Emotional Competency - Inquiry, Evidence, And Argument

7/27/2019 Emotional Competency - Inquiry, Evidence, And Argument

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09/01/2013 Emotional Competency - Inquiry, Evidence, and Argument

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Inquiry, Evidence, and ArgumentPowerful tools to determine what is

Inquiry, evidence, and argument are the powerful tools we use to accurately determine what is.

They provide foundation, stability, and balance to our human spirit's ambitions, aspirations, optimism, hopes,

imagination, and distortions. They are the tools we use to test assumptions and understand cause-and-effect

relationships in the world around us. The goal is accuracy in facts, analysis, reason, and conclusions.

Facts are stubborn and the pen is mightier than the sword. Embrace facts as your friends while maintaininga healthy skepticism. Be prepared to reevaluate your opinions, interpretations, beliefs, assumptions, and

conclusions as new information, evidence, or analysis becomes available or is better understood. Develop,

refine, and apply your own theory of knowledge to make your own best decisions. Stay curious.

Definitions

Inquiry:

1. Curiosity, questioning, and learning.

2. Expressing doubt.

Evidence:

1. Observed phenomenon

Argument:

1. Logically valid conclusions drawn from the evidence presented.

2. A course of reasoning aimed at demonstrating truth or falsehood.

3. A set of statements in which one follows logically as a conclusion

from the others.

Valid logic and the scientific method help us understand what is, while

fallacies and any mistake in reasoning distort our perception and

obscure our thinking. Our minds are wired to select, interpret, and even

distort, evidence supporting the hypothesis I'm OK. Every day we are

subjected to manipulations, the influence of self-interested parties, factualand logical errors, opinion presented as fact, hype, and a variety of

distortions.

Writing and other communications can be evaluated using the criteria of: evidence provided, factual

accuracy, credibility of references, logical validity, depth of analysis, innovation and insight, relevance and

significance, balanced point of view, narrative skill, clarity, and presentation. Good writing is clear thinking

made visible. Learn to evaluate what you see, read, and hear; think critically, ask questions and draw your

own conclusions.

Describing Uncertainty

It is authentic and informative to describe the level of uncertainty when communicating information. Havethe courage and authenticity to say: I don't know, or: This is a rough estimate or simply This is what I

believe. We face measurement uncertainty, estimation error, sampling error, limited evidence, ambiguous

evidence, anecdotal evidence, conflicting evidence, non-representative evidence, disputed evidence,

misinformation, disinformation, inference, extrapolation, tradition, alternative points of view, the not-yet

Emotional Competency

Explore the Logic of Passion

Home Importance Recognizing Concepts Search Blog Resources References
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so many questions. Distinguish between undisputed fact, widely accepted fact, theory, expert opinion,

hypothesis, minority opinion, filtered information, assumptions, disingenuous statements, biased

information, dogma, faith, propaganda, and speculation when reporting information, engaging in dialogue, or

making arguments. Separate anecdotes from systematic studies. Consider how well the evidence

represents an larger conclusion. When drawing conclusions from a set of premises, comment on the level of

certainty of each premise and the soundness of the logic leading to each conclusion. It is a fact that 2+2=4

and that one weather report forecasts a 60% chance of rain for tomorrow. Use error bars and significant

figures to convey the range of uncertainly. Carefully distinguish what you do know from what you do not

know. Separate observation from interpretation. Scientific reports properly include error bars, forecasts and

estimates include confidence intervals and ranges, and opinions reflect only a personal point of view that

may not be widely shared or well considered.

Critical Thinking

Critical thinking thinking directed toward solving problemsinvolves seeking evidence, closely examining

reasoning and assumptions, analyzing basic concepts, and tracing out implications of what is said and what

is done. Knowing the rules of logic and being alert to their fallacies is the first step in critical thinking. Critical

thinkers consider a variety of questions when evaluating information and drawing conclusions. For example:

What problem are we working to solve?

What are my goals, objectives, and motives?What are the presenter's goals, objectives, biases, beliefs, and motives?

What question will best advance the dialogue?

How can a question be best worded and presented?

What are the sources of information and fact? Are the samples and examples representative?

What methods were used and what is the quality of information collection?

What are the possible sources of error?

What is the range of uncertainty and is it accurately described and represented?

What modes of judgment and reasoning are used?

What concepts make the reasoning possible?

What assumptions underlie the concepts in use? What alternative interpretations and explanations fit

the facts? Are these assumptions valid?

What implications follow from the concepts and assumptions used?What is the point of view or frame of reference for this reasoning? Is the point of view one-sided or

balanced ?

These considerations suggest specific questions such as:

What is the most fundamental issue here?

