EDUCATION IN CRISIS SITUATIONS - Columbia Universitydsb33/Assests/BurdeEdCrisis11-11-05[2].pdf ·...

MAPPING THE FIELD

EDUCATION IN CRISIS SITUATIONS

This publication was produced for review by the United States Agency forInternational Development. It was prepared by Creative Associates International Inc.

PREPARED BY:

Dana Burde, Ph.D.Saltzman Institute of War and Peace Studies &Program on Forced Migration and HealthColumbia UniversityNew York, NY 10027

Creative Associates International, Inc.The Basic Education and Policy Support (BEPS) ActivityContract No. HNE-1-00-00-0038-00

PREPARED FOR:United States Agency for International Development (USAID)

PHOTO CREDIT:

Photo Ms. Francoise Beukes. Children at a temporary school in Baghlan ProvinceAfghanistan.

2005

The author's views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect the views of theUnited States Agency for International Development or the United States Government.

MAPPING THE FIELD

EDUCATION IN CRISIS SITUATIONS

The United States Agency for International Development (USAID) provided

funding for this paper via the Basic Education and Policy Support (BEPS) activity.

The opinions and observations expressed in this document are those of the

author. They are not necessarily the views of the United States Government or

the United States Agency for International Development.

The author wishes to thank committed colleagues from international agencies

who generously shared documents and/or provided their time to discuss various

aspects of the issues described in this paper: Pilar Aguilar, UNICEF; Allison

Anderson, INEE; Lynne Bethke, InterWorks; Peter Buckland,World Bank; Frank

Dall, CAII; Mitch Kirby, USAID; Eldrid Middtun, Norwegian Refugee Council; Susan

Nicolai, Save the Children/UK; Pamela Shifman, UNICEF; Margaret Sinclair,

Consultant; Christopher Talbot, UNESCO/IIEP; Sohbi Tawil, UNESCO, IBE; Carl

Triplehorn, Save the Children/US; and Rebecca Winthrop, International Rescue

Committee.

Thanks also to Don Graybill, BEPS project Director; Margaret McLaughlin, Senior

Education Advisor ; and Vicky Frantz, Management Associate at Creative Associates

International for their ongoing interest, support, and valuable comments on earlier

versions of this document.

Additional thanks to Sherrill Stroschein and Denis Moynihan for their feedback.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

-v-EDUCATION IN CRISIS SITUATIONS

CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I. INTRODUCTION 1

Overview 1

Methods 3

II. STATE OF THE FIELD 5

Defining Crisis, Education, and Affected Populations 5

Overview of the Problem: Effects of Crises 7

Development of the Field 9

Actors Involved in the Field 11

III. SAMPLE APPROACHES 17

Goal #1: Promoting Transformational Development 17

Goal #2: Strengthening Fragile States 21

Goal #3: Providing Humanitarian Relief 21

Goal #4: Supporting Geostrategic Interests 22

Goal #5: Mitigating Global and Transnational Ills 23

Resources and Reference Materials 23

Minimum Standards 24

IV. DEBATES, GAPS, AND FUTURE RESEARCH 25

Relationship Between Education and Conflict 25

Relationship Between Education and Protection 25

Difference Between Education in Crisis and Education in Development 26

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Role of the State in Education in Crisis 26

Emphasis on Community Participation 26

Coordination 26

Program Implementation 27

V. RECOMMENDATIONS 31

General Recommendations 31

Recommendations to USAID 31

Recommendations to International Nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs) 32

Recommendations to National Governments 32

APPENDIXES 33

APPENDIX A: Selected Interviews 35

APPENDIX B: References 36

APPENDIX C: INEE Working Group on Minimum Standards on Education in Emergencies 43

APPENDIX D: Affected Populations 45

APPENDIX E: Key UN Agreements Outlining Children’s Right to Education 47

APPENDIX F: USAID Offices’ Involvement in Education in Crisis Situations 49

APPENDIX G: USAID Organizational Charts: 1) DCHA and 2) USAID Agency-wide 50

APPENDIX H: Selected Websites 52

APPENDIX I: UNESCO Involvement in Education in Crisis 53

APPENDIX J: Peace Education 55

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OVERVIEWThe start of the new millenniumcoincided with a renewed focus oninternational development, crisis, andeducation. Integrated global com-munications and markets, increasedawareness of violence from non-state actors, and the surge in infec-tion and death rates from HIV/AIDShave drawn attention to develop-ment in a way that has not beenseen since the end of World War II(Natsios, 2004). From mass-mobi-lized movements to closed-doormeetings, citizens and leadersaround the world have challenged,questioned, or reinvigorated devel-opment goals and progress. Manyhave called for enhancing develop-ment gains by addressing political,economic, and health crises moreexplicitly and deliberately as a com-ponent of foreign assistance(UNICEF, 2004; USAID/ConflictManagement and Mitigation [CMM],2004). The need to protect, rebuild,

and strengthen education systems,and provide quality education tochildren everywhere sits at the cen-ter of this discussion.

Multilateral and bilateral agenciesinvolved in setting internationaldevelopment policies have highlight-ed the role of education in develop-ment. At the United NationsMillennium Summit in September2000, world leaders adopted theMillennium Development Goals(MDGs) that place development atthe top of the world agenda and setforth eight key goals to “significantlyimprove the human condition”(Millennium Project, n.d.). A call toensure that by the year 2015, allboys and girls worldwide will beable to complete a full course ofprimary schooling, defined as thefirst five years of formal education,ranks second on this list of MDGs.

Significantly, in keeping with theMDGs, development together with

defense and diplomacy form thethree pillars of the USGovernment’s (USG) 2002 NationalSecurity Strategy. The strategy callsfor “including the world’s poor in anexpanding circle of development—and opportunity” by doubling thesize of the poorest economies with-in a decade (USG, 2002, p. 21). Itstresses that increasing the numberof children receiving a quality educa-tion is one of the most importantindicators to use to measureprogress toward this goal.Furthermore, based on the beliefthat ignorance and poverty may betwo reasons youth are drawn topursue radical ideologies, the USGovernment argues that aid is criti-cal in “fragile but friendly Muslimnations” such as Pakistan ($600 mil-lion), Afghanistan ($297 million), andJordan ($250 million) (New YorkTimes, October 12, 2003).1

Although support for education hasbeen provided as part of foreign

I. INTRODUCTION

1 Aid figures are from October 2003.

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assistance since the Bretton Woodsinstitutions (World Bank,International Monetary Fund) werecreated, most bilateral donors didnot articulate support for educationin crisis as a deliberate policy inter-vention, separate from education fordevelopment, until recently, andsome have not yet done so. Yet,crises present enormous obstaclesto achieving Education for All (EFA)and the MDGs (World Bank, 2005).Nearly 60 percent of the countrieswhere USAID operates are current-ly experiencing conflict(USAID/CMM, 2004). Prior to the1990s, however, most donor andmultinational agencies maintainedseparate operations that respondedto humanitarian crises withoutincluding education activities inthese emergency responses.Education services that were deliv-ered in refugee camps maintainedby international agencies—forexample, in Vietnam, the OccupiedPalestinian Territories, andGuatemala—were an exception tothis pattern, but these interventionswere not institutionalized under abroad education policy to respondto crises.

Given the changing global environ-ment and the emphasis placed ondevelopment as an element ofnational security, the United StatesAgency for InternationalDevelopment (USAID) has startedto rethink the role and effectiveness

of foreign assistance (USAID,January 2004).2 According toUSAID, foreign aid should focus onmore than humanitarian and devel-opment goals. A USAID whitepaper on foreign assistance for frag-ile states (January 2004) outlines fivecore operational goals to reorientthe agency:

promoting transformationaldevelopment,

strengthening fragile states,

providing humanitarian relief,

supporting US geostrategicinterests, and

mitigating global and transna-tional ills” (p. 5),

with education as a component ofeach (Atherton, February 25, 2004,p. 29).

The April 2005 USAID EducationStrategy, Improving Lives ThroughLearning now leads the Agency in itssupport of education in crisis set-tings. Following this effort, the draftUSAID Fragile States EducationStrategy for Africa specifically states,“The importance of education infragile states cannot be overestimat-ed: education changes behavior”(USAID Education Strategy, April2005, p. 3).

Since 2000, the Basic Education andPolicy Support (BEPS) activity hascarried out basic education, educa-

tional policy, and planning activitiesto provide technical assistance toUSAID. BEPS has initiated educa-tion activities in countries experi-encing crises, including: Afghanistan,Burundi, Democratic Republic ofCongo, Nepal, Somalia, SierraLeone, Uganda, and Zambia. It hascontributed to large-scale educationinterventions and assisted countrieswith transitions toward stability andreconstruction.3

When BEPS activities began, “educa-tion in crisis situations” was a looselydefined field with internationalorganizations providing a patchworkassortment of services. Since then,nongovernmental organizations(NGOs), multinational agencies, andother stakeholders have started toreorganize the field and, simultane-ously, USAID has given greaterattention to education programs incrisis situations. Research hasdescribed and highlighted theimpact of crises on education, and inturn, generated numerous debatesregarding the types of circumstancesthat warrant external intervention,the quality and type of education tobe provided, when, where, forwhom, and by whom. The potentialrole of education in ameliorating (orperpetuating) crisis, in protectingchildren from exploitation, and ininvesting in their prospects for thefuture has touched off a surge ininterest among donor and aid agen-cies. Yet, concentrating on how to

2 For a complex review of these issues, see also: Foreign Aid in the National Interest: Promoting Freedom, Security, and Opportunity. USAID 2002. Available:

http://www.usaid.gov/fani/.3 See BEPS http://www.beps.net/crisis_situation/crisis_index.htm for a full list of publications relating to education in crisis situations.

fix a problem, while critical and nec-essary, must be done in concert withinquiries into how the problem isdefined, how it arose in the firstplace, and what confounding socio-political and economic factors per-petuate it.

Given this critical mass of converginginterests, the following study surveysthe field, articulates current debates,documents the program growth ofrecent years, and offers recommen-dations for further study. Based onthe work of other scholar-practition-ers and the author’s own experience(e.g., Bethke, 2004; Burde, 1999;Miller & Affolter, eds., 2002; Nelles,ed., 2004; Nicolai & Triplehorn, 2003;Sinclair, 2001; 2002; 2004; Sommers,2002; Smith & Vaux, 2003;Talbot,2003;Tawil & Harley, eds., 2004;World Bank, 2005), it describessome of the practical and theoreticaldilemmas facing program managers,policy-makers, donors, and academ-ics. In doing so, this paper is meantto provide USAID staff and stake-holders with an accessible overview,analytical framework, and referencedocument that explains the breadthand depth of education in crisiswithin the context of foreign assis-tance.

The following recommendation fromthe United Nations Educational,Scientific, and Cultural Organization(UNESCO) highlights the survey’sfindings:

AA kkeeyy rreeccoommmmeennddaattiioonn iiss tthhaatt eedduu-ccaattiioonn iinn eemmeerrggeenncciieess bbee sseeeenn,, aannddppllaannnneedd ffrroomm ddaayy oonnee,, aass ppaarrtt ooff tthheeddeevveellooppmmeenntt pprroocceessss aanndd nnoott ssoolleellyyaass aa ‘‘rreelliieeff’’ eeffffoorrtt.. DDoonnoorrss sshhoouullddaavvooiidd ccoommppaarrttmmeennttaalliizzaattiioonn ooff ffuunndd-iinngg tthhaatt ccaann hhaavvee tthhee eeffffeecctt ooff ccrreeaatt-iinngg aann uunneedduuccaatteedd aanndd bbiitttteerr,,rreevveennggee-oorriieenntteedd ggeenneerraattiioonn,,bbeeccaauussee eedduuccaattiioonn iinn eemmeerrggeenncciieesswwaass sseeeenn aass tthhee llaasstt ccaallll oonn iinnaaddee-qquuaattee ‘‘hhuummaanniittaarriiaann’’ bbuuddggeettss ((oorreexxcclluuddeedd ffrroomm tthheemm)).. MMoorreeoovveerr,,rreessttoorraattiioonn ooff aacccceessss ttoo sscchhoooolliinngg iinnaa ppoosstt ccoonnfflliicctt ssiittuuaattiioonn sshhoouulldd bbeesseeeenn aass aa ffuunnddiinngg pprriioorriittyy ((BBeennssaallaahh,,eett.. aall..,, 22000000))..

