over exploitation of groundwater-age of G.W(6) Agri & Ind. Activities require more water.

Strategies:(1) Reduce evaporation loss(2) Reduce irrigation loss (dip

irrigation during morning and evening, hybrid varieties.

(3) Reuse and recycle(4) Water saving (avoid leaks)(5) Decrease run-off(6) Avoid discharge of sewage

into natural waterMethods of water conservation:(1) Rainwater harvesting

(a) Get it as fresh water (b) Prevent contamination(c) Prevent saline

intrusion(d) Reduce surface run-off(e) Avoid storm water

runoff and soil erosion(f) Increase hydrostatic

pressure to stop land (g) Minimize water crisis

and water conflicts Annual rainfall in T.N-1200 mm.Methods of Rainwater harvesting:(1) Directly collected and stored in

sumps or directed to wells(2) Recharge borepit(3) Recharge borewellRoof top rainwater harvesting:Advantages:(1) Available freshwater

consumption is reduced (2) Freshwater is used for

recharging groundwater by preventing wasteful runoff

(3) Quality of water improved(4) Rise in groundwater level-

pumping cost reduced(5) Prevents soil erosion and flood

hazards(6) Preserve freshwater for future

generation

WATERSHEDIt is a land area of a continued aquifer in which water drains under the influence of gravity into streams, lakes, reservoirs or other surface water body within that area.Watershed management:The management of rainfall and resultant runoff is called watershed management. It involves proper conservation, regeneration and proper use of water.Factors affecting watershed:(1) Uncontrolled, unplanned and unscientific land use.(2) Overgrazing, deforestation, mining and construction activities(3) Climate changeObjectives:(1) Minimize risks of floods, droughts and land slide.(2) Develop water potential of Rural areas(3) Use watershed for developmental activities like domestic domestic water supply, irrigation, hydroelectric power etc.(4) Employment opportunities and improve livelihood(5) Promote social forestry and horticulture activities(6) Prevent erosion and run off.(7) Raise the groundwater level and improve the water quality.Watershed management practices:(1) Trenches (pits) (2) Earthen dams (or) Stone embankment (3) Farm pond (4) Underground barriers (dykes)Components of watershed:(1) Water harvesting and storage (2) Afforestation and agro-foresting(3) Reduce soil erosion by terracing, bunding, contour cropping, strip cropping etc.

(4) Scientific mining and quarrying (soil binding plants and contour trenching)(5) Public participation(6) Minimizing livestock population(7) Population control(8) Water conservation and saving techniques.NATIONAL LEVEL WATERSHED SYSTEMS Region Basin catchment Sub-catchment Water shedRegions(1) Indus drainage(2) Ganga drainage(3) Brahmaputra dtainage(4) Rivers falling into bay of Bengal(5) Rivers falling into Arabian sea(6) Ephemeral drainage of rajasthanRESETTLEMENT AND REHABILITATIONCauses: (1) Developmental activities (dams, roads, rails) (2) Disaster (Tsunami, floods, earthquake) (3) WarRehabilitation Issues:(1) Poor people are displaced-self supporting very difficult(2) Loss of home, land, jobs, food security and social isolation(3) Communal ownership not considered(4) Cash compemnsation not adequate(5) Social gatherings and cultural feasts vanish(6) Loss of identity and link betn people and environment.Rehabilitation policy:(1) Extend of damage, loss and sufferings should be studied before starting the project(2) Resettlement should go parallelly and before commencement of the project work it should be completed.(3) Choose only adjacent areas for rehabilitation (not far off places)

(4) Extent of rehabilitation should meet the ends of social justice and balanced development(5) The compensation should match with the beneficiaries of the project(6) The rehabilitated people should get job, education, healthcare, safety and social continuity.

Resettlement It is a simple relocation of displacement of human population without focusing on their future welfare.Rehabilitation: It involves making the system to work again by allowing the system function naturally. It includes replacing the lost economic assets, safeguard employment, provide safe land for building, restore social services, repair damaged infrastructure etc.Sardar Sarovar dam:(i) 573 villages and 10 lakhs people affected(ii) 45000 hectares forest land and 200000 hectares agri land submerged(iii) Height is again to be raised from 100 m to 110.64 m.Narmada Bachao Andolan (NBA) by Smt. Maedha Patkar.Tehri dam project:(i) Constructed across Bhagirathi and Bhilanganga(ii) Submerged 100 villages(iii) 85,600 families to be relocated.

ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICSIt refers to the issues, principles and guidelines relating to human interactions with their environment.Functions of Environment:(i) It is the life supporting medium of all organisms(ii) Maintains biodiversity and ecological balance

(iii) Provides food, air and water(iv) Waste disintegration (purifies water, air and land)(v) Moderates climate conditions of soil(vi) Healthy economy & healthy environment linked to each otherProblems:(i) Deforestation(ii) Exhausting the natural resources(iii) Pollution(iv) Water scarcity(v) Land degradation & degradation of soil fertilitySolution:(i) Reduce waste matter; Reuse and recycle (ii) Avoid over exploitation of natural resources; use non-renewable energy sources(iii) Prevent soil degradation(iv) Promote sustainable development(v) Protect biodiversity(vi) Reduce population; lead simple and natural way of life.(vii) Produce long lasting goodsEthical Guidelines:(1) Love for nature (2) Equality for all life forms (equal right & equity)(3) Worshiping the seasons (nature)(4) No use of destructive weapons(5) Respect for future generation to avail the resources(6) Limited use of materials; simple and natural way of life

WASTELAND RECLAMATION Defn: A land not in use is called wasteland. It will be normally unproductive, unfit for cultivation, grazing and other economic uses. 20% area in India is wasteland. Types:

(1) Uncultivable: Barren rocky areas, hilly slopes, stony or leached or gully land or sandy desert(2) Cultivable (not cultivated in the last 5 yeares): Degraded forest lands, gullied lands, water logged and marsh lands, saline lands.Causes for wasteland formation:(1) Soil erosion, deforestation, overgrazing, water logging, salinity(2) Increasing demand for free-wood and extensive use of pesticides(3) Developmental activities-dams, power projects, roads, railways etc.(4) Over exploitation of natural resources(5) Pollution by sewage and industrial wastes(6) Mining and seawater intrusion(7) Growing demand for fuel, fodder, wood, and food leading to loss of soil productivityNeed for wasteland reclamation:(1) Improve the soil structure and quality(2) Prevent soil erosion, flooding and landslide(3) Avoid over exploitation of natural resources(4) Improve Qlty & Qnty of available water(5) Conserve biological resources and natural ecosystem(6) Provide sources of income for rural poor(7) Supply fuel, fodder and timber for local useMethods of land reclamation:(1) Draiange: for water logged area(2) Leaching: Leaching of salt by water(3) Irrigation practice: High frequency of irrigation with controlled amount of water

(4) Green manures & biofertilizers(5) Application of gypsum: Ca replaces Na to form Ca-clay(6) Afforestation: National commission on agriculture and National development board-5 million hectares/yr are to be made into forest(7) Social forestry program: Strip plantation on road, canal sides, degraded forest land etc.

CONSUMERISM AND WASTE PRODUCTS1. CONSUMERISM It refers to the consumption of resources by the people. It is related to population and demand and change in life style.Seller’s rights: (i) Right to introduce any product (ii) Right to change any price (iii) Right to spend any amount to promote their product (iv) Right to use incentivesBuyer’s Rights: (i) Right to buy or not to buy (ii) Expect product to be usable and safe (iii) Expect quality productInformation on the products: (i) Ingredients(ii) Manufacture and expiry date (iii) Product manufactured against any law or rights violationsObjectives of Consumerism:(i) Improve the rights and power of the buyer(ii) Liability for manufacturer for the entire lifecycle of the product(iii) Force manufacturers to reuse and recycle the product(iv) Banning non-biodegradable materials (awareness on it)(v) Reusable packing materials for soft drinks (like cane water)(vi) Ensure human health and happiness; satisfaction and saves money and resources

(vii) Bound by laws2. WASTES Sources of wastes: Glass, paper, garbage, plastics, soft drink canes, metals, food wastes, automobile wastes, dead animals, construction and factory wastes, E-wastes.Effects of Wastes:(i) Toxic and poisonous (ii) Soil affected(iii) E-waste-Pb, Cd, PVC etc.(iv) Non-biodegradable-chokes the water line; loss of soil fertility (aeration and percolation of soil affected)Factors affecting consumerism and generation of wastes:(i) People (over population): Less developed countries (LCD); per capita consumption and waste generation are less; food & water < people’s needs.(ii) Consumption (over-population): Food & wastes > people’s need; generation of more wastes and degradation of environment is high.

CLIMATEClimate: It is the average temp, pressure, humidity, particulate matter etc. of the atmosphere in a region over a long period of time. World meteorological dept. says it is three month’s average.Weather: The above statistics within last 15 days.

In the 4.7 billion years of earth’s life, climate change has happened slowly & also quickly (previously there was ice age); the mean average temp in the last several thousand years – o.5 to 1.0oC only. Causes: (1) Greenhouse effect (2) Ozone layer depletion

Effect: (1) Change of climate-agriculture affected-ecosystem affected-migration of population and species(2) Change in hydrological cycle-

cyclones, floods droughts (3) Ocean currents & global wind patters changed.