From what point of view can this problem best be approached?

What assumptions are being made here? Do these assumptions make sense? Why? What alternatives

are sensible?

What conclusion can best be inferred from the data? What alternative conclusions does it also

support?

What is the fundamental concept being presented?

Is conclusion B consistent with assumption, data, premise, or conclusion A?

How could I check the accuracy of these data? What alternative sources exist? Is this data

reproducible? Is the data systematic and representative?

If we accept conclusion A, what else is implied?

Is this a credible source of information? Why?

Critical thinking is not negative thinking. It is careful thinking directed toward deep understanding and

insight. It recognizes that the obvious is not always true, and many things that are true are not at all

obvious.

Evaluating Evidence

Evidence is often ambiguous or conflicting and always has to

be evaluated, analyzed, and interpreted. Evidence is most

reliable when:

you can directly observe, examine, and probe the
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ev ence yourse , n e a , a eng , w ou

interference or restriction, without obstruction, and

from a variety of vantage points.

you are alert and unimpaired by alcohol, drugs,

distraction, expectations, persuasion, vested interests,

bias , sleep deprivation, delusion, stress, peer

pressure, coercion, or strong emotions.

you can verify the source, origin, authenticity, context,

and representative nature of the evidence.

multiple senses cross check and provide consistent information regarding the observation. Evidence ismore complete and convincing when the way something feels is consistent with the way it looks. For

example, after seeing a rock, you might pick it up to examine more closely. If the texture feels like a

rock and the weight is what you expect, then you have additional evidence that what you are

observing is a rock. However if the surface texture is unusual, or the weight is unexpected, then

perhaps you are examining an artificial stone, or a hollow stone, or something quite different made of

unexpected materials.

the evidence is public and accessible, so that several people can examine it, share their findings, and

discuss the similarities and differences, consistencies and inconsistencies in their observations.

the evidence can be observed repeatedly, so observations can be checked, rechecked, and

reexamined.

the evidence can be observed under known or standard conditions that assist its evaluation. As an

example, water has very different appearance and properties below freezing and above its boiling

point.

Careful records such as notes, photographs, audio and video recordings, and diagrams are more

reliable and should be used instead of unaided recall when information is required later, after the

evidence has been examined first hand.

observation is separated from interpretation. We observe the sunlight appearing in the morning,

traversing a path across the sky, and disappearing in the evening. One interpretation is that the earth

is the center of the universe and the sun travels across the sky. An alternative interpretation is that

the earth rotates on its axis as it revolves around the sun.

the data is a good representation of the issue being investigated. Systematic information is more

reliable than anecdotal information. Data obtained from an independent source is more reliable than

data obtained, provided, selected, or interpreted by someone with an interest in the outcome.

whenever statistics are used to summarize data and draw conclusions, ensure the statistics are

correctly used.

Also, take care to separate observation from interpretation to avoid drawing unfounded conclusions. Is that

clear liquid water or vinegar? Is that attractive woman he is with his wife, daughter, co-worker, assistant,

boss, or mistress? Have the people stopped asking questions because everything is OK or because inquiry is

being punished or otherwise surpressed? Does the sun move across the sky, or does the earth move past

the sun? What are alternative explanations for what we are seeing? Consider this amusing story where

interpretation gets well ahead of observation.

Evaluating Authority

Rather than examining evidence first hand, we often rely on secondary information sources. These includegossip, rumor, hearsay, conversation, the Internet, and information provided by various luminaries and

authorities available as publications, speeches, presentations, advertisements, endorsements, radio and TV

programs, and news items.

The English language use of the word authority has two very different meanings. One meaning describes

positional powersuch as the right to control, command, or determineand the other describes expertise

an accepted source of information. Evidence obtained from an authority has to be carefully evaluated

based on the expertise of the authority, while respectfully disregarding the power, influence, fame,

charisma, attachment, or appeal of the authority. Trust and verify. Exercise critical thinking. A common and

seductive fallacy is an appeal to authority . We are often mislead because of a natural tendency to trust

some people and distrust others.

An authority often presents only a single point-of-view, and too often this point-of-view advances a vested

interest. One example of this is an Internet site claiming to provide expert information on sleep problems as

a public service. However, the web site is created, paid for, and edited entirely by the manufacturer of a

particular prescription drug sleep aid. This is a manipulative marketing tool, disguised as a source of
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objective information. It uses factual statements to present a false message. Examine a variety of view

points and apply critical thinking to help evaluate information provided by an authority, or even by an

aligned group of authorities.