Support for this recommendation ispresented in this paper’s four sec-tions. The first section presents thestate of the field: definitions of terms,an overview of the problems facingpopulations affected by crisis, andthe actors involved. The second sec-tion describes institutions and theirmandates, focusing heavily onUSAID, and highlights sample pro-grams. The third section surveysgaps in program implementation andsuggestions for future research. Thelast section summarizes the survey’sfindings and recommends futureresearch areas. To avoid duplicationof effort, experts interviewed forthis paper are listed in Appendix Aand an extensive list of references isincluded in Appendix B

METHODSThe material presented here wasgathered from July to December2004 using both open sourceresearch tools (i.e., internet andwebsite search engines) and aca-demic databases. Policy documentsand research studies were collectedfrom websites of various agencies,including USAID and the USAIDDevelopment ExperienceClearinghouse, US StateDepartment, US Department ofLabor, the Inter-Agency Network forEducation in Emergencies (INEE),United Nations Children’s Fund(UNICEF), UNESCO—the Instituteof International Educational Planning(IIEP) and the International Bureauof Education (IBE), the OverseasDevelopment Institute, theDevelopment Gateway, the EldisGateway to DevelopmentInformation, and the World Bank(WB), and from academic books andjournals in international relations andcomparative and international edu-cation. Select program documentswere also included from internation-al nongovernmental organizations(e.g., Academy for EducationalDevelopment, CARE, Catholic ReliefServices, Christian Children’s Fund,Creative Associates International,Inc., International RescueCommittee, Jesuit Refugee Service,Norwegian Refugee Council, Savethe Children Alliance/UK/US,



Women’s Commission for RefugeeWomen and Children) that are onthe forefront of practical changes ininternational efforts to administereducation in crisis situations. Thiswritten material was complementedby interviews with several practi-tioners and policy makers. SeeAppendix A for list of interviewswith key informants and Appendix Bfor a complete list of references.

A note about the notes: Sourcesare cited according to AmericanPsychological Association (APA)style, although some internet cita-

tions have been adapted to providemore information for the reader.The footnotes listed throughout thepaper often provide a web addressfor easy access, and/or, the name ofa study. The complete citation isgenerally not listed in the footnote,but all complete citations (includingsources cited in footnotes) are listedin the reference section (AppendixA and B).

Because of the often short-termnature of education in crisis pro-grams, and because of differing defi-nitions of these programs, it is chal-

lenging to gather data for a surveyof this type. Often data is lost whena short-term program grant ends.In addition, organizations that identi-fy their education work within adevelopment framework, ratherthan as part of humanitarian aidmay not have their programs count-ed among education in crisis oremergencies projects.

In the collaborative spirit of theINEE, the author hopes that col-leagues will comment on the ideaspresented here, continuing the dis-cussion on-line and in other venues.


This section begins with definitionsof crisis, education, and affectedpopulations, followed by a briefoverview of the problem, i.e., theimpact of four kinds of crises (politi-cal, economic, environmental, health)on children’s access to quality edu-cation and the systems of delivery.It then looks at the actors involvedin the field of education in crisis situ-ations, and concludes with a briefdescription of the history of thefield, highlighting three historical con-ceptual approaches—development,humanitarian,4 and human rights—and their influence on administeringeducation in crisis programs.

DEFINING CRISIS,EDUCATION,ANDAFFECTEDPOPULATIONS Outlining a clear definition of educa-tion in crisis situations is a necessarystep toward developing a policy torespond appropriately and in a

timely way to potential educationalneeds; and, conversely, the lack of adefinition leads to the potentiallydamaging omission of education aspart of a systematic response tocrises. That said, existing definitionsvary in their description both of cri-sis and of education. The followingsection will describe USAID’s salientdefinitions for each element—crisisand education—situating them with-in the context established by otherkey international players in deliver-ing humanitarian and developmentassistance.

WHAT IS CRISIS?

The difficulty in defining “crisis” ispart of a larger conceptual problemwith maintaining a distinctionbetween relief and developmentassistance. This conceptual issue willbe addressed in more detail below.In brief, USAID currently uses threedefinitions of “crisis.”

First, the Agency uses crisis to referto a broad range of circumstances inwhich children’s access to educationis in jeopardy. These circumstancesfall under the following four cate-gories: political, economic, health,and environmental. Political crisesinclude social unrest and violentconflict; economic crises encompasssevere poverty that manifests in asignificant percentage of school–agechildren living on the streets, orbeing exploited as child laborers;health crises include epidemics suchas HIV/AIDs; and environmental ornatural disasters include hurricanes,earthquakes, droughts, and volcaniceruptions (Harwood & Anis, unpub-lished, 2001).

Second, USAID refers to crisis alonga continuum of four different capaci-ties of governance and correspon-ding phases for educational activities:(1) no government and educationemergencies, (2) interim govern-

4The word "humanitarian" can be ambiguous, referring sometimes to all relief and development activities. In this study, it is used in the narrower sense, to refer

explicitly to relief or emergency assistance.

II. STATE OF THE FIELD

ment and recovery, (3) new govern-ment and rehabilitation, and (4)established government and recon-struction. Stated more simply, thiscontinuum includes emergency,recovery, rehabilitation, and recon-struction (Miller & Affolter, 2002, pp.123-128). Because government usu-ally remains intact during epidemicsand natural disasters, this descriptionof stages during crisis refers primarilyto conditions related to politicalcrises when the state has failed, or isbeginning to reemerge.

A third USAID definition limits a cri-sis to a set of conditions that lead toan inability of a population to meetits basic needs, usually described asshelter, water, health, and nutrition.This definition is employed byUSAID’s Office of US ForeignDisaster Assistance (OFDA) (OFDA,September 2004). When the defini-tion of crisis is limited to impactingbasic needs, education is usuallyomitted from the emergencyresponse.

Similar to the USAID continuumdefinition listed above, most interna-tional agencies use the term “emer-gencies” and “chronic crises” to referto the impact of various stages ofconflict, transition, recovery, and nat-

ural disasters on affected popula-tions.5 Still these agencies’ positionsraise nettlesome questions aboutwhat constitutes a crisis, or emer-gency, and when it becomes urgent.Broad humanitarian aid responsesattempt to address this problem ofpriorities by relying on clearly articu-lated disaster mortality thresholds,but this technique has its own incon-sistencies and debates. For example,the crisis in Kosovo never reachedthis threshold, while the crisis indica-tors in Darfur in October 2004were several times higher.6

WHAT IS EDUCATION?

Defining “education” in the phrase“education in crisis” is almost equallyfraught with difficulties. The centralconceptual question is whetherthere are distinguishing characteris-tics between education in crises andeducation in peaceful developingcountries. The Save the ChildrenAlliance says “Education for childrenaffected by emergencies” is “educa-tion that protects the well-being, fos-ters learning opportunities, and nur-tures the overall developments(social, economic, cognitive, andphysical), of children affected by con-flicts and disasters” (cited in Sinclair,2002, p. 23). Education services

delivered during these times andunder these conditions are meant tosupport simultaneously children’scognitive and emotional develop-ment, while including additional edu-cational content relevant to the cri-sis circumstances. It is certainaspects of program implementation(e.g., rapid training of paraprofes-sional teachers, physical protectionfor program staff, packaged materialresources) and the new subjectsrelated to protection and security(e.g., land mine awareness, life skillsto prevent HIV infection) thatchange or are added to the funda-mental content during an emergency(Burde, Spring 2004).7

The lack of consistency in definingeducation programs in crisis con-tributed to the absence of programstandards and was one reason forthe exclusion of education as a com-ponent among other humanitarianinterventions that were included inthe Sphere Project (Anderson,August 2004, Interview).8 The workof the InterAgency Network forEducation in Emergencies (INEE) toestablish Minimum Standards onEducation in Emergencies is aneffort to address this gap and ishoped to ensure a minimum level ofquality and access.9 See Appendix C


5This distinction is beginning to change. In UNICEF’s State of the World’s Children 2005, the report defines three threats: poverty, armed conflict, and HIV/AIDS.6The “Crude Mortality Rate” (CMR) that is usually used to define a humanitarian crisis is one death per 10,000 people per day. For perspective, the CMR in North

Darfur in September 2004 was 1.5 deaths per 10,000 people per day; in West Darfur it was 2.9 deaths per 10,000 people per day (WHO, Sept. 2004). The aver-

age crude mortality rate in peaceful Sub-Saharan Africa, including countries affected by the AIDS epidemic, is approximately .5 people per 10,000 per day. But rely-

ing on the CMR is a “trailing indicator”—some consider it the public health equivalent of assessing a community through autopsies (Martone, personal communica-

tion, 2004).7 For definitions, see also Nicolai (2003) p. 11 and Triplehorn (2001) p. 3.8 A group of international humanitarian organizations launched the Sphere Project in 1997 to establish a minimum standard of humanitarian assistance to which all

people have a right, along with a set of indicators to help quantify and monitor the provision of services to guarantee this right. Although some Sphere Project

committee members viewed favorably the idea of including education, the chapter was already closed for revision. For more information see: http://www.sphere-

project.org/.9 See section IV Sample Programs, below, for a discussion of the INEE minimum standards.

for a discussion of the INEE mini-mum standards.

In keeping with USAID’s new, com-prehensive approach to develop-ment assistance for fragile states andconflict affected regions, and consis-tent with the five goals outlined inits January 2005 white paper on for-eign assistance for fragile states, thispaper will use a broad definition ofcrisis—political, economic, health,and environmental—in order tosurvey the education componentsthat may be included in each of thefive goals. Among these goals, cur-rently education is a standard ele-ment in “promoting transformation-al development” and often in “miti-gating global and transnational ills”such as HIV/AIDS. Education pro-grams funded by USAID haveplayed less of a systematic role in“strengthening fragile states” and“supporting US geostrategic inter-ests,” although as noted above,these efforts are increasing. In “pro-viding humanitarian relief,” supportto education has only been includedon an ad hoc basis and typically notduring the first 60 days of an emer-gency.

Because fragile states figure intoUSAID’s goals prominently, and intothe analysis presented in the whitepaper, it is important to discussthem here briefly. Although there isno single definition among scholarsand practitioners, most agree that

fragile states are characterized bythe failure to provide public goodssuch as education and health care,and an inability to resolve conflictnonviolently (Center for InstitutionalReform and the Informal Sector[IRIS], n.d.).Typically, fragile states arealso associated with high levels ofbureaucratic incompetence as wellas increased crime and violence thatcause government institutions tolose their legitimacy. In fragile statesthe government is weak but intact.In contrast, in failed or collapsedstates, the government is divided, ordissolved, and unlikely to maintaincontrol over its territory.These fea-tures are the outcomes of failure,not the fundamental sources of thefailure (IRIS, n.d.).

WHO ARE THE AFFECTEDPOPULATIONS?

In addition to dividing work accord-ing to definitions of crisis and edu-cation, international agencies oftenorganize their work according to“targeted” or “affected” populations.Some of the more common termsused by international agencies (bilat-erals, multilaterals, and NGOs) toidentify vulnerable people and toprovide assistance are refugees,internally displaced people (IDPs),civilians caught in a conflict (“stay-ees”), returnees, displaced childrenand orphans, victims of sexual andgender based violence (SGBV),youth and adolescents, child sol-

diers, street children, people livingwith HIV/AIDS, and orphans andchildren made vulnerable byHIV/AIDS. These categories of tar-geted populations are also impor-tant because, in some cases (e.g.refugees), labels connote legal statuswith particular rights granted toindividuals who acquire this status.

Among conflict-affected populations,stayees, followed by IDPs, tend tobe the most under-served groupsbecause they are harder to reacheven if funding is available to assistthem. Often IDPs choose to blendinto their new region, and, depend-ing on political tensions, govern-ments may be reluctant to allow aidagencies access to groups displacedwithin their borders (e.g., IDPcamps in Azerbaijan).10

For a list of these selected cate-gories used by international agen-cies to describe affected popula-tions, see Appendix D.

OVERVIEW OF THEPROBLEM: EFFECTSOF CRISESApplying the first definition of crisisoutlined above, this sub-sectiongives a brief overview of the impactof the four categories of crises onchildren’s access to quality educa-tion and the systems of delivery.For a more detailed analysis and dis-cussion of the relationship betweeneach crisis listed here and its impact


10 In Azerbaijan, for several years after the Azerbaijani population was displaced from the west and southwest area of the country, the government was reluctant toprovide services to these groups. It feared that in doing so it would give tacit consent to Armenia's territorial gains and, therefore, have more difficulty laterrecovering land that it lost in the conflict. There are approximately 600,000 IDPs living in Azerbaijan, and although a cease fire was signed ten years ago, there isstill no peace agreement between the two countries (Global IDP Database, May 1, 2003).

on education, please consult the ref-erences provided in Appendix B.