(3) Greenhouse effect:(4) The allowing in of solar radiations

into the earth’s atmosphere but not getting our due to presence of some gases like CO2 is called green house effect.

(5) Greenhouse gases: CO2 (64%); CH4 (19); CFC (11%); and N2O (6%).

(6) Radiation absorption ratio: CO2:CH4:CFC :: 1:25:20000

(7) CO2 level has raised 0.4% per year in the last 100 yrs. The CO2 level may double by the year 2075 (or even by 2030).

The progressive warming up of the earth’s surface due to blanketing effect of manmade gases in the atmosphere.Sources: (1) Burning of fossil fuel (2) Industrial emission (3) Much coal production (4) Rice paddy, live stock wastes, land fills (5) A.C/ Refrigeration/ Plastic foam (6) Cleaning solvents like CCl4.Global warming: The increase in atm temp by progressive heating of the atm by the green house gases is called global warming.Eff ects:(1) Sea level rise (2) Glacier melting (3) affects agri and forestry (4) affects fresh water resources (5) human health affected (6) Ecosystem affected and migration of extinction species.How to check global warming:(1) Energy saving technologies (2) Emissionless technologies (3) Cut CO2

emission (4) Polln control (air polln reduction) (5) alternate and clean energy (6) Reduce, Reuse and Recycle (7) Population control (8) Afforestation (9) Redn of CFC level.CDM: Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)-Kyoto protocol-Rich countries to invest in projects in developing countries to reduce emission.

ACID RAINSO2 & NO2 gases when dissolved in water pH < 4.0 (contribute for mineral acidity).SOx + H2O H2SO4;NOx + H2O HNO3

Also called: Acid fog, acid snow acid precipitationEffect: (1) Destroys life (2) affects human nervous system, respiratory system and digestive system (asthma, bronchitis, skin diseases (3) damage to structures (4) damage to crops (5) lake ecosystem affected (6) atmospheric visibility affected (7) Soil acidity (8) acid loving mosses harmful to trees.Control: (1) Clean energy techniques (2) Renewable and non polluting energy (3) use of low S-content coal (4) Liming (5) Reduce motor vehicles.

OZONE LAYEREarth’s atmosphere: Troposphere – Stratosphere – Mesosphere – Ionosphere – Thermosphere (found in stratosphere)O2 + h O + O O + O2 + M O3 + M (M-third body like nitrogen)Ozone Hole:28.3 million sq. km (3 times of Australian continent) Ozone day-16th SeptemberAug-Sept only maximum depletion.CF2Cl2 + h + Cl + CF2Cl

CF2Cl + O2 CF2O + ClOCl + O3 ClO + O2

ClO + O Cl + O2.[O3 + NO + O2 + NO2]Chemicals causing ozone hole: CFC, HCFC, BFCEffects: (1) UV-affects skin (2) Immune system affected (3) cancer, allergies, infectious diseases, phytoplankton, fish, larval crabs affected (5) Global warming (6) Materials affected.Dobson Unit:1 DU = 0.01 mm thickness of pure ozone at the density it possesses at ground level (1 atm. Press.)Temperate latitude – 350 DUTropics – 250 DUSu polar – 450 DUControl:(1) Avoid CFCs(2) Avoid methyl bromide(3) Avoid all related chemicals

NUCLEAR ACCIDENTSTypes of accidents:(1) Nuclear test (2) Nuclear power plant accidents (3) Improper disposal of radioactive wastes (4) Accident during transport of radioactive wastes (5) Core melt down.Effects: (1) Breaks DNA molecules (instantaneous, prolonged or delayed) (2) Low dose (100-250 rads)-Fatigue, vomiting and hair loss (3) High dose (400-500 rads)-Bone marrow, blood cells and resistance power affected (4) Very high (10000 rads) – damages heart and brain cells and organisms die.Nuclear Holocaust: (1) Nuclear winter (opp to global warming – black soot absorbs sun’s radiations – No heat reaches earth – earth’s surface cools down – even summer will be freezing temp – no crop productivity – radiations

carried to all plants and animals through the food chain and food web.(2) Burns all materials, destroys all living beings, materials damaged. Examples nuclear holocaust: (1) Hiroshima & Nagasagi (bone deformation, Sr90, 100000 died) (2) Chernobyl: Nuclear reactor exploded during a low power test – 31 deaths, 2000 cancer cases, 80000 ill, 1.3 lakhs evacuated. (3) Tokarimma (Japan): Uranyl nitrate > 16.6 kg above critical mass.Control measures: (1) Avoid war (2) Avoid accidents (3) Train people to face the accidents and holocausts (4) Monitor the radiation level.

ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATIONS AND LAWSI. WATER (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION), 1974Objectives:(1) Prevent & control pollution(2) Maintain and restore wholesomeness of water(3) State and Central PCBsFeatures:(1) Prevent water polln & preserve water quality(2) CPCBs and SPCBs – establishment(3) Restrain individuals and factories from discharging sewage or effluents(4) Contravention of guidelines attract penal action(5) Act not clear about – defn of pollutant, discharge of pollutant and about toxic pollutant.1988 Amendment:SPCB: Permission is reqd for industries – (1) get appl by industry (2) For any

change of outlet (3) for discharging sewage (4) SPCB can issue notice and file a case or stop electricity, water supply services (5) Imprisonment for 1 ½ to 6 Yrs; Fine Rs.5000/day.

AIR POLLUTION ACT, 1981Objective: (1) Prevent and control air pollution (2) Maintain quality of air (3) Establish PCBs.Features of Act:(1) CPCB lays down stds for air quality(2) CPCB handles disputes betn SPCBs; provides technical assistance and guidance(3) SPCBs to lay down stds.(4) Clearances by SPCB; examine the manufacturing process, control of equipment and treatment processes(5) Inspect factories periodically for compliances(6) Advisory role to State Govt.(7) CPCB directive mandatory on State Boards(8) New industries may be prohibited in polluted, residential areas etc. (notified areas)(9) Violation of law is punishable-3 months & Rs. 10000/- (one or both)

FOREST (CONSERVATION OR PREVENTION) ACT, 1980All forests including reserve forests, protected forests coveredObj: (1) Protect & conserve forests (2) Ensure judicious use of forest productsFeatures: (1) Reserve forests cannot be dereserved (2) Forest land cannot be used for non-forest purposes (3) Illegal activities to be stopped.1988 amendment: (1) Cannot be leased even for re-forestation (2) Clearance of

forest land forbidden (3) Use for non-forest use is cognizable offecnce.

WILD LIFE (PROTECTION) ACT, 1972 (Amendments in 1983, 86, 91)It refers to all plants and animals (not domesticated)-In India 350 species of mammals, 1200 birds, 20000 insects (some are endangered).Decline of wild life: Skin, fur, leather, ivory, etc.Objective: (1) Maintain the ecology and life supporting system (2) Preserve biodiversity (3) Continuance of species.Features: (1) Rights and non-rights of forest dwellers (2) Restricted grazing in sanctuaries; but prohibited in parks (3) Prohibits collection of non-timber forest products (4) Rights of forest dwellers taken away by amendment in 1991 (5) Tribal rights act now introduced. ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION ACT, 1986.It fills the gaps in other acts. Empowers central Govt. to fix standards or norms for air, water, soil, noise and hazardous wastes.Objective: (1) Protect and improve environment (2) Prevent hazards (3) Harmonious relation betn humans and environment.Features: (1) Lay down procedures and safeguards for prevention of accidents caused by polln and remedial measures (2) Close or regulate industries (3) Stringent penal action – 5 yrs and fine of Rs. 1.0 lakhs (or both) and addl fine of Rs. 5000/- per day.(4) Punish individuals directly responsible (5) Inspection and monitoring by central Govt. (6) Govt. can directly involve avoiding regulatory authorities and agencies.

ENVIRONMENT AUDITIt is used to quantify environment performance and status. How to improve? What are the indicators? (i) Liability audit (compliance with legal obligations(ii) Management audit (iii) Functional activity –specific area like water or energy

ISO 14000It is environment management standards, minimize pollution and comply with laws and regulations; promote effective environment management; provide usable and useful tools. End result is continuous improvement. Issues related to enforcement of Environmental legislations:(1) 33% land area to be covered by forest area – not achieved(2) Wild lives are lost(3) Rivers become open sewers(4) Ambient air in towns polluted(5) Vehicular traffic increasingDrawbacks: I. Wild life protection act:(1) Enacted in 1972 (Stockholm) – evolving of local conservation measures not included(2) Ownership certificate for animal particles (promotes illegality)(3) J&K has its own act (not adequate)(4) Not harsh punishment – Fine Rs. 25000 & 3 yrs prisonII. Forest Conservation Act, 1980: (1) Power transferred to States (conversion of reserve forest areas into non-forest areas)(2) Power centralized (local communication neglected)(3) Tribes affected

(4) Not concerned with poor people (only concerned with trees, birds and animals)(5) Knowledge of tribals not used for conservation of nature.III. Pollution Acts:(1) Power to central Govt.; little to State Govt.(2) Small penalties(3) Individuals cannot file a case in the court(4) Litigation process is cumbersome (5) Small units find difficult to construct expensive Treatment plants(6) Chairman is political or IAS (non-technical)