Take particular care to evaluate the reliability of claims of divine or religious experience, pronouncements by

authorities, appeals to common sense, the obvious, and other situations where information or conclusions

are claimed to be self-evident, beyond question, or beyond our comprehension. When a person in power

responds with a preemptive dismissalrefusing to seriously consider an inquiry, or replying without

responding by using power, humiliation, ridicule, insult, intimidation, distraction, obfuscation ,condescension, or humorit is often because the evidence is absent or unsubstantiated. Arrogance,

belligerence, shouting, sneering, and repetition do not validate evidence, instead these distractions should

raise suspicions. Confident experts typically welcome critical examination and discussion of their findings.

Charlatans do not. Retain a healthy skepticism. Challenge authority as needed to understand and evaluate

their claims and assess evidence. Challenge claims with a respectful and tactful request to show me and

help me understand.

Evidence and Power

Evidence can lead to dramatic conflicts with power. Consider the disputes astronomer Galileo Galilei had

with the Pope over the evidence Galileo gathered to demonstrate that the sun, not the earth, was the

center of the solar system. Galileo observed the moons of Jupiter, the phases of Venus, movement ofsunspots, and light and shadow on the moon through his telescope. This evidence convinced him that the

earth revolved around the sun.

In 1630 Galileo completed his book Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems in which the Earth-

centered Ptolemaic model and the sun-centered Copernican models are discussed and compared. After the

book was printed in 1632 Pope Urban VIII forbid its distribution; the case was referred to the Inquisition and

Galileo was summoned to Rome.

In 1633 Galileo was formally interrogated for 18 days and on April 30 Galileo confessed (disingenuously no

doubt) that he may have made the Copernican case in the Dialogue too strong and he offered to refute it in

his next book. The Pope declined this offer and decided that Galileo should be imprisoned indefinitely. Soon

after, with a formal threat of torture, Galileo was examined by the Inquisition and sentenced to prison and

religious penances, the sentence was signed by 6 of the 10 inquisitors. In a formal ceremony at the church

of Santa Maria Sofia Minerva, Galileo renounced his errors under oath. He was then put in house arrest in

Sienna. Galileo had the courage to speak truth to power, and the wisdom to recant and save his life.

Galileo remained under house arrest, despite many medical problems and a deteriorating state of health,

until his death in 1642. Finally On October 31, 1992, the Roman Catholic Church admitted that it had erred

in its 359-year-old persecution of Galileo.

And then there was Watergate.

On the night of June 17, 1972, five men were arrested for breaking into Democratic National Convention

offices, apparently to repair illegal wiretaps that had been installed on a previous occasion. Republican

leadership denied any knowledge of the wiretap. However, Washington Post reporters Carl Bernstein and

Bob Woodward relentlessly pursued the story, skillfully interviewing many frightened people, stitching

together bits of evidence, gathering facts, posing well formed questions, and finally breaking the story wide

open. As a result, on August 9, 1974, President Richard M. Nixon resigned the presidency of the United

States to avoid further investigation of his involvement and a likely impeachment.

Both of these examples rely on the fallacy of appeal to authority where the argument is based on the

authority, power, and position of the person making the claims, e.g. the pope and the president, rather than

on observable phenomenon. This presents the difficult choice of deciding based on who you know or what

you know.

Facts are stubborn. When you have to choose between following the evidence and following orders, do

your homework and go with the evidence. Reject the claim that might makes right. The facts are likely to

prevail in the long term. Have the courage to speak truth to power . The entertaining Hans Christian

Andersen story, The Emperors New Suit , reminds us to follow the evidence and retain a healthy
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s ep c sm.

Dismiss Irrelevant Information

Much of the information we are exposed to is irrelevant, distracting, distorting, and not suitable evidence.

These various non sequitursinferences or conclusions that do not follow from the premiseswere

recognized and named by the ancient Greeks, yet they continue to be prevalent today. Here is a brief

description of these seductive fallacies of irrelevance:

Ad ignorantiamfrom ignoranceThis is the fallacy of claiming a statement is either true or false

without having evidence or any valid reason supporting the claim.Ad vericundiumappeal to authorityThis is the fallacy of appealing to the power, position, or fame of

the person making a claim rather than to their expertise. This is discussed at length under the topics

Evaluating Authority and Evidence and power above.

Post hoc ergo propter hocafter this, therefore because of thisThis is the fallacy of concluding that

because one event follows another, the first caused the second. Concluding that a rainstorm was

caused by a rain dance is an example of this fallacy. This fallacy sneaks in when the sun rose after the

rooster crows becomes the sun rose because the rooster crows. In fact, causality is a complex topic

and is difficult to prove. John Stewart Mills proposed his canons of induction also know as Mills

Methods as a test for establishing that A causes B. This is an important basis for the scientific

method . Be careful to use the word because only to describe a cause and effect relationship that

you know exists.