POLITICAL CRISES

Violent conflict disrupts children’saccess to quality education in multi-ple ways. In approximately 80countries around the world, childrenlive with unexploded ordnance andland mines (Machel, 2001). Roughly20 million children were displacedfrom their homes in the 1990s; cur-rently, 40 million people in theworld are displaced, one-third ofthem beyond the borders of theircountries (UNICEF, 2004). In justten countries recently surveyed,over 27 million refugee and internal-ly displaced children and youthaffected by armed conflict do nothave access to formal education(Bethke, 2004, p. iii).11 UNESCO’sEducation for All Global MonitoringReport for 2003-2004 estimatedthat half of the 104 million childrenout of school globally live in coun-tries affected by or recovering fromconflict. Teachers and educationaladministrators are often victims ofviolence, and school buildings mayserve as terror targets, soldiers’ bar-racks, or sites of war crimes. InMozambique, for example, approxi-mately 45 percent of primaryschools were destroyed during thewar (Machel, 2001).

It is important to note that differenttypes of conflict—ideological-, iden-tity-, or resource-based—have dif-ferent implications for education sys-tems, both in the role that educa-

tion may play in creating hostility,and its potential role in reducing it(Brown, 1999;Tawil, 2004;WorldBank, 2005).

ECONOMIC CRISES

A study of 43 developing countriesrecorded that, “on average, childrenof families in the bottom wealthquintile of the population are morethan twice as likely to die beforereaching the age of five than chil-dren living in families in the topquintile” (Minujin & Delamonicacited in UNICEF, 2004, p. 27).Desperate economic circumstancespush parents and children to takedrastic measures such as employingchildren in economic activity or sell-ing children into various forms ofbonded labor. UNICEF notes that1.2 million children are traffickedannually for sex and labor, many ofwhom are sold by parents (Shifman,personal communication, 2004;UNICEF, 2004).

HEALTH CRISES

The HIV infection rate in African,Caribbean, and Pacific countries isthe most glaring example of atransnational pandemic that disruptseducation systems, creating a crisisand requiring urgent attention.More than 13.2 million children inthe world have lost one or bothparents to AIDS, and 80 percent ofthese children live in Sub-SaharanAfrica (Global Information Network,May 12, 2004; Los Angeles Times,July 12, 2004). In countries where

over 30 percent of people betweenthe ages of 15 and 49 are infectedwith HIV/AIDS, the loss of person-nel—in addition to the loss of par-ents and caregivers—has decimatededucation systems.

A USAID-funded education pro-gram in Zambia highlights the strainHIV/AIDS has on the education sys-tem. Through its efforts, teachersare encouraged to be tested forHIV. If they are found to be HIVpositive they are assisted with theprocess of securing publicly-fundedtreatment. Of the teachers tested aspart of the program, an average of25 percent have tested HIV positive(Graybill, personal communication,2004).

ENVIRONMENTAL CRISES

Although natural disasters can strikeanywhere, upwards of 90 percent ofpeople affected by natural disas-ters—earthquakes, floods, hurri-canes, landslides, tsunamis, and volca-noes—live in countries least able tocope financially and administrativelywith these events (CIDA, n.d.).Natural disasters can span borders,devastating already weak school sys-tems and housing stock throughouta region. For example, in Aceh,Indonesia, officials reported within afew weeks of the 2004 tsunami that1,000 teachers were missing and atleast 50 percent of schools weredestroyed, leaving 140,000 elemen-tary and 20,000 junior-high studentswith nowhere to study. The tsunamidamaged or destroyed 112 schools


11The ten countries surveyed in the report are: Sudan,Afghanistan, Occupied Palestinian Territories, Colombia,Angola, Congo, Iraq, Burma, Burundi, and Uganda.

See table 2 on page 9 of the survey for more information.

in Sri Lanka; refugees occupiedanother 244 schools (BasicEducation Coalition, cited in WorldBank/Youthink, 2005). In 1998, hun-dreds of schools in Central Americawere damaged by Hurricane Mitchand many others were convertedinto shelters.

Each of these crises individually pre-vents children’s access to qualityeducation, but none of the crisesdescribed above should be viewedin isolation. Often one follows inthe wake of another. For example,reported incidences of child traffick-ing rose shortly after the 2004tsunami struck. And, countries thathave experienced conflict once areat a greater risk of experiencing itagain (World Bank, 2005). In addi-tion, children are not simply “at risk”of exploitation during war and vio-lent conflict; they are also increasing-ly perceived as “the risk.”12 With theadvent of light weaponry, the role ofchild soldiers in conflicts movedfrom ancillary to primary and incor-porating children into warfare hasemerged as a new military tactic(Singer, 2001).13 Furthermore, natu-ral disasters are frequently pairedwith drastic economic decline aswell as various health-relatedimpacts, i.e., clean water is contami-nated and increased levels ofgarbage and sewer cannot be dis-

posed of properly. Examples aboundfrom current literature on the AsiaTsunami relief and reconstructionefforts.

COMPARING THE IMPACTOF CONFLICT ANDNATURAL DISASTERS

According to USAID (2002), naturaldisasters are “statistically less lethal”than conflict-related emergencies,causing one-third the number ofdeaths. However, in the 1990s nat-ural disasters affected seven timesthe number of people as did con-flict. In addition, natural disastersare on the rise, occurring threetimes as often in the 1990s as theydid in the 1960s (USAID, 2002, p.24).

Confusion arises regarding thedeadliness of armed conflictbecause, although the total numberof violent conflicts in the world hasdecreased since the mid-1990s, thenumber of intrastate conflicts hasincreased dramatically, and the per-centage of civilians affected byarmed conflict has skyrocketed.14 Toillustrate, in the wars through mostof the 19th and 20th centuriesroughly 10 percent of casualtieswere civilian; in the intrastate warsof the last decade, 90 percent ofthe casualties are civilian (USAID,

2002, p. 24). And of this group, 80percent are women and children(UNICEF, 2004).

DEVELOPMENT OFTHE FIELDDespite the devastating statisticscited above and the numerous pop-ulations affected by crisis, humanitar-ian relief and development agencieshave been slow to incorporate edu-cation into their emergencyresponses. From the 1960s untilthe 1980s, the system of foreignassistance was divided betweenrelief and development. Beginningin the 1990s, international agenciesstarted relying on the “relief todevelopment continuum” conceptthat was meant to bridge the gapbetween the two types of efforts.Yet, agencies were still largely spe-cialized, constrained by mandates,money, and different understandingsof priorities (Smillie, 2000).15 In thecontinuum, education was consid-ered a “development activity,” andtherefore excluded from humanitar-ian response to crises.

Several initiatives and documents inthe 1990s started to move interna-tional agencies toward giving moresystematic attention to the impactof crisis, particularly armed conflict,on education and, vice-versa, the


12 For an interesting discussion of perceptions of children and childhood, see Stephens (1996) on street children in Brazil.13The use of child soldiers as a military tactic has been linked directly to the creation and proliferation of arms that are light enough for children to carry, i.e., the

Kalashnikov and AK-47 (Singer, 2002).14The number of violent conflicts in the world has actually decreased since the mid-1990s (Gleditsch, et. al., 2002; Marshall & Gurr, 2003; Project Ploughshares,

2004). According to the Uppsala Conflict Data Project, armed conflict is defined as "a contested incompatibility that concerns government or territory or both

where the use of armed force between two parties results in at least 25 battle-related deaths [per year]. Of these two parties, at least one is the government of

a state" (cited in Tusicisny, 2004, p. 488).15 For a compelling discussion of this paradigm, see Ian Smillie, (2000) "Relief and development: Disjuncture and dissonance," in D. Lewis & T. Wallace (eds.), New

roles and relevance: Development NGOs and the challenge of change. Bloomfield, CT: Kumarian Press. pp. 17-28.

need for education to mitigate thatimpact. For example, a group of rep-resentatives from NGOs establisheda working group on rapid education,Graca Machel completed her study,The Impact of War on Children,and the Norwegian Refugee Councillaunched its campaign to includeeducation—in addition to food,shelter, and health care—in humani-tarian response. Adding momen-tum, the Oslo/Hadeland Conferencein 1998 proposed a “Declaration onPrinciples of Education inEmergencies and DifficultCircumstances,” and the GlobalInformation Networks in Education(GINIE) was created to link educa-tors working in countries in crisisand transition (Nicolai & Triplehorn,2003).16 Simultaneously, many edu-cation advisors in many internationalagencies advocated loudly for edu-cation services to be included inhumanitarian aid packages adminis-tered by international agencies,along with water and food, shelter,and medical treatment (Aguilar &Retamal, 1998; Machel, 2001; Savethe Children Alliance, 1996; Sinclair,2001). This culminated in 2000 withthe establishment of the INEE at theInteragency Consultation onEducation in Situations ofEmergency and Crisis.

Reflecting this history and theseinternational agencies’ traditionaland evolving views of foreign assis-tance, the following three conceptu-al approaches to education inter-

ventions continue to shape the fieldof education in crisis situations:

TThhee ddeevveellooppmmeenntt aapppprrooaacchh::advocated by most educatorsand supported by internationalframeworks and policies (e.g.,Bensalah, et. al., 2000). Thisapproach views a crisis as imme-diately holding back develop-ment potential, recognizes thateducation is a long-term socialinvestment, and justifies thisintervention to prevent “back-ward development,”17 to pro-mote stability, and to rebuild acountry. Concretely, thisapproach emphasizes education-al content, community participa-tion, and collaboration with gov-ernment officials immediately oras soon as possible, and it startsprogram activities with an eyetoward sustainability and transi-tion.

TThhee hhuummaanniittaarriiaann aapppprrooaacchh::views an emergency as a tem-porary set of circumstances forwhich education services andstructures can be employed toprovide immediate protection tochildren and prevent humanrights violations. Concretely, thisapproach emphasizes safespaces, educational activities as astop-gap measure until regularservices can resume, and com-munity participation as a practi-cal way to deliver and manageservices. This approach mayinclude working with govern-

ment officials, but does notemphasize building these rela-tionships with state institutions.18

The humanitarian approach wasimplemented among educatorsin order to ensure that educa-tion be included in the contextof humanitarian relief at a timewhen most international agen-cies viewed education as anunnecessary component, beyondthe scope of humanitarian serv-ice delivery. To overcome theseobstacles, education was pre-sented as a commodity to bedelivered rapidly, on a largescale, similar to any other typeof assistance provided to a cri-sis-affected population (Save theChildren Alliance/US, 1996).Thisview has been slow to change,and is linked closely to the relief-to-development-continuum par-adigm.

TThhee hhuummaann rriigghhttss aapppprrooaacchh::emphasizes the importance ofeducation as a human right andemploys it as a key ingredient inpeace building strategies. Itviews crises, or underdevelop-ment in any country as potentialobstacles to children’s right toreceive education, and it useseducation to cultivate active citi-zenship, tolerance, and peacebuilding at any stage of relief ordevelopment in industrialized,underdeveloped, or conflict-rid-den countries alike. According tothis approach, cultural (or other)


16 See: http://www.nrc.no/pub/protection for the full conference report from Oslo; and GINIE: http://www.ginie.org/.17Backward development refers to social gains lost as a result of conflict. The World Bank refers to conflict as "development in reverse," see World Bank (2003),

Breaking the Conflict Trap: Civil War and Development Policy. Washington DC: Oxford University Press/World Bank.18 In the total breakdown of a state, or in a refugee camp, these institutions are not functioning, or not available.

contexts always influence educa-tional content, but education perse is not defined by these differ-ences. See Appendix E for a listof core human rights instru-ments.

These three approaches—develop-ment, humanitarian, and humanrights—persist because each onehas merit in organizing and deliver-ing foreign assistance. Many agencieshave aligned their program goalsand objectives along the lines ofthese approaches, but, unfortunately,the sets of conditions they reflectare not mutually exclusive. Forexample, development is a long-term social investment that can alsooccur during a crisis.

Recognizing the need to move awayfrom the linear relief-to-develop-ment continuum, some organiza-tions are beginning to acknowledgethe importance of integratedapproaches. The World Bank, forexample, now advocates for a mix-ture of development and reliefactivities to be delivered in varyingproportions depending on thephase of the conflict. Althoughthere is little consensus on the defi-nitions of “phases” of conflict andpost-conflict, “education reconstruc-tion activities should begin concur-rently with humanitarian assistanceand be scaled up as political space,civil society support, administrativecapacity, and resources permit”(World Bank, 2005, p. 33).

In addition to the World Bank’srecognition of the need for integrat-ed approaches, several additionalsources have exerted pressure toinclude delivery of education servic-es in all forms of crises:

Crisis-affected populationshave continually voiced ademand for education to thehumanitarian aid providersthat they meet (Bensalah, et.al., p. 6).

Many advocates have strength-ened their rights-basedapproach, pointing out thatchildren have “a right to edu-cation even under conditionsof emergency” (Harwood &Anis, unpublished report;Bensalah, et. al., p. 6). Includedin this effort, both the move-ment to promote Educationfor All / the Dakar Frameworkfor Action (Sommers, 2002),and the MillenniumDevelopment Goals (Birdsall,et. al., 2004) advocate forholding governments account-able for fulfilling their responsi-bilities toward children duringtimes of crisis, ensuring thatthey can exercise their right toeducation.