CPCBs & SPCBsRole of CPCB:(1) Advise to central Govt.(2) Plan for prevention of pollution(3) Lays down standards for air and water(4) Establishing Labs to monitor(5) Technical guidance for State Boards(6) Sponsoring research activities(7) Areas of pollution identified and caustioned(8) Encourage industries to reuse and recycle wastes(9) Advise about modern technologies(10) “Clean Technology” promoted.Role of SPCBs:(1) Advise to State Govts.(2) Right to inspect(3) Encourage research(4) Educational and awareness programs(5) Labs give the report to the Board; Engineers collect samples

NGOs:(1) Local environmental issues handled at grassroots level

(2) Educate Mahila mandals, women SHGs(3) Narmada Bachao Andolan – Kalpav viksh (4) CPR foundation, Swaminathan foundation(5) Sensitize on polln problems (Kerala Sastra Sahitya Parishad)(6) Institute of Algology (attached to colleges)(7) Enviro clubs

PUBLIC AWARENESSObjectives:(1) Rural and city people-awareness created on ecology, local environment, technical developments(2) Meetings, group discussions, tree plantations(3) Focus on current environment problems(4) Training planners, administrators and technical people(5) Eliminate poverty and unemployment(6) Simple way of lifeMethods:(1) Schools and colleges(2) Mass media(3) Cinema (4) Newspapaer(5) audio-video visuals(6) NCC, NSS, Rotary club, Lions club(7) Traditional techniques, folk plays, dramas(8) Arranging competitions(9) Leader addressing(10) NGOs involvement

UNIT V - HUMAN POPULATION AND ENVIRONMENTPopulation: Population is defined as a group of individuals belonging to the same species, which live in a given area at a given time. Population density: It is expressed as the no. of individuals of the population per unit area or per unit volume.Parameters affecting population size: (1) Natality (birth rate) (2) Mortality (death rate) (3) Immigration (arrivals from neighboring population) (4) Emigration (dispersal from original population to new one).Population growth: 1800 – 1 billion1930 – 2 billion1975 – 4 billion2000 – 6 billion2050 – 10 billion Globally, the growth rate of the human population has been steadily declining since peaking in 1962-63 at 2.20% per annum. In 2007 the growth rate was 1.19% per annum. The actual annual growth in the number of humans fell from its peak of 87.8 million per annum in 1989, to a low of 74.6 million per annum in 2003, after which it has been rising again, to 76.6 million per annum in 2007, and 77.0 million per annum in 2009. The growth rate is expected to peak in 2010 at 77.2 million per annum, then decline steadily to about 43 million per annum in 2050, at which time the population will have increased to about

9.3 billion. Growth remains high especially in the Middle East and Sub-Saharan Africa, and also in South Asia, Southeast Asia, and Latin America. Some countries experience negative population growth, especially in Eastern Europe (mainly due to low fertility rates and emigration). In Southern Africa, growth is slowing due to the high number of HIV-related deaths. Some Western Europe countries might also encounter negative population growth. Japan's population began decreasing in 2005.Causes: The last one hundred years have seen a rapid increase in population due to medical advances (discovery of antibiotics and life saving medicines) and massive increase in agricultural productivity made possible by the Green Revolution.Growth rate = crude birth rate - crude death rate + net immigration rate, or ∆P/P = (B/P) - (D/P) + (I/P) - (E/P), where P is the total population, B is the number of births, D is the number of deaths, I is the number of immigrants, and E is the number of emigrants.Growth Ratio = Growth rate x 100%.Characteristics of population growth: (1) Exponential growth – The rate of population growth at any instant is given by the equation dN = rN

dt where r is the rate of natural increase in t — some stated interval of time, and N is the number of individuals in the

population at a given instant.

The algebraic solution of this differential equation is N = N0ert where N0 is the starting population N is the population after a certain

time, t, has elapsed, and e is the constant 2.71828... (the base

of natural logarithms).Plotting the results gives an exponential growth curve, so-called because it reflects the growth of a number raised to an exponent (rt). If a population has a constant birth rate through time and is never limited by food or disease, it has what is known as exponential growth. With exponential growth the birth rate alone controls how fast (or slow) the population grows.(2) Logistic Growth:In a population showing exponential growth the individuals are not limited by food or disease. However, in most real populations both food and disease become important as conditions become crowded. There is an upper limit to the number of individuals the environment can support. Ecologists refer to this as the "carrying capacity" of the environment. Populations in this kind of environment show what is known as logistic growth.(3) doubling Time:When a population has doubled, N = N0 x 2. Putting this in the exponential eqn N = N0ert

the exponential growth equation becomes: 2N0 = N0ert i.e. ert = 2 rt = ln (natural logarithm) of 2 = 0.69doubling time, t = 0.69 / r