Ad populumappeal to the peopleThis is the fallacy of accepting something as fact simply becausemany other people also believe it to be true.

Ad baculumappeal to forceThis is the fallacy that might makes right; accepting as correct the

point of view or opinion of someone willing to use force to suppress inquiry, alternative points-of-view,

or contrary evidence. As an example, frustrated mothers sometimes answer their misbehaving and

defiant three-year-olds by saying because I'm the mother. Tyrants provide many more

consequential examples throughout history.

Ad misericordiamappeal to pityThis is the fallacy of accepting a point-of-view or opinion of

someone because they deserve our pity. For example, someone might argue they deserve a raise by

saying they might lose their house if they don't get more money.

Ad hominemargument against the manIn this fallacy the character of an expert is attacked (or

praised) as an attempt to discredit (or establish) the information they provide. An example is

discrediting Bill Clinton's foreign policy because he had improper sexual liaisons. Advancing a deliberatead hominem fallacy crosses the line from argumentto attackand can easily become a precursor to

hate. It is dangerous because it promotes the false belief that destroying the person can eliminate the

unwanted or inconvenient information or idea.

Accident and Converse Accidentdrawing hasty conclusionsare fallacies inferring that each member

of a group share the characteristics of the group, or that the group is characterized by the attributes

of one particular member. These are the fallacies of stereotyping and non-representative samples. The

logical fallacy of accident, also called destroying the exception or a dicto simpliciter ad dictum

secundum quid , is a fallacy occurring when an exception to the generalization is ignored. Applying a

stereotype that does not accurately describe an individual is an example of this type of fallacy. The

logical fallacy of converse accident (also called reverse accident, destroying the exception or a dicto

secundum quid ad dictum simpliciter ) is a fallacy that can occur when an exception to a generalizationis wrongly called for.

It is surprising that these fallacies are so common, even though they have been well known for thousands

of years. When someone persists in obscuring evidence with these fallacies, they are being careless,

ignorant, biased, manipulative, or malicious. Don't be persuaded.

Recognize Faulty Reasoning

Know the rules of logic and be alert for their fallacies. Even if evidence is accurate and relevant, it can be

easily used in a variety of invalid arguments to draw wrong conclusions from improper inferences. Resolve

ambiguity and challenge equivocation. Recognize and avoid these fallacies of ambiguity:

Petitio principiia request for the premisealso known as circular reasoning or begging the question. It is a fallacy for a premise to rely in any way on the conclusion. For example, explaining that Joe is

not here because he does not go to parties provides no information. It is equivalent to saying Joe is

not at this party because Joe does not go to parties. More subtle examples are common and often

go unrecognized or unchallenged.

Complex Question basing a question on an unproven assumptionIt is deceitful to pose an
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unsu stantiate statement or opinion in t e orm o a question, yet it is o ten one. Parents are eing

manipulative when they ask their child Would you like to be a good boy and go to bed now? The

coupling of being a good boy with the request to go to bed now establishes an unproven

contingency because a bad boy might choose to go to bed now or a good boy might choose to stay

up longer.

EquivocationExploiting ambiguous languageMany words have several, often disparate meanings.

Confusing these meanings is the fallacy of equivocation . Consider this joke as an example: Mom to

teenage daughter leaving on a date: Now be good dear. Boyfriend remarking to his girlfriend after a

steamy date: Wow, you really were good!

Amphiboly two in a lumpThis fallacy exploits an ambiguous grammatical construct. A sign statingNo Smoking Permitted can be interpreted to mean that it is permissible to not smoke, but it is also

permissible to smoke, since smoking is not specifically prohibited by the ambiguous language.

Accent ambiguity based on emphasisAristotle originally used this to describe differences in

meaning resulting from differences in the pronunciation of words. For example, the phrase I resent

that letter can be read to mean the letter was sent again, or the letter was seen as offensive,

depending on the accent of the second word. More recently this fallacy is used to describe quotations

taken out of context, a headline that screams about some minor detail, or the catch hidden in the

fine print and ignored by the sales pitch.

Category MistakeNot recognizing the composite from the collected elementsFor example,

complaining that you can't find any forest here, all you see is a bunch of trees.

Composition Errorincorrectly projecting attributes of a part onto the wholeFor example, since Joe

is a good player, and he plays for team X, then team X must be a good team.Division Errorincorrectly projecting attributes of the whole onto each component partFor example,

to say XYZ is a good corporation, so I am sure that Mr. X who works there must be a fine fellow is

invalid. Also, to say that Suzie lives in a big house, so I'm sure she has a big bedroom is also invalid.