Many practitioners haveargued that education protectschildren by helping them avoidmilitary recruitment or abduc-tion, by providing cognitive andintellectual tools for them tomake better decisions, and by

ensuring that they are physical-ly counted (Aguilar & Retamal,1998; Nicolai & Triplehorn,2003; Sinclair, 2002).

Networks such as INEE haveraised the profile of educationproblems and responses in cri-sis situations and have begunto unify the field. INEE coordi-nated an effort to establish“Minimum Standards forEducation in EmergenciesChronic Crises, and EarlyReconstruction,” inspired bythe Sphere Project.19

The US government hasrevised its view of foreignassistance since September 11,2001. This has added to theconfluence of interestsdescribed above and to theimportance with which the USgovernment views foreign aidand education in crisis situa-tions.

Reflecting these shifts, USAID is alsomoving away from a distinctionbetween relief and developmentand is alternatively moving towardthe five goals outlined in the whitepaper—promoting transformationaldevelopment, strengthening fragilestates, providing humanitarian relief,supporting US geostrategic inter-ests, and mitigating global andtransnational ills—to address thepolitical, economic, health and envi-ronmental crises. Including educationin these efforts is likely to enhancethese goals.


19 Although the Sphere Project's minimum standards are limited to emergencies, INEE's minimum standards cover a range of "phases." INEE members believe thateducational responses should be planned and implemented along the continuum of emergency through to development, rather than either or.

ACTORS INVOLVED INTHE FIELDThe most common actors involvedin providing education in crisis arebilateral aid agencies, multilateralorganizations, national governments,international NGOs, local NGOs,and sometimes peace-keepingforces. Overall there are hundredsof actors involved; too many toname. Therefore, taking the variousapproaches to education in crisis sit-uations into account as well asUSAID’s five goals for foreign assis-tance for fragile states, this sub-sec-tion examines policies toward edu-cation in crisis among various keyinstitutions that are responsible foradministering US foreign assistance,or for playing a major role in influ-encing the field of education in crisissituations.

BILATERAL AID AGENCIES

Bilateral aid agencies generally coor-dinate their aid strategies with theregional, political, and economicobjectives of the respective donornation, emphasizing certain sectorsdepending on the link between thedonor nation’s interest in the sectorand its overall strategy toward therecipient country. Grant makingtypically prioritizes internationalNGOs whose headquarters arebased in the same country as thebilateral aid agency.

Several bilateral donors, recognizingthe gap in services provided during

crises, have begun establishing poli-cies to provide education in crisissituations. Among prominent bilat-eral organizations, e.g., the BritishDepartment for InternationalDevelopment (DFID), CanadianInternational Development Agency(CIDA), Deutche Gesellschaft furTechnische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ),Swedish International DevelopmentAgency (SIDA), and USAID—DFIDpublished a paper on education,development, and conflict, exploringthe ways in which conflict inhibitscounties’ abilities to reach theMDGs (Smith & Vaux, 2003), andhas recently commissioned a policypaper on education for IDPs andrefugees (Payne & Fraser, March2004, unpublished draft). GTZemphasizes “do no harm” strategiesin addressing countries in crisis andhighlights “youth promotion.” Inaddition, GTZ has recently publisheda paper on education and conflict(Seitz, November 2004) and has justdeveloped a position paper toaddress education in conflict andcrises.20 CIDA emphasizes child pro-tection in its June 2001 Action Plan,and pledges explicitly to support“basic education for refugee andinternally displaced children, as wellas children in post-conflict situa-tions,” and “education that empow-ers girls and boys to prevent andresolve conflicts” (p. 33). SIDA lists“emergency education” under its“sectors for humanitarian assistance”(SIDA, n.d.), and the NorwegianAgency for Development

Cooperation (NORAD) devotes asection to education in emergenciesin its strategy paper for deliveringeducation for all (NORAD, 2003).

USAID has long emphasized basiceducation in the context of itsdevelopment work, and has fundedschool reconstruction as part of dis-aster relief, but has yet to includeeducation explicitly as part of itspolicy in emergency response tocrises. The USAID Assistance toInternally Displaced Persons Policy(October 2004) is an exception. Inthis document, USAID articulates itsrole as “lead agency” in coordinatingUS government comprehensive sup-port to IDPs via Disaster AssistanceResponse Teams (DART), andUSAID Missions. Education is thefirst priority in the second phase ofhumanitarian assistance for IDPs,“care and maintenance” (USAID,2004, p. 7). Still, although USAID isa significant funder of education incrisis programs around the world,there are few public documentsdescribing the agency’s approach tothese programs. Also, because edu-cation in crisis programs are oftennot categorized as such, but ratheras community development (e.g.,Bosnia) or basic education projects,or projects to support vulnerablegroups (HIV infected, child soldiers,orphans), it is difficult to measurethe impact of these initiatives.TheApril 2005 launch of USAID’sEducation Strategy: Improving LivesThrough Learning promises to unite


20The Seitz paper is available on the INEE website. The German versions are listed in the resource section of this paper.

humanitarian and developmentassistance efforts in supporting edu-cation in crisis settings. SeeAppendix F for more informationon USAID Offices’ involvement ineducation in crisis situations.

Other departments within the USgovernment that provide supportfor populations affected by crisis arein the US State Department, theBureau of Population, Refugees, andMigration (BRPM), and in theDepartment of Labor (DOL)through its International Child LaborInitiative.21 Within the US govern-ment, the BPRM holds primaryresponsibility for creating “policieson population, refugees, and migra-tion, and for administering USrefugee assistance and admissionsprograms” (BPRM, n.d.). It is BPRMthat channels US government fundsto the UN High Commissioner forRefugees (UNHCR), theInternational Committee of the RedCross (ICRC), and various otheragencies that provide assistance andprotection to refugees overseas.22

This fall DOL provided approxi-mately $110 million in grants tofight exploitive child labor world-wide. The aim is to “remove youngworkers from abusive work situa-tions and improve access to qualitybasic education in areas with a highincidence of exploitive child labor”(DOL, September 30, 2004). Inaddition, DOL has focused recently

on preventing the recruitment ofchild soldiers and assisting with theirrehabilitation.23

MULTILATERALORGANIZATIONS

This term typically refers to agencieslike the UN and the World Bankthat are directed by member gov-ernments, and generally workthrough government counterpartsrather than through local or interna-tional NGOs. Some multilateralfunding streams now include callsfor support to education in emer-gencies, for example, the UNICEFconsolidated appeals process (CAP)for Chad includes a total of nearly$1.8 million for “Education inEmergency Situation” (UN Officefor the Coordination ofHumanitarian Affairs 2004, p. 9).

The primary UN agencies that areinvolved in responding to children’sneeds are defined by three foci:education, emergency protection,and children. UNESCO is mandat-ed to respond to education needs;UNHCR is responsible for providingemergency protection and educa-tion to displaced people outsidetheir country of origin (i.e.,refugees); and UNICEF is responsi-ble for children, broadly. AMemorandum of Understandinggives UNHCR the lead responsibilityin refugee situations and UNICEFthe lead responsibility in in-country

situations. At the time of the GlobalSurvey on Education in Emergencies(Bethke, 2004), UNHCR was oper-ating education programs forrefugees in 107 of the 113 countries(and territories) included in thestudy. UNICEF was operating in 26countries, primarily catering to inter-nally displaced, war-affected stayees,and returnees. Their mandates aredescribed below.24 The UN Officefor the Coordination ofHumanitarian Affairs (OCHA) isresponsible for overall coordinationof humanitarian aid.

UNESCO’s strategy is formulatedaround a single unifying theme,“contribute to peace and humandevelopment in an era of globaliza-tion through education, science, cul-ture, and communication”(UNESCO, n.d.). It strives toachieve this objective by conductingstudies, sharing knowledge, and pro-viding expertise. UNESCO’sresponse to populations affected bycrisis is based on five principles:“decentralization, information, co-operation, capacity-building, and pre-vention” (Smith & Vaux, 2003, p. 52).UNESCO houses INEE and hasconducted extensive work on edu-cation in crisis through itsInternational Institute forEducational Planning andInternational Bureau of Education.See Appendix I for a summary ofUNESCO activities.


21 See http://www.state.gov/g/prm/ and http://www.dol.gov/ilab/programs/iclp/.22 Within BPRM, these funds come from the Migration and Refugee Assistance (MRA) Account. The Emergency Refugee and Migration Assistance (ERMA) Fund,

also from BPRM, supplies funds for urgent, unforeseen crises and is replenished yearly (USCR, January/February 2003). UNHCR receives approximately 25 per-cent of its total annual budget from BPRM (InterAction, n.d.). Data on specific aid allocations by funding level, year, month, project, and organization are listed onthe BPRM website. Available: http://www.state.gov/g/prm/fund/.

23 See http://www.dol.gov/ilab/programs/iclp/childsoldiers/main.htm for conference program and other details.24 See also Smith and Vaux (2003) "Education, Development, and Conflict" for descriptions of UN agencies and their mandates.

UNICEF has five related priorities:educating girls, protecting children,preventing HIV/AIDS, providing earlychildhood development, and immu-nizing children. In its most recentState of the World’s Children 2005report, UNICEF identifies, andorganizes its program responsesaround, three key threats to child-hood: poverty, armed conflict, andHIV/AIDS (UNICEF, December2004). In countries in crisis,UNICEF provides “special protectionfor the most disadvantaged children:victims of war, disasters, extremepoverty, all forms of violence andexploitation, and those with disabili-ties” (UNICEF, n.d.). UNICEF’sapproach to education in emergen-cies and reconstruction describeseducation as a “development activi-ty” and challenges short-termresponses that view education as a“stop-gap” measure (Pigozzi, 1999).

UNHCR is responsible for leadingand coordinating international actionto protect and safeguard refugeerights worldwide (UNHCR, BasicFacts, n.d.). The agency bases itsprovision of education to refugees,on its Refugee Children: Guidelineson Protection and Care (1994), inaddition to the Convention on theRights of the Child, and Action forthe Rights of Children—an inter-agency initiative sponsored byUNHCR, the Save the ChildrenAlliance, UNICEF, and the Office ofthe High Commissioner for HumanRights.25 UNHCR’s review of its

education activities in 2000 “placesstrong emphasis on ‘increased prior-ity for primary education’ andachievement” of the internationaltargets for education (Smith & Vaux,2003, p.55).

The World Bank, on the otherhand, does not intervene during anarmed conflict, but provides fundsand program support immediatelyupon cessation of hostilities.TheConflict Prevention andReconstruction (CPR) Unit assessescauses, consequences and character-istics of conflict and examines les-sons learned in its program experi-ences. The CPR also specializes indesigning development efforts forconflict-affected countries (WorldBank/CPR, n.d.). Because standardfunding streams are not available atthe World Bank for work in failingor failed states, the Post-ConflictFund (PCF) provides financing forphysical and social reconstructioninitiatives in post-war societies.Current conflict-affected countriesand regions where the World Bankplays a significant role includeAfghanistan, Africa's Great Lakesregion, the Balkans, Iraq, Liberia,Nepal, Sierra Leone,Timor Leste,the West Bank and Gaza (WorldBank/PCF, n.d.).

NATIONAL GOVERNMENTS

Although local government actorsare available during and just after acrisis, most government ministriesare typically badly damaged after a

conflict and only beginning to re-emerge. In crises with a large num-ber of aid agencies, foreign organiza-tions typically pay the highestsalaries in the area. The loss ofhuman resources from people flee-ing conflict, combined with a short-age of government funds and adamaged bureaucracy that is not yetable to absorb and disburse largesums, make it difficult for govern-ment ministries to retain talentedstaff. While ministries often remainseverely under resourced, localNGOs may be groomed to carryon education programs after inter-national NGOs have left.

INTERNATIONAL NGOS

CARE, Christian Children’s Fund,Creative Associates International,Catholic Relief Services, theInternational Rescue Committee,Jesuit Refugee Service, NorwegianRefugee Council, Save theChildren/US and UK, as internationalNGOs, appear to be responsible forthe largest portion of internationallymanaged education in crisis situa-tions’ programs worldwide, ifUNHCR is excluded from the tally.26

Although these different agenciescarry out their programs with agreater or lesser focus on each ofthe three conceptual frameworks(development, humanitarian, humanrights) listed above, all are primarilyservice delivery organizations(rather than advocacy agencies).International NGO advocacy agen-cies such as Amnesty International,


25For extensive information on training for UNHCR staff, see http://www.savethechildren.net/arc/.26This was derived from the Global Survey on Education in Emergencies (Bethke, 2004). It is important to note, however, that this list is partial and evolving.