Country Doubling timeIndia 28 Yrs

Pakistan 21 yrsU.S 87 yrsUK 231 yrsItaly 99 yrsFrance 117 yrsJapan 58 yrsInfant mortality rate: It is the percentage of infants died out of those born in one year. Total fertility rate (TFR): It is the average no. of children delivered by a woman in her life time. It varies from 2.0 to 4.7. Replacement rate: It takes a TFR of 2.1 or 2.2 to replace each generation — this number is called the replacement rateFactors involved in the demographic transition: improved standard of living increased confidence that your

children will survive to maturity improved status of women increased use of birth control

measuresMale:Female Ratio: In China it is 140:100.Demographic transition: Population growth is now mostly related to education and economic growth. In improved living conditions both death rate and birth rate decrease and the overall population growth is decreasing.Population among nations: Less developed countries have 80% population with 20% land. China and India have 1/3rd of world population. Europe + North America - 14% population.Population and Age: 0-14 age – Preproductive population15-44 – Reproductive population>44 Post productive population.Variation of Population:

(1) pyramid shaped-India, Bangladesh, Ethiopia(2) Bell shaped-France, UK, USA, Canada(3) Urns shaped: Germany, Italy, Sweden, Japan.Population explosion:The enormous increase in population due to low death rate (mortality) and high birth rate (Natality) is termed as population explosion. Causes of Population explosion:1) More medical facilities-Average life expectancy has increased from 40 yrs in 1950 to 61 in 2000.2) Increased food production due to green revolution

Life Expectancy:Country Rank Life

expectancy(Macau) China

1 84.36

Japan 3 82.12Singapore 4 81.98Australia 7 81.63Canada 8 81.23France 9 80.98Sweden 10 80.86Germany 32 79.26UK 36 79.01E.U. 41 78.67Denmark 46 78.3Southi arabia 69 76.3Srilanka 84 75.14China 105 73.47Malasia 108 73.29Vietnam 127 71.58India 145 69.89Pakistan 166 64.49Bangladesh 182 60.25South africa 208 48.98Angola 222 38.2

Problems of Population growth (OR)Effect of Population explosion (environment and social impacts)1) More demand for food and natural resources2) Poverty3) Environmental degradation4) Over exploitation of natural resources5) Loss of agricultural land due to building of more houses, industrial buildings and developmental projects.6) Renewable resources like forest, grasslands are also under threat.7) Lack of basic amenities like water, sanitation, housing, education and health.8) More environmental pollution9) Unemployment and socio-political unrest10) More diseases, economic inequity and commercial war.11) Crowded cities with slums12) Unemployment and low living standard.REMEDYFamily welfare program:Implemented by GOI as a part of overall policy-covers human health, maternity, family welfare, child care and women’s right.Objectives of Family welfare program: 1) Slow down population growth2) Release the pressure to environment3) Improved welfare of women & childrenPopulation stabilization ratio:Population stabilization ratio=Crude birth rate/crude death rateDeveloped countries = 1;Developing countries = 3.Family planning program:Objectives:

1) Reduce infant mortality rate to below 30/1000 infants2) Achieve 100% registration of births, deaths, marriage and pregnancy.3) Discourage child marriage, encourage late marriage and later child bearing4) Encouraging mother feeding5) Improve women’s health, education and employment6) Implementing family planning programs7) Contain the spread of AIDS/HIV8) Prevent commercial diseases.9) Promote small family norm10) Making school education up to 14 yrs free and compulsory.Fertility control methods:1) Traditional methods2) Tubectomy (female sterilization)3) Vasectomy (male sterilization)4) Condoms5) Copper Ts.6) Oral contraceptive pills.Family Planning Programs:1) 1952-launched2) 1970 – Forced family planning campaign3) 1978 – Minimum age for marriage 18 & 214) 1981 – Funding increased due to inadequate results.Environment and human health:Disease: The factors like nutritional, biological, chemical or psychological which cause changes in body’s conditions are called disease.Factors influencing human health:1) Nutritional2) Biological3) Chemical4) PychologicalEnvironmental degradation:15% of world’s population controls 85% natural resources. Urban people

consume more resources but these are produced elsewhere.

Constant pollution to environment-ozone layer depletion, global warming. climate change, floods, droughts, outbreak of diseases.