Another form of this error is illustrated by this example: Dogs often run stray, the Chinese Shar-pei is

a breed of dog, so I'm sure they often run stray.

False dilemmaexploiting ambiguous complementsDeclaring that you are either with us or against

us presents a false dilemma because against us is not an accurate set complement (i.e.

encompasses everything else) of with us. The dilemma is false because it ignores the middle ground.

In this example it is possible to primarily agree on some issues, primarily disagree on others, have

partial agreement or disagreement on issues, and to have no established position on still others.

Awake and Aware:Our perceptions are more accurate when we are alert, aware, and conscious of our environment. A good

night's sleep, attention focused on the present task, and a clear head help us to see the world as it is.

Fatigue, alcohol, drugs, stress, strong emotions, chaos, multitasking, and distractions all impair our senses

and judgments. Trust evidence that was gathered with a clear head.

Quotations:

You're entitled to your own opinions, but you're not entitled to your own facts. ~ Senator Daniel

Patrick Moynihan

Facts are stubborn.

It ain't what you don't know that gets you into trouble. It's what you know for sure that just ain't

so. ~ Mark Twain

The quality of our thinking is given in the quality of our questions ~ Linda Elder, Foundation for Critical

Thinking

Trust and verify. ~ Ronald Reagan .

Eschew obfuscation.

The further you get from power the closer you get to the truth ~ Bill Moyers

It is not obvious what is obvious.

A lie unchallenged becomes the truth. ~

Truth is strong enough by itself to convince, and should never be imposed by force. ~ Matthieu

Richard

Our questions cleanse our answers. ~ Krista Tippett

Seek truth from facts. ~

When all else fails, men turn to reason. ~ Abba Eban

To argue with a person who has renounced the use of reason is like administering medicine to the

dead. ~ Thomas Pain

Reality is always your friend.

Character is tested whenever power clashes with evidence. ~ Leland R. Beaumont

For a successful technology, reality must take precedence over public relations, for Nature cannot be
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. ~ .

References

A Rulebook for Arguments, by Anthony Weston

Influence: The Psychology of Persuasion, by Robert B. Cialdini

Telling Lies: Clues to Deceit in the Marketplace, Politics, and Marriage, by Paul Ekman

Root Cause Analysis : A Tool for Total Quality Management, by Paul F. Wilson

Introduction to Logic, by Irving M. Copi, Carl Cohen

Principles of logic, by Alex C Michalos

Six Thinking Hats: An essential approach to business management, by Edward de Bono

An Encyclopedia of Claims, Frauds, and Hoaxes of the Occult and Supernatural , by The James Randi

Educational Foundation

Extraordinary Popular Delusions & the Madness of Crowds, by Charles Mackay

Breaking the Spell: Religion as a Natural Phenomenon, by Daniel C. Dennett

The Skeptic Reading Room Materials that may help you separate fact from fiction and manage the level of

skepticism you are comfortable with.

The Emperors New Suit , by Hans Christian Andersen

Tools of Thinking: Understanding the World Through Experience and Reason , video course taught by

James Hall, University of Richmond

On Bullshit, by Harry G. Frankfurt

Six Pillars of Self-Esteem, by Nathaniel Branden

The Theory of Knowledge , Bertrand Russell (1926), for The Encyclopaedia Britannica

Galileo and the Inquisition , by Jose Wudka

Galileo and the Church , by Julian A. Smith

All the President's Men, by Bob Woodward, Carl Bernstein

The Foundation and Center for Critical Thinking aim to improve instruction in primary and secondary

schools, colleges and universities.

Maps of Bounded Rationality: A Perspective on Intuitive Judgment and Choice , Nobel Prize Lecture,

December 8, 2002 by Daniel Kahneman

The Emperors Dilemma: A Computational Model of Self-Enforcing Norms, by Damon Centola, Robb Willer,

and Michael Macy

Fear, Sadness, A nger, Joy, Surprise, Disgus t, Contempt, Anger, Envy, Jealousy, Fright, Anxiety, Guilt, Shame, Relief, Hope, Sadness, Depres sion, Happines s, Pride, Love,

Gratitude, Compass ion, Aestheti c E xperience, Joy, Distress , Happy- for, Sorry-for, Rese ntment, Gloating, Pride, Shame, A dmiration, Reproach, Love, Hate, Hope, Fear,

Satis faction, Relief, Fears-c onfirmed, Dis appointment, Gratification, Gratitude, Anger, Remorse, power, dominance, stature, relationships

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Emotional Competency - Inquiry, Evidence, And Argument

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