Human Rights Watch, and Watchlistinclude an analysis of education sys-tems in their reports on humanrights abuses, describing discrimina-tion against minorities in the class-room, school closings in minorityareas, and attacks on schools. Bothservice delivery and advocacyNGOs rely on UN conventions andprotocols to promote their work oneducation in crises.

According to the Global Survey,among education in emergenciesprograms operated by internationalNGOs, the International RescueCommittee (IRC) was operating thelargest number with education pro-grams in approximately 20 coun-tries. The Norwegian RefugeeCouncil managed approximately 15,the Jesuit Relief Service, Save theChildren/US and UK, CARE,Christian Children’s Fund, andCatholic Relief Services, providedthe bulk of the remaining programsdescribed in the survey.

Again surveying, tracking, and analyz-ing these programs are difficultbecause there are multiple waysthey are categorized. As a result ofdifferent data collection and report-ing methods, there are agenciesworking on education projects in

countries affected by conflict thatare not included in the GlobalSurvey data, but that are included inInterAction’s various country-specificMember Activity Reports. Althoughthis difference in data collection isnot likely to change the list of keyinternational players in education incrises, it would show organizationslike Save the Children, CatholicRelief Services, and CARE as figuringmore prominently in educationalservice delivery. In addition toBethke’s categories, education pro-grams are still often identifiedaccording to the traditional divisionsin assistance (humanitarian or devel-opment).

LOCAL NGOS

These agencies often spring up dur-ing or just after a crisis to providebetter quality services directly tocommunities within which theywork. Many international NGOsencourage the development of smallcivic associations or local NGOs totake on this role for several reasons.Government may be significantly dis-credited after a conflict and foster-ing civic associations is believed bymany aid agencies (internationalNGOs, bilateral, and multinationalagencies alike) to help rebuild civil

society after a conflict. In addition,local partner NGOs can oftenincrease the legitimacy of interna-tionally sponsored work by creatinga cultural bridge between interna-tional intentions and national pro-grams.

MULTILATERAL ANDBILATERAL PEACEKEEPINGFORCES

If these forces are present, they aretypically involved in repairing infra-structure after a conflict. Sinceschools generally sustain enormousdamage, and since they often needto be cleared of mines and boobytraps before re-opening, peace-keeping forces often begin rebuild-ing schools. These responsibilitiessometimes expand to include otherpublic services.

Although the agencies and fundslisted here do not make up anexhaustive list of support for educa-tion in crisis, nor does the list givecredit to all the key actors in thefield of education in crisis situations,the list does provide a starting pointfor forming a strong policyapproach, and consolidating andcomplementing agencies’ efforts.


This section first examines the linksbetween sample approaches to edu-cation in crisis, including some illus-trative education program descrip-tions, and USAID’s five goals for for-eign assistance for fragile states. Thisdiscussion is followed by anoverview of available resources andreference materials related to imple-menting education in crisis activities,and of the minimum standards forproviding an education program inan emergency situation.

The programs selected to highlightthe relationship between educationin crisis programs and USAID’s fivegoals are primarily those sponsoredby international agencies; limitedinformation is provided regardinglocal NGOs’ independent initiatives(although most international pro-grams are implemented with varyinglevels of participation on the part oflocal organizations), and this paperdoes not include potentially promis-ing programs sponsored by national

governments within their countries.Little comparative information isavailable about government-spon-sored programs. Given the impor-tance of supporting fragile states, itis a gap in the literature.

To link these approaches to achiev-ing the five USAID goals, three vari-ables for policy-makers should beconsidered:

PPooppuullaattiioonn:: the status of thepopulation for whom the serv-ice is provided (e.g., refugee,internally displaced, stayee,returnee, ex-combatant, home-less child, healthy/ill);

SSttaattee:: the status of the state inthe region before the crisisbegan (functioning, fragile,failed) and its on-going abilityto provide public services;

CCrriissiiss:: the type of crisis (politi-cal, economic, health, environ-mental; or specifically: e.g.,

high/low intensity conflict, post-conflict, economic collapse,pandemic/epidemic, naturaldisaster);

Table 1 provides examples of therelationship these variables have tothe USAID goals, each variable canchange and there are many addi-tional possible combinations. Eachone of the sample approaches listedin the table is described in greaterdetail below.

These approaches are offered asexamples of good practice.27 Inkeeping with the categories of thefive USAID goals—promoting trans-formational development, strength-ening fragile states, providing human-itarian relief, supporting geostrategicinterests, and mitigating global andtransnational ills—an attempt wasmade to provide examples fromfour different types of implementingagencies. Therefore, examples fromlocal NGOs, local government, inter-


III. SAMPLE APPROACHES AND RESEARCH

27 It is important to note that few independent assessments have been conducted on these various education in crisis programs.


TABLE 1:PROPOSED APPROACHES TO EDUCATION

WITHIN USAID'S NEW POLICY GOALS: CHOOSING A PROGRAM

UUSSAAIIDD GGooaall::

Promoting transformationaldevelopment

CCrriissiiss:: Economic- Extremepoverty/uneven distributionof wealth

SSaammppllee EEdduuccaattiioonn PPrrooggrraamm::

"Street education" program toeducate and advocate for chil-dren living on the street inSalvador, Brazil (Projecto Axe,Brazil)

PPooppuullaattiioonn:: Street children

SSttaattee:: Stable (Brazil)


Strengthening fragile states

CCrriissiiss:: Political-Low intensity conflict/post-conflict


1. Teacher training (IRC)

2. Accelerated learning (CatholicRelief Services)

3. Youth centers (SC/IRC/CCF)

PPooppuullaattiioonn:: Returnees,stayees

SSttaattee:: Fragile(e.g., Afghanistan)


Providing humanitarian relief

CCrriissiiss:: Political SSaammppllee EEdduuccaattiioonn PPrrooggrraamm::

Education (early childhooddevelopment) in emergencies forpeople affected by conflict (Savethe Children/US)

UNICEF Child-Friendly Spaces

PPooppuullaattiioonn:: Refugees, IDPs,and "Stayees"

SSttaattee:: Failed(e.g., 1993-1995 Bosnia)


Supporting geostrategicinterests

CCrriissiiss:: Economic/Political-Conflict prevention


Peace education (UNHCR)PPooppuullaattiioonn:: Teachers

SSttaattee:: Failed (e.g., refugeecamps in Kenya housingrefugees from a failed state)


Mitigating global andtransnational ills

CCrriissiiss:: Health - HIV/AIDS SSaammppllee EEdduuccaattiioonn PPrrooggrraamm::

HIV/AIDS awareness/life skillstraining (Government of SouthAfrica

PPooppuullaattiioonn:: Youth

SSttaattee:: Stable(e.g., South Africa)

national NGOs, and multinational(UN) agencies are included.28 It isbeyond the scope of this study toprovide an exhaustive list of pro-grams. Where possible, the authorhas listed additional references.

GOAL #1:PROMOTINGTRANSFORMATIONALDEVELOPMENTAs with most development efforts,it is difficult to identify which salientinterventions lead to transforma-tional development, but the twosample programs listed below showsignificant promise.

COMBATING POVERTY:ASSISTING STREETCHILDREN IN BRAZIL

Project Axé is a Brazilian NGOfounded in 1990 with a mission toensure basic human rights, particu-larly those of children and adoles-cents. Axé began with the intent toprovide education for children whowere making a living in the streetsof Salvador, Brazil as part of aneffort to support these children’srights. Since its founding, Axé’sactivities have expanded to includeprograms to assist the families ofthese children to enhance reintegra-tion, to promote prevention by sup-porting children who are at risk, butnot yet living on the streets, and tocollaborate with colleague organiza-tions with whom to share experi-ences. To do so, Axé’s efforts focuson: “street education” to establishrelationships with the children and

introduce them to human rightsconcepts; “educational units” to pro-vide creative and cultural activities;and advocacy efforts with municipaland state governments to train pro-fessionals and influence publicpolicy.29

According to data collected regard-ing the organization and its pro-grams, the quality and contextualrelevance of Axé’s educational inter-ventions have notably improved thequality of life for street children inSalvador. In addition, the programsucceeded in lobbying the state tocreate a school that integrated chil-dren from the surrounding area (50percent) with street children (50percent) (Angotti, 2003).

REINTEGRATING CHILDSOLDIERS

Programs to disarm, demobilize, andreintegrate child soldiers have prolif-erated in recent years, particularlysince the issue has been brought tothe attention of western peace-keeping forces confronting a child asa military opponent (Singer, 2002).In addition to numerous programsto assist child soldiers, significant andinteresting data are available toreflect on program progress in help-ing former child soldiers rejoin andbecome productive members ofsociety. These will be noted below.

First,Verhey (2001) provides an in-depth assessment of two initiativesto prevent recruitment, demobilize,and reintegrate child soldiers inAngola and El Salvador. She identi-

fies the following: advocacy, legalframeworks, monitoring, planningand coordination, social networks,and education and economicopportunities as important ele-ments in the three phases—preven-tion, demobilization, and reintegra-tion. She further reports thatapprenticeships and micro enter-prise approaches are more effectivefor assisting child soldiers than voca-tional training, and that governmentshould include reintegration of childsoldiers in its broader economicpolicies. She notes that in the pro-grams she studied, the specificneeds of girls and disabled wereneglected across phases.30

New data from a longitudinal studyon child soldiers in Mozambiqueprovide very encouraging informa-tion. From 1988 until 2004, infor-mation was gathered from 39 maleformer child soldiers who partici-pated in Save the Children/US’sChildren and War program inMozambique. The study examinedhow these former child soldiers fareas adults. Findings show thatalthough these adults continue tostruggle with their past, the vastmajority of this group have become“productive, capable, and caringadults” (Boothby et. al., 2005, p. 2).In addition, the research identifiesspecific interventions that helpedthese children make their transitionsfrom soldiers to civilians by partici-pating in activities that did the fol-lowing:


28 Note that some programs can serve more than the goal they are listed as supporting.29 For more information, see: http://www.comminit.com/experiences/pds11-15-99/experiences-306.html.30 Creative Associates International carried out a research study to assist the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) in formulating national policy to demobilize

and reintegrate child soldiers, to assess the educational needs of demobilized child soldiers, and to provide recommendations to address them. The study wasintended to assist the government in issuing a decree for a national policy that prohibits recruitment of child soldiers (Agborsangaya ,August 2000).

supported and strengthenedindividuals’ coping skills foranticipated trauma and grief, aswell as those that supportednormative life cycle milestones;

instilled a sense of socialresponsibility, and promotedsafe codes of conduct, self-reg-ulation and security-seekingbehavior ; and

apprenticeships, community-sensitization campaigns, com-munity works projects, andoutward support of communi-ty rites. (Boothby et. al., 2005,p. 3)

Helping former child soldiers inte-grate into a post-conflict, peacefulsociety is a step toward transforma-tional development both for individ-uals and for society.

GOAL #2:STRENGTHENINGFRAGILE STATES Unlike new data available on childsoldiers and supporting transforma-tional development, there are limit-ed data on fragile states and evenless on the potential relationshipbetween education in crisis pro-grams and fragile states. As notedabove, there has been some explo-ration of the general relationshipbetween education and conflict,describing the impact of conflict oneducation (e.g.,World Bank, 2005),

or the exclusion of minorities, orother groups, leading up to or con-tributing to conflict.31 In Education,Conflict, and Social Cohesion,Tawiland Harley (eds.) (2004) gatheredresearchers from across conflict-affected countries and regions to“gain a better understanding of therole of education policy in shapingsocial and civic identities and inredefining or reconstructing nationalcitizenship within the context ofidentity-based conflict” (p. 6). Giventhat a lack of public services (educa-tion and health) is one of the indica-tors for failed and fragile states, pro-viding support to education (equi-tably) should hold promise forstrengthening fragile states.32

Because post-conflict states arealmost always fragile, these areimportant observations. However,less has been observed regardingthe impact of relatively discrete for-eign assistance in education in crisison fragile states. The following para-graphs provide preliminary observa-tions on teacher training programsand a youth reintegration program.

TEACHER TRAINING

“Teachers are the most criticalresource in education reconstruc-tion” (World Bank, 2005, p. xviii).The importance of teachers isechoed throughout the literaturerelating to varied education crises.Teacher training and retention have

been linked to educational quality(Bethke, 2004; UNESCO, 2005;Winthrop & Kirk, 2005), to children’spsychosocial well-being, and, poten-tially, to strengthening the state. 33

Teacher training supported by edu-cation in crisis programs is oftensupplemental to past pedagogicaltraining that teachers have had, or itmay be re-training for paraprofes-sional teachers. Key elementsincluded in training are: pedagogy(usually a focus on creating support-ive classroom and promoting child-centered learning), supplementalcontent (life skills-HIV/AIDS educa-tion, peace or civics education), andoften resources development. Mostinternational agencies provide rapidtraining seminars, usually 3-5 daysthat are followed later by in-servicetraining in conflict or disaster-affect-ed environments. Although there isnot much evidence to demonstrate“a measurable impact on teachingpractice,” these training sessions helpto build professional ties acrossgroups (e.g., Bosnia example citedbelow) and also build teachermorale. Some evidence indicatesthat training linked to developingmaterials will have a better impacton teaching practice (World Bank,2005, p. 49).