Hazards Health effectRadioactive Body cell

affected, DNA muted, cancer

UV radiation Skin cancerGlobal warming Famine and

mortalityChlorofluorocarbon O3 depletionNoise Hearing

impairmentCombustion of fuel SO2, NO2, CO2

emitted; asthma, bronchitis, lung diseases

Industrial effluents (toxic)

Body cell affected, cancer, neurological problems, death.

Heavy metals-Hg, Cd, Pb

Ill effects and toxicity

NO3 Blue baby diseaseBacteria, virus and parasites

Diarrhea, malaria, parasitic worms, anaemia, respiratory disease, cholera.

Preventive measures:1) Wash hands before taking food2) Cut the nails and keep them clean3) Cleanliness of hair, skin, teeth and body4) Drink safe water5) Take uncontaminated food6) Wash vegetables and fruits before use

7) Avoid plastic bags, aluminum vessels 8) Do regular physical exercise for blood circulation.NIMBY Syndrome:Not In My Back Yard (NIMBY)-It is opposition of residents to something taking place in nearby locality which they consider undesirable even if it clearly benefits many.E.g. airport, Incinerator, Ethanol plant, nuclear power plant, prison.HUMAN RIGHTS: Human rights are the fundamental rights which are possessed by all human beings irrespective of their caste, nationality, sex and language.These are natural rights and cannot be taken back by any act or legislation.Universal Declaration of Human Rights: Human Right to -1) Freedom (speech, to form association, house & profession anywhere)2) Property3) Freedom of religion4) Freedom of culture and education5) Constitutional remedies6) Equality7) Against exploitation8) Right to food and environment9) Good health.INDIAN CONSTITUTION:Articles 14 (equality), 15 (indiscrimination-religion, caste, sex, place of birth), 16 (equal opportunity), 19 (freedom of speech, right to form unions and associatiosn), 20 (innocents getting protection from conviction), 22 (rights of a person in custody), 23 (prohibit human trafficking and forced labor), 24 (prohibits child labor), 25 (frredom to any profession), 26 (maintain charitable and religious institutiosn), 27 (prohibis collections in the name of religion or any institution),

28 (secular characteristics in educational institutions), 29 (minorities right), 30 (right to establish educational institutions by linguistic and religious minorities).National commissions for-SCs and STsWomenMinorities etc.VALUE EDUCATIONTypes of Education: (1) Formal education: (self related) (2) Value education: - It is a tool used to analyze our behavior and provide proper direction to our youths. It teaches them what is right and wrong; teaches them to be compassionate, helpful, loving, generous and tolerant. (3) Value based environmental education: - Provides knowledge about ecology, environment and biodiversity. It creates a duty to care for the natural resources and to manage them in a sustainable way.Objectives of Value education:(1) Improve integral growth of human beings(2) Improve attitudinal improvements towards sustainable lifestyle.(3) Awareness on notational history, culture, heritage, constitutional rights, national integration, community development and environment protection.(4) Awareness about values and their significance and role.(5) Understand environment and linkages betn air, water and land.(6) Know about living and non-living things and their interaction with environment.Concept of Value education:(1) Why to use less resources and energy?(2) Why to keep surroundings clean?

(3) Why to use less fertilizers and pesticides and instead use biofertilizers?(4) Why to save water?(5) Why to separate biodegradable and non-biodegradable wastes?Methods imparting value education:(1) Telling (2) Modeling(3) Role playing (4) Problem solving(5) Studying biographies of great men.Types of values:(1) Universal/Social values: not to spit in the street(2) Cultural values-not to wear chappals inside temples(3) Individual values: (related to individual goals and objectives.(4) Global value- don’t emit pollutants(5) Spiritual value-leave all desire.

HIV/AIDS:AIDS-Acquired Immuno Deficiency SyndromeHIV-Human Immune deficiency Virus.Discovered in 1983-It spread from Africa-Came through African Monkeys-Spread through HIV contaminated polio vaccine prepared from monkeys-also spread through hepatitis-B viral vaccine in Los Angels and New York-Also spread through small pox vaccine program from Africa.Facts:1) 90% AIDS affected people in developing countries.2) 13% affected people live in Africa3) All countries in Africa affected.4) 3 million people so far died.5) India ranks 2nd with 5.1 million affected people.6) Largest in India is in Maharastra and Tamilnadu.6) In Tamilnadu 24667 cases identified.Factors influencing AIDS:1) Spreads by blood contact (during unprotected sex)