31 See Anna Obura (2003), Never Again: Educational Reconstruction in Rwanda, and Human Rights Watch, Children's Rights 2002-both provide excellent descrip-tions of minority and other groups exclusions from education; see also World Bank (2005), Chapter 2, "The Impact of Conflict on Education"-describes effects onchildren and systems, and notes that systems are surprisingly resilient.

32 It is important to note that high levels of literacy and education provision do not preclude countries from experiencing conflict (e.g., Bosnia, Northern Ireland), butthis also indicates that it is topic about which much remains unknown.

33See INEE Teacher Training Task Team.

COMMUNITY-BASED, RAPIDRESPONSEDEMOBILIZATION

The Youth Reintegration Trainingand Education for Peace (YRTEP)Program that OTI developed inwar-torn Sierra Leone with its part-ners, Management SystemsInternational and World Vision, is acommunity-based, rapid response todemobilize and reintegrate ex-com-batants at a low cost. YRTEP fea-tures a six to twelve month pro-gram providing “psychosocial andvocational counseling, literacy, life-skills and agricultural skills training,and peace education” (OTI, 2004).A BEPS evaluation of OTI’s programreported that YRTEP supportedpeace-building efforts and praisedthe program’s rapid and broadadministration of services, and inclu-sion of women, but expressed con-cerns about unmet expectations ofparticipants when trainings ended(Hansen, et. al., 2002).

To avoid unmet expectations whenprograms end, and to avoid leavinga power vacuum behind, it is impor-tant to plan for transitions andinclude government officials/Ministryof Education in these activities.34

GOAL #3: PROVIDINGHUMANITARIANRELIEFCurrently, there are numerousforms of emergency education that

agencies can implement effectivelyto provide humanitarian relief.Several are listed below.

QUICK-RESPONSEEDUCATION ACTIVITIESAFTER A NATURALDISASTER

Typically “rapid” education for com-munities affected by natural disas-ters consists of the following ele-ments: assessment of needs, recon-struction of schools, training forteachers, and organizing classesquickly for students. For example,when Mozambique experiencedmassive floods in 2001, 100,000people were affected and 100 peo-ple were killed. In one districtwhere Save the Children/UKworked, approximately 25,000 peo-ple were displaced and in someareas could only be reached byboat. Immediately following the ini-tial response to deliver food, med-ical supplies, plastic sheeting andnon-food items, Save the Childrenassessed the number of strandedchildren (by sex, age, disability),searched for classroom sites, andavailable teachers. Save theChildren built temporary class-rooms, bought educational supplies,trained teachers in the areas ofhygiene, HIV/AIDS, and disability, andorganized recreational activities forchildren. Save the Children andUNICEF provided “school andlearner kits” to the district office ofeducation (Nicolai, 2003, p. 41).

EDUCATION ANDPROTECTION

The Save the Children/US programlisted here was launched as anemergency intervention during thewar in the Balkans. It provided edu-cation and safe places to young chil-dren and families during shelling,sieges, and in refugee centers from1993 to 1995 in Croatia and Bosnia,and continued to operate for sever-al years during reconstruction afterthe peace agreement was signed.At the time of its inception in therefugee centers, there were noother social programs offered byeither the host government, or byother international NGOs. Also forfamilies living in besieged cities(Mostar, Sarajevo), this particulareducation program was one of thefew available services—most gov-ernment institutions had stoppedtheir regular functions. At that timethere were frequent disappearances,and people who took part in theprogram felt there was some meas-ure of security provided by affiliationwith an international agency. Thisproximity offered at least sporadicprotection, they said, or the percep-tion of protection, from targetedviolence and human rights abuses(Burde, 1999).35

The education services were deliv-ered across the region to refugees,IDPs, and stayees. The internationalNGO helped community membersorganize committees to hire teach-


34The chief investigator for the Truth and Reconciliation Commission in Sierra Leone proposed requiring that all political parties post 10 percent of their candidatesfrom the youth category, described as 18-35 year olds. See www.witness.org. These types of initiatives could be linked to youth education programs.

35From March 1999-November 2000 the author conducted independent research on this program, interviewing over 50 teachers and parents (many selected ran-domly) who had participated in the program either during or after the conflict, staying with them in their towns and villages, and observing the children in thepreschool; those who had enrolled their children during the conflict expressed gratitude for the emotional relief the program had given them.

ers, pay salaries, and manage thepreschools. The program sent animportant message: it advocated foreducation as a necessary service tobe delivered as part of a humanitar-ian aid package, just as aid agenciesdelivered other, more quantifiablenecessities (food and water, shelter,and medical supplies).

CHILD-FRIENDLY PLACES

In Liberia in 2002, UNICEF estab-lished Child Friendly Spaces (CFS) ineach of the new IDP camps.Theseare meant to provide safe places forchildren to play and learn together,acquire life skills, and have access toclean water and health facilities(UNICEF, February 2002). In itsoriginal design, it included spaces forpre-primary and lower primaryclasses, three spaces for upper pri-mary classes, a play area, a babyarea, and a women and children’sadult area (Nicolai, 2003). They aremeant to provide mothers with aplace to care for their infants, and aspace for children to experience adegree of normalcy amid the chaosaround them.

TEACHER TRAININGPACKAGES

UNESCO’s Programme forEducation in Emergencies andReconstruction (PEER) is based inNairobi. PEER produced TeacherEmergency Packages and carriedout teacher training to address re-professionalization (of teachers,inspectors, and educational adminis-trators), and the need for peace, tol-

erance, and reconciliation. UNESCOdeveloped the “Teacher EmergencyPackage” in Somalia in 1992 so thatcommunities would be able to starttheir own schools, without govern-ment structures. The programexpanded to the rest of Somalia,Northwest Somalia (Somaliland),and to the refugee camps in Kenya,Djibouti,Yemen, and Ethiopia, as wellas to the Rwandan refugee camps inTanzania and Zaire. The work inSomalia resulted in EnvironmentalEducation kits and fostered aregional awareness-raising programof environmental issues amongrefugees (Payne & Fraser, March2004).

GOAL #4:SUPPORTINGGEOSTRATEGICINTERESTSInternational NGOs that typicallyadminister USAID programs main-tain an uneasy relationship withovertly political mandates. That said,this does not decrease their activi-ties in politically charged environ-ments. A variety of education in cri-sis programs have potential to beapplied toward this goal.

PEACE EDUCATION36

UNHCR’s peace education program(PEP) is run in nine countries inAfrica, and also in Pakistan (throughSave the Children/UK) and Kosovo(through World Vision). Partnersadapt the materials to the localenvironment. The program is runthrough refugee schools, and has

been described as a “skills for con-structive living” course to enablediscussion of issues about tolerance,diversity, bias, stereotyping, andcooperation. It has been extendedbeyond school children to commu-nity groups, which has so far beensuccessful (e.g. in Sri Lanka). PEPhas also developed a youth manualfor out of school youth, yet a lack ofresources and an insufficient numberof facilitators have prevented fullimplementation. Although the pro-gram was originally designed forrefugees, in Liberia and Guinea ithas been extended to include hostpopulations. UNHCR providestechnical support and advice on thepeace program from the centralEducation Unit in Geneva (Oburacited in Payne & Fraser, March2004). See Appendix J for a sum-mary of PEP and a list of peaceeducation programs.

ACCELERATED LEARNING

In Afghanistan Catholic ReliefServices (CRS) operates an acceler-ated learning program in twoprovinces north of Kabul: Kapisaand Parwan. The goal of theAccelerated Basic Education projectis to help students make up theeducation they lost during therecent conflict and to reintegratethem into regular primary schoolsquickly. To do so, the acceleratedcurriculum compresses one yearinto six months. In 2004, therewere approximately 1400 studentsenrolled, and although approximate-ly 50 percent are male and 50 per-


36 See Margaret Sinclair (2004), Learning to Live Together: Values and Attitudes for the 21st Century for a comprehensive review of peace education programs.

cent are female, the program placesparticular emphasis on girls’ educa-tion and teacher training.This pro-gram demonstrates typical charac-teristics of education sponsored byinternational NGOs in war-torn andearly reconstruction settings, bothbecause the learning is acceleratedand because of the emphasis placedon girls’ education to enhance theirprotection.

DISTANCE LEARNING

In Hebron, in the OccupiedPalestinian Territories, 30 schoolswere involved in UNICEF’sCommunity-Based EducationProgram/Reducing the Impact ofConflict in Learning, including 600teachers, parents, local TV networks,and the district directorate. Twohundred thirty “self-learning sheets”were developed, and 20 lessonswere broadcast on local televisionstations. This resulted in 40 hoursof remedial education for children ingrades 1-4 (UNICEF, 2002).

GOAL #5: MITIGATINGGLOBAL ANDTRANSNATIONAL ILLSThe impact illness and disease hason a community can most easily beseen in countries with highHIV/AIDS infection rates. Yet, otherdiseases and illnesses, such as polio,cholera, dysentery, and malaria, arealso increasingly recognized for theeffect they have on individuals andthe community at large. Therefore,more and more programs are beingdesigned with the intention of pre-

venting and treating many illnessesand diseases.

HIV/AIDS

Extensive work has been carriedout to address this devastating pan-demic. The World AIDS Campaignadvocates for integrating life skills,sexual health, and HIV/AIDS educa-tion into school curricula startingwith primary school and continuingthroughout the students’ education.The programs should be developedby national ministries of education incollaboration with parent teachersassociations and participation fromyoung people (UNAIDS, cited inKelly, 2000).

The Department of Education inSouth Africa, with financial supportfrom USAID undertook an exten-sive evaluation of its HIV/Life Skillsprogram across the country.Among its salient findings it deter-mined that only 29 percent ofschools were actually implementingthe program due to lack of support,insufficient teacher training atten-dance, and little contact betweendistricts and schools (KhulisaManagement Services, August 8,2000).

In an extensive study compilingdiverse literature and experienceson addressing HIV/AIDS, the WorldBank advocates for key interven-tions such as: school-based preven-tion programs (Focusing Resourceson Effective School Health—a pro-gram created in partnership withUNESCO,WHO, and UNICEF),

skills-based health education (linkinginformation about HIV to the devel-opment of interpersonal skills andcritical thinking), peer education andfocus on youth (education by youth,for youth), support for orphans andout-of-school-youth (with researchand cross-sectoral efforts), and mul-timedia campaigns (raise publicunderstanding regarding the issues)(World Bank, 2002, p. xix).

These sample programs suggest theabundance of approaches to educa-tion in crisis settings. Following is asummary of several initiatives andresources that inform the field.

RESOURCES ANDREFERENCEMATERIALS Recently, INEE consolidated andpackaged a vast volume of programexperiences, advocacy tools, traininginstruments, and other useful docu-ments on a CD Rom, “The INEETechnical Resource Kit on Educationin Emergencies and EarlyRecovery—A Digital Library”(2004). This collection of materialsis well-organized and easy to use,and is a likely place to find programinformation relating to any of thefollowing topics: core referencematerials, advocacy and policy state-ments, Education for All documents,human rights instruments, evalua-tions and case studies, and modelsand frameworks. In addition, severalinternational organizations havedesigned a number of education“tool kits” and other materials to



assist humanitarian workers, educa-tors, teachers, parents, and commu-nity members in providing educationservices during a complex emer-gency—typically a natural disaster orarmed conflict (Nicolai, 2003;Pigozzi, 1999;Triplehorn, 2001).Nicolai’s toolkit contains extensivedescriptions and examples of casestudies from Save the Children’sexperiences in providing educationsupport to children affected by con-flict, disaster, and other crises.Specifically related to USAID sup-ported programs and several casestudies, see Helping ChildrenOutgrow War (Miller & Affolter,2003).These references are all avail-able in the digital library.37

MINIMUM STANDARDS The Minimum Standards onEducation in Emergencies (MSEE)facilitated by INEE, were reachedthrough an extensive consultativeprocess that spanned all continents,more than 2200 participants, andone and a half years.38 The resultsof these consultations and discus-sions culminated in the publicationand dissemination of the MSEE inDecember 2004. The standards areintended to serve as a commonstarting point for international aidworkers and others in “providingguidance and tools on how to reacha minimum level of educational qual-ity.” Specifically they are meant to:

Promote education as a coreelement of humanitarian assis-tance;

Enhance accountability amonghumanitarian actors;

Improve coordination amongpartners, including educationauthorities;

Serve as a capacity-buildingand training tool to enhanceeducation management andeffectiveness;

Provide a strong advocacy toolpromoting education tohumanitarian organizations,governments, donors, and pop-ulations affected by crisis;

Serve as a tool for planning,implementing, and evaluatingeducation projects. (INEE,2004)

Although in explicitly targeting “edu-cation in emergencies, chronic crises,and early reconstruction” theMinimum Standards have an implicitfocus on armed conflict and naturaldisasters, they also address issuesspecific to girls, people affected byHIV/AIDS, and other vulnerablegroups.The MSEE Working Groupenvisions that establishing standardswill help move the world closer toreaching the Education for All andUN Millennium Development Goals

(INEE, 2004). See Appendix C foran overview of the minimum stan-dards.

In addition to the enormous effortundertaken to launch the minimumstandards, many promising programssuch as those listed in the table onpage 18 exist to help provide edu-cational resources and support topopulations affected by crises.Bethke (2004) names, and includesbrief descriptions where informationis available, approximately 500 proj-ects in 113 countries managed byapproximately 25 internationalNGOs, 50 national NGOs or inter-national organizations with a singleregional focus, 12 governments, sixbilateral government aid agencies,and four multi-governmental (UN)agencies. Although there is consid-erable overlap between education incrises programs and more standardeducation programs, the survey liststhe following nine types of educa-tional activities as typical examplesof education in emergencies pro-grams: structured recreational activi-ties (usually for young children),youth centers, formal education,vocational or skills training for youth,accelerated learning programs,bridging programs, life skills educa-tion, teacher training, and distanceeducation programs (pp. 6-7).39

37 Also many are available on the INNE or GINIE websites. For comprehensive set of practical guides and resources for organizations implementing education incrisis programs on the INEE website, see: http://www.ineesite.org/core/default.asp. Several excellent, generic, and comprehensive resource guides to approachingeducation in various types of crisis situations are available.

38 "…delegates and INEE members in the regions coordinated local, national, and sub-regional consultations in 47 countries to gather input and information fromover 1,900 representatives of affected communities, including students, teachers and other education personnel; NGO, government and UN representatives withexperience in education; donors and academics," additional members participated on-line. See: http://www.ineesite.org/standards/default.asp.

39 See the Global Survey on Education in Emergencies (Bethke, 2004), available: http://www.womenscommission.org/pdf/Ed_Emerg.pdf. For individual country sum-maries, see InterAction membership activity country reports.


Given that the field of education incrisis situations is still being definedand a wide variety of actors areinvolved, debates about the field andgaps within the field remain wide-spread. This section is not intendedto go into great depth about anyone debate or gap; nor is it intend-ed to discuss each one. It simplyacknowledges the wide variety ofissues and offers some potentialresearch to be considered in hopesof promoting greater understandingof the needs and issues involved andinspiring new activities to resolvethem.

RELATIONSHIPBETWEENEDUCATION ANDCONFLICTThe relationship between educationand conflict is not clear. Educationmay have potential for strengtheningsocial cohesion, rending it, or creat-

ing a more complicated reaction(Bush & Saltarelli, 2000; Krech &Maclure, 2004;Tawil, 2004;WorldBank, 2005). In Sierra Leone, forexample, the public education sys-tem was regarded as contributing tosocial decline and directly influencingchildren’s participation in the war.The kleptocratic government pil-fered state resources for many yearsunchecked, while the education sys-tem continued to create “wide-spread school leaver disillusion andfrustration” (Krech & Maclure, 2004,p. 142).

Although education may create con-flict, it is also credited with resolvingit, and is often considered a keyinstrument for reconstruction. Inthe interest of responding effectivelyto the needs of fragile states, therelationship between education andconflict should be better under-stood.

RELATIONSHIPBETWEENEDUCATION ANDPROTECTIONThe Role of Education in ProtectingChildren in Conflict (Nicolai &Triplehorn, 2003) argues for educa-tion to play a more prominent rolein humanitarian assistance programsbased on its ability to provide pro-tection for children and youth.Advocacy literature points out that“certain aspects of education caninherently protect children: thesense of self-worth that comes frombeing identified as a student and alearner; the growth and develop-ment of social networks; the provi-sion of adult supervision and accessto a structured, ordered schedule”(Nicolai & Triplehorn, 2003, p. 9).Beyond this, education provides “life-saving messages” such as nutritionalinformation and information regard-ing HIV transmission.

40 See also, Sommers "Education in Emergencies: Critical Questions and Challenges." BEPS: http://www.beps.net/publications/Challenges8.5x11ChangesFINAL.pdf.

IV. DEBATES,GAPS,AND FUTURE RESEARCH40

To educators and aid workers theseconclusions make sense intuitively.Yet researchers know little aboutwhether education in emergenciesworks to protect children or not. Infact, others point out that schoolscan be dangerous places for chil-dren—particularly for girls. The inci-dence of Sexual and Gender BasedViolence (SBGV) in refugee campsis relatively high, and aid workersthemselves have participated in theviolations (Shifman, personal com-munication, 2004).

There are important questions toanswer: if education protects chil-dren, how does it work? Does itwork because children are countedand their activities are monitored, orbecause they acquire particular cog-nitive skills that afford them greaterdecision-making capacity and anincreased ability to avoid exploita-tion? The answer is likely to be acombination of the two, but withoutstudies that have measured theseoutcomes, it is difficult to hone poli-cy recommendations.

DIFFERENCEBETWEENEDUCATION IN CRISISAND EDUCATION INDEVELOPMENT According to Buckland (Interview,August 2004), education, properlydefined, is inherently a developmentactivity. Education is not simply car-ried out to provide safe spaces forchildren, but it is also meant to pro-

mote their cognitive, emotional, andsocial development.The two goalsare not incompatible, but one mayexist without the other. “Teachingan irrelevant curriculum may becounter developmental, although itmay keep children safe” (Buckland,Interview, August 2004). In thisview, the content of good qualityeducation will vary according to anycontext; different crises, like differentcultures, provide additional varia-tions in context. The extra contentincluded in education in crisis that isparticular to these contexts caninclude practical “life skills” messagessuch as landmine awareness andhealth education that is particular tospecific health threats in refugee orIDP camps. In education for chil-dren affected by armed conflict,content also typically includesgreater than average emphasis onsome form of peace, human rights,or tolerance education. As notedabove, teaching methodologies andcurriculum designs also change toadapt to the circumstances. Forexample, a dense curriculum may beused to provide accelerated learningfor children who have significantgaps in their education.

ROLE OF THE STATEIN EDUCATION INCRISIS Education is believed to be a key tostate building. “Sustainable civilpeace relies on the successfulreconstruction of legitimate stateauthority” (Doyle & Sambanis, 2000,

p. 2). Rebuilding an education sys-tem is one of the essential toolsthat governments use to cultivateand maintain legitimate authority.Yet education programs for devel-oping stable countries, and pro-grams for post-conflict countries, fora variety of reasons, may circumventthe state. If the state is already frag-ile, or fledgling, this will not increasestability, and may, in fact, add a desta-bilizing influence.

EMPHASIS ONCOMMUNITYPARTICIPATION Parent, teacher, and communityinvolvement in management andschool governance in a conflict orpost-conflict environment areemerging as critical principles ofeducation in crises. When govern-ment has collapsed or withdrawn,there is often no other way to pro-vide education services. In addition,creating local parent-teacher associ-ations, or parent support groups, ismeant to increase the social gluethat bonds neighbors and thusbuilds community. But these typesof community bonds, particularlyafter a conflict, can be exclusive—insulating a neighborhood groupagainst perceived intrusions fromthe outside or from “others” (Burde,2004). Also, in the context of afragile state, or a re-emerging state,it is critical to strengthen the state.Too much emphasis on civil society,particularly in providing services thatare in the purview of the state, may



hinder national development ratherthan help it.

COORDINATION Many observers, critics, and aidworkers note the lack of coordina-tion among international aid agen-cies providing services during crisesand post-conflict reconstruction andthe problems associated with it(Minear, 2004; Sommers, 2004a;Rupp, 2004). Numerous reports cite“increased coordination amonginternational agencies” as one of theprimary recommendations forimproving the efficiency and efficacyof the delivery of educational servic-es in these circumstances (Bethke,2004; Nicolai, 2004; Sommers,2004a, 2004b;World Bank, 2005).Recommendations from a confer-ence, “Workshop on RefugeeEducation in Complex Emergencies,Forced Migration, and Post-ConflictTransitions,” held in 1999 on educa-tion in emergencies, stressed theimportance of increasing collabora-tion among international agencies toprovide education services duringcrises.41 To support global collabo-ration and data collection, the INEEwas founded shortly after this work-shop. With the level and intensity ofattention that has been given to theproblem of coordination in multiplecontexts, the question now is lessabout what the problem is, butrather why the problem persists.

Reasons offered range from thepractical to the structural. First, in

crisis-affected environments, it is dif-ficult to track projects when thecentral accounting system is limitedor does not exist. With multipledonors representing multiple coun-tries providing grants to multipleNGOs, the sheer numbers of proj-ects are difficult to track even whenan accounting system is in place.During a conflict, looting and vio-lence destroy old records of allkinds, and keeping new recordshardly seems like a priority.

Second, during and after a conflicthas ended, UNICEF, in conjunctionwith the ministry of education, usu-ally becomes the “lead agency” forcoordinating projects related to theeducation system. InternationalNGOs and bilateral agencies, how-ever, are not required to coordinatewith UNICEF and the ministry; theyare simply expected to do so.Logistical difficulties and internalagendas can easily overshadow atask that is viewed as a professionalcourtesy, and the outcome is a con-tinued lack of coordination.

PROGRAMIMPLEMENTATIONPAYING TEACHERS

Recruiting and retaining teacherscan be a challenge for internationalagencies working in crisis areas.Qualified paraprofessional teachersoften leave international NGOsafter having received training and,once conditions have stabilized,moving either to a job that is closer

to their original line of work or to abetter position elsewhere.They dothis because they are concernedthat the job is short term and willend when the NGO finishes itswork in the country or because thepay is low.

Although pay is typically minimal,there has been significant debateregarding whether or not to payteachers at all in education pro-grams launched during crises. Manyinternational agencies argue thatbecause paying teachers is a recur-ring expense, it is an unsustainableactivity for an NGO, and it is theresponsibility of the government.However, international organizationsare funded to provide educationalservices during a crisis oftenbecause government has collapsed,or is divided, or is too fragile toassume full responsibility for manag-ing the education system. Manyargue that serving in this capacityincludes paying teachers’ salaries(Midttun, 2004, personal communi-cation). Not to do so may under-mine the credibility of the interna-tional agency, and typically hampersthe success of the education pro-gram. Paying teachers’ salaries iscorrelated with better quality edu-cation programs (Bethke, 2004).

EDUCATING ADOLESCENTS

International norms and standardsemphasize primary education.Education for adolescents, both sec-ondary and primary (for older chil-

41This workshop was co-sponsored by the Women's Commission for Refugee Women and Children, InterWorks, Norwegian Refugee Council, and theCongressional Hunger Center, supported by the Bayan Tree Foundation, and hosted by the World Bank.


dren who have missed school), hastraditionally been neglected.Adolescents, however, make uplarge numbers of people affected byconflict. They are vulnerable toexploitation, as mentioned above,and they hold the potential to havea large impact on society, both nowand in the future and in both posi-tive and negative ways. Many edu-cators argue that it is important torecognize this potential and helpadolescents develop in positive andproductive ways (Bush & Saltarelli,2002). But because secondary edu-cation is not mandated in interna-tional rights documents, as primaryeducation is, many donors and hostgovernments do not support it.

CERTIFYING TEACHERS ANDSTUDENTS

Finding certifications that will berecognized after a crisis is resolvedis a dilemma both for teachers andfor students. Students enrolled ineducation in emergencies programsare often taught by paraprofessionalteachers with a curriculum that maybe one from the host country, maybe a version of the pre-conflict cur-riculum from the country of origin,or may be a mixture of NGO cur-riculum innovations and a localmodel. When children graduatefrom these courses, whether theyare formal or nonformal programs,and when teachers graduate frombasic training courses, even if thesponsoring agencies issue certifi-cates, once the teachers and stu-

dents return to their country of ori-gin, or the system resumes aroundthem, a new government will rarelyrecognize these certificates.

PROVIDING PEACEEDUCATION

Nearly every educator agrees thatpeace education is a good idea.Generally two ways are suggestedfor including peace education, orone of its many derivatives—humanrights education, tolerance educa-tion, education for reconciliation—inthe school curriculum. Either it is“mainstreamed,” in other words,included as a theme in every coursetaught, or it is taught as an inde-pendent class. Some argue that, aswith mainstreaming gender, issuesthat are treated in this way areoften overshadowed by other prior-ities. The best way to produceresults, they say, is to combine thetwo—include a separate class thatpromotes behavior relevant to theconflict at hand (Sinclair, 2004).Sometimes this may mean teachingpeace education, or it may mean agreater emphasis on citizenship edu-cation to counteract ethno-national-ist divisive tendencies. See AppendixJ on Peace Education Programs.