2) Contaminated needles and syringes3) Mother to baby during pregnancy, delivery and mother feeding.4) Blood transfusion from infected person5) male to female transmission is 4 times powerful6) Women 18-20 more vulnerableAIDS not transmitted by:Food, tears, air, cough, handshake, mosquito, flies, insect bites, urine, saliva, sharing of utensils, clothes, toilet, bathroom etc.Functions of HIV in body:1) Death occurs due to weakening of immune system (not by the disease itself).2) White blood cells form antibodies called T-helper cells. T-helper cells fight diseases (and responsible for immunity). HIV destroys T-helper cells-hence even cancer can easily develop.3) Normally no symptom-some get fever, head ache and fatigue.4) HIV is present in large amounts in semens and vaginal fluid.5) HIV very active in human body and readily multiplies and kills more and more T—cells.6) Consumption of alcohol increases the susceptibility7) Remains infected through out life8) No vaccine available.Minor symptoms:1) persistent cough for more than 1 month2) General skin disease3) viral infection4) Fungus infection in mouth and throat5) Frequent fever, headache and fatigueMajor symptoms:1) Fever for more than 1 month2) Diarrhea for more than 1 month.3) Cough & TB for more than 6 months

4) Fall of hairs5) 10% weight loss within a short periodCONTROL/PREVENTION:1) Education the public2) Prevention of blood borne HIV transmission3) Primary health care through voluntary health agencies and health workers4) Counseling5) Drug treatment, nutrient diet, less stress.Effects of HIV/AIDS:1) Larger death and affects the environment and natural resources 2) Loss of labor and production loss3) More water is to be used by AIDs infected persons4) Will live as unproductive persons (loss of human resource)

WOMEN AND CHILD WELFAREThey suffer a lot as they are weak, helpless and economically dependent.Need for women welfare:1) Women suffer gender discrimination (devaluation at home, at workplace, in matrimony, in public life and power)2) High incidences of dowry deaths, rape, domestic violence, criminal offences and mental torture to women3) Male dominates society violates women’s rights4) In policy making at home and in society women are neglected.Objectives of women welfare:1) provide education2) Impart vocational training3) Generate awareness about environment4) Improve employment opportunities5) Awareness of problems of having more children and preventive measures6) Restore dignity, status, equality and respect for women.

NATIONAL COMMISSION FOR WOMENObjectives:1) Examine constitutional and legal rights of women2) Review existing legislations3) Sensitize enforcement and administrative machinery to women’s causes.Effect of Environemntal degradation on women:1) Since forest resources are depleted, men migrate to towns leaving the women folk at home2) Mining and other developmental activities displace families. But here women are neglected and affected.Schemes for Women welfare:1) National network for women and mining (NNWM)2) UN decade for women3) International convention on the elimination of all forms of discrimination against women (CEDAW)4) NGOs and Mahila Mandals5) Ministry for women and child development

CHILD WELFAREChild labour (reasons):1) Poverty2) Head of the family not alive3) Both parents leave the children/dieSchemes for Child welfare:1) UN conventions on rights of child (or) International law-Right to survival, participation, development and protection.2) World summit on children-targets well being of children3) Ministry of Human Resources Development (MHRD)-Child’s health, education, nutrition, safe drinking

waiter, sanitation and environment-6 million children in India affected by water borne diseases.4) Centre for Science and Environment (CSE).

ROLE OF ITData collection, processing, reporting and dissemination.Helpful tools: Internet, GISAPPLICATION OF IT:1) Remote sensing: application in agriculture, forestry, land cover, water resources, monsoon activity.2) Data base: Ministry of Env & Forest: NMIS (National management information system), ENVIS (Environment Information system)3) GIS: water resources, soil type, forest land, cropland, grass land as superimposed layers-Interpretation of polluted zones, degraded lands-Check unplanned growth and environmental problems4) Satellite data: Forest cover, monsoon pattern, ozone layer depletion, smog etc.5) www: (i) www.mhhe.com / environment science (ii) CD-ROM (ii) Applications-On line learning, digital files-photos, presentations, animations, web-exercises and quiz. CASE STUDIES1) Polluted back waters of Kerala2) Ocean Color Monitor (OCM) to study phytoplankton-IRS-P4.3) GIS for forest management4) National Emission data system5) ENVIS

IT AND HUMAN HEALTHHealth services:1) Finance and accounting2) Pathology

3) patient administration and clinical systemsApplication of IT in Health Services:1) data on birth rate, death rate, immunization and sanitation programs, water supply etc. are maintained accurately.2) Monitor health of the patient3) Outbreak of epidemics4) Consulting on-line consultancy with expert doctors5) Centralized control of hospitals6) Drugs purchase administrationCase Studies:1) Health Services of New South Wales-State administered public health service-integrated hospitals and community services-for 3 million population-IT package useful for finance, accounting and pathology systems.2) national Institute of Occupational Heath: NIOH provides computerized information on occupational health.

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