MINIMUM STANDARDS

Although establishing minimum stan-dards was an exceptionally well-organized process, it was not with-out its debates. Most members ofthe consultation meetings support-ed the idea of establishing guidelines

and standards, but some questionedthe tension between reaching aspi-rations in education and establishinga low threshold for achievement. Totest this, INEE plans to pilot, moni-tor, collect baseline data, and evalu-ate the standards to assess theirimpact, and to refine and improvethe standards in the future.

CURRICULUM

Curriculum issues are complex inpart because of the many purposesand agendas that a national curricu-lum is meant to serve.42 For refugeeeducation, most agencies try to relyon the country of origin for curricu-lum materials. These are not alwaysavailable and may be a source ofsocial tension.

MONITORING ANDEVALUATION

In programs that offer urgentlyneeded services, tension often existsbetween delivering those servicesand assessing their outcomes. Datacollection takes time and resourcesthat many field workers do nothave. On the other hand, poormonitoring leads to incomplete andinaccurate data. Many argue formonitoring and evaluation tobecome standardized and to sys-tematically collect data relating toenrollment, persistence, retentionfigures, and tracking out-of-schoolyouth.

42 See Obura (2003) for insights into post-conflict curriculum building in Rwanda, and Tawil and Harley (2004) for cross national post-conflict curriculum issues.


CONDUCTING ANDCOLLECTING RESEARCHAND DATA

There are three sources of informa-tion on education in crisis situations:(1) program documents producedby international and national non-governmental organizations involvedin service provision in the field; (2)policy case studies and series papersproduced by development institutes;and (3) academic articles and bookchapters usually focusing on educa-tional issues in specific conflict areas,not necessarily tied to programscarried out by international organi-zations.

Although typically large amounts ofdata are collected, there is littlestandardization and critical informa-tion may be missing. For example,although it is by now standard formost education programs to recordthe numbers of children enrolled ineducation programs, many do not

record the numbers of children whoattend classes or activities full-time,or the total number of un-enrolledschool-age children in the communi-ty (Bethke, personal communica-tion).

Many NGO program reportsremain hidden from the public.They are often written as internaldocuments to be circulated withinthe agency and to potential donors,but not necessarily to be sharedwith a broader audience.The recentcollaborative efforts of INEE havebeen helpful in making such infor-mation available more broadly, butsome have advocated for gray litera-ture to be made available through apublic database.

Academic studies of education inemergencies that employ a theoreti-cal framework, rely on establishedresearch methods, and systematicallycollect empirical data are scarce. Itis difficult to collect data and con-

duct academic research for severalreasons. First, education programsdesigned to provide services duringcrises are often short term and flex-ible. Research requires planning andoften extra funding. By the timeplans are made and funds are raised,an education program in a conflictregion may be over. Or the studyvariables may have changed signifi-cantly. Second, program logistics aredifficult to manage during crises.Any research efforts will have toaddress the same logistical difficul-ties, but given the level of precisionand accuracy required for empiricalstudies to be reliable and robust, theobstacles to collecting data increase.For example, it is challenging to finda control group of out-of-schoolchildren to compare to in-schoolchildren in order to test the impactof the education program. Finally,changing security compromises pro-gram delivery and data collection.


AA kkeeyy rreeccoommmmeennddaattiioonn iiss tthhaatt eedduu-ccaattiioonn iinn eemmeerrggeenncciieess bbee sseeeenn,, aannddppllaannnneedd ffrroomm DDaayy OOnnee,, aass ppaarrtt oofftthhee ddeevveellooppmmeenntt pprroocceessss aanndd nnoottssoolleellyy aass aa ‘‘rreelliieeff’’ eeffffoorrtt.. DDoonnoorrsssshhoouulldd aavvooiidd ccoommppaarrttmmeennttaalliizzaattiioonnooff ffuunnddiinngg tthhaatt ccaann hhaavvee tthhee eeffffeeccttooff ccrreeaattiinngg aann uunneedduuccaatteedd aanndd bbiitttteerr,,rreevveennggee-oorriieenntteedd ggeenneerraattiioonn,,bbeeccaauussee eedduuccaattiioonn iinn eemmeerrggeenncciieesswwaass sseeeenn aass tthhee llaasstt ccaallll oonn iinnaaddee-qquuaattee ‘‘hhuummaanniittaarriiaann’’ bbuuddggeettss ((oorreexxcclluuddeedd ffrroomm tthheemm)).. MMoorreeoovveerr,,rreessttoorraattiioonn ooff aacccceessss ttoo sscchhoooolliinngg iinnaa ppoossttccoonnfflliicctt ssiittuuaattiioonn sshhoouulldd bbeesseeeenn aass aa ffuunnddiinngg pprriioorriittyy ((BBeennssaallaahh,,eett.. aall..,, 22000000,, pp.. 3388))..

This quote summarizes the issuesfacing the field of education in criseselaborated in this paper: What roledoes education play in humanitarianaction: does it require a humanitari-an, human rights, or developmentapproach? How should agencies planfor it—in segments or as an integrat-ed approach? When should theyplan it—during or after the start ofthe crisis? How should it be fund-

ed—as an “add-on” initiative or apriority?

The following recommendations areoffered with these questions inmind.

GENERALRECOMMENDATIONS

Continue to support educationfor girls and youth as well asspecific programs that targetthem.

Approach education from theperspective of quality andaccess (human rights) acrossthe spectrum of relief to devel-opment (rather than develop-ment or relief).

Continue to advocate for lifeskills education that also focus-es on interpersonal relationsand critical thinking skills, torespond to HIV/AIDS.

Ensure that HIV/AIDS aware-ness is addressed in all popula-tions affected by crisis.

Support and strengthen theINEE, providing on-going fund-ing sufficient for the secretariatand resources to engage activemember participation.

Support implementation ofminimum standards for educa-tion in emergencies.

Support monitoring and evalu-ation. Establish standard indica-tors across programs.

Support research and improvedata collection. Examine: 1)education and protection; 2)relationship between educationsystems and fragile states; 3)impact of teacher training onteacher practice.

Pool “gray” literature on educa-tion in crisis (program evalua-tions, reports) and make itavailable in a managed publicdatabase.

V.RECOMMENDATIONS


RECOMMENDATIONSTO USAID

Articulate policy on educationin crisis across the agency.Clarify terminology and includeeducation in Office of ForeignDisaster Assistance (OFDA)policy. Add an education spe-cialist to the DisasterAssistance Response Team(DART).

Prioritize collaboration withnational governments/Ministries of Education andencourage them to establish atransparent coordinationmechanism for all educationactivities, including effectiveinformation sharing amongstakeholders. Increase incen-tives and requirements forinternational agencies whoreceive grants from USAID tocoordinate with each otherand with national governments.

Serve as a buffer between mili-tary operations and humanitar-ian aid delivery, particularly ingeostrategic areas.

Examine USAID’s experiencein youth programming andexpand programs to provideout-of school activities andsupport to secondary educa-tion.

Assist fragile states and othernational governments in disas-ter preparedness.

RECOMMENDATIONSTO INTERNATIONALNONGOVERNMENTALORGANIZATIONS(NGOS)

Support national governments,particularly in fragile states.

Provide greater number ofprogram possibilities for ado-lescents and youth: educationfor different ages.

Focus on girls and gender-spe-cific issues in the classroom.

Include peace education princi-ples throughout teachingmaterials but also as a sepa-rate class, such as a civics/citi-zenship class.

Standardize monitoring andevaluation tools for collectingproject data; posted on andmaintained on INEE website,or other suitable database.

RECOMMENDATIONSTO NATIONALGOVERNMENTS

Ensure that school buildingsare up to scale to withstandnatural disasters, and thatschool administrators aretrained in emergency pre-paredness.

Include peace education andcivics principles throughoutteaching materials.

Educate school administratorsabout SGBV and ensure thatadministrators, teachers and

other education personnel fol-low a code of conduct.

In a short period of time, provisionof education for children affected bycrises has increased substantially.Many transnational actors—nationaland international, bilateral and multi-national, governmental and NGO—have worked hard to illuminate thedilemmas facing crisis-affected popu-lations, and have effectively realignedpolicies to focus attention on thesepressing issues. Now, in the light ofinternational attention, humanitarianactors (donors, practitioners,activists, researchers) can increaseeducational access and qualityeverywhere, thus guaranteeing everychild’s right to education, even theones most deeply affected by crises.Supporting education programsacross humanitarian and develop-ment assistance efforts, and commit-ting to policies that incorporate theassets of those whose lives are mostimpacted by the crises will enrichthe field…and eventually ensure theeffectiveness and timeliness of itsaccomplishments.

Whether education plays the role oftransforming development, strength-ening fragile states, providing safespaces, supporting peace anddemocracy, or mitigating theHIV/AIDS pandemic, it is criticalwithin any crisis setting. Education“fuels new hopes” (USAIDEducation Strategy, April 2005, p. v)and USAID is well-positioned tohelp transform this hope into action.


APPENDIXES


Pilar Aguilar, Senior Education and Protection Officer, UNICEF

Allison Anderson, Focal Point, Inter-Agency Network on Education in Emergencies, Minimum Standards,International Rescue Committee

Lynne Bethke, InterWorks

Peter Buckland, Senior Education Advisor,World Bank

Mitch Kirby, Senior Education Advisor, East and Southern Africa, USAID

Eldrid Middtun, Norwegian Refugee Council

Margaret Sinclair, Consultant

Christopher Talbot, UNESCO, IIEP

Sohbi Tawil, UNESCO, IBE

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EXCERPTED FROM:HTTP://WWW.INEESITE.ORG/STANDARDS/OVERVIEW.ASP

MINIMUM STANDARDS FOR EDUCATION INEMERGENCIES, CHRONIC CRISES ANDEARLY RECONSTRUCTION: ACOMMITMENT TO ACCESS, QUALITY ANDACCOUNTABILITY

DEVELOPING GLOBAL STANDARDS

Facilitated by the Inter-Agency Network on Educationin Emergencies’ (INEE) Working Group on MinimumStandards for Education in Emergencies (WGMSEE), abroad base of stakeholders developed standards thatarticulate the minimum level of educational service tobe attained in emergencies through to early reconstruc-tion. INEE held regional, sub-regional and national con-sultations, INEE list-serve consultations and peerreviews.This process reflects lessons learned from theSphere Project and emphasizes transparent, cost-effec-tive and consultative decision-making.The participatoryprocess was intended to enhance the applicability ofstandards to varying educational contexts, while at thesame time ensuring relevance to and ownership of thestandards across a wider group of stakeholders.

Participants included representatives from affected pop-ulations, including students, teachers and other educa-tion personnel; NGO, government and UN representa-tives with experience in education; donors and academ-ics.They will develop standards, indicators and guidancenotes that reflect their own experiences and good prac-tice.The standards will apply to a variety of affectedpopulations, from refugees to internally displaced andhost country populations.

EXPECTED OUTCOMES OF THE DEVELOPMENT OFMINIMUM STANDARDS

Education is primarily the responsibility of governments;however, governments are often unable to fulfill theirroles during wars and disasters.The standards willtherefore be a common starting point for the interna-tional community and others in providing guidance andtools on how to reach a minimum level of educationalquality.They will also contribute to strengthening theresiliency of education ministries and equip them toensure that the minimum standards are implemented. Inaddition, the establishment of standards that articulatethe minimum level of educational service to be attained,along with indicators and guidance notes on how toreach the standards, will give government and humani-tarian workers the tools that they need to address theEducation For All and UN Millennium DevelopmentGoals.

In addition, minimum standards will:

Promote education as a core element of humani-tarian assistance

Enhance accountability among humanitarian actors

Improve coordination among partners, includingeducation authorities

Serve as a capacity-building and training tool toenhance education management and effectiveness

Provide a strong advocacy tool promoting educa-tion to humanitarian organizations, governments,donors and populations affected by crisis

Serve as a tool for planning, implementing andevaluating education projects

APPENDIX C:INEE WORKING GROUP ON MINIMUM STANDARDS

ON EDUCATION IN EMERGENCIES


Furthermore, the consultative process of developingstandards will strengthen the education and humanitari-an community by linking beneficiaries, practitioners, poli-cy-makers and academics through discussions on bestpractice.

INEE’S WORKING GROUP ON MINIMUM STANDARDS

INEE’s Working Group on Minimum Standards forEducation in Emergencies consists of 13 organizationswith expertise in education in crisis and early recon-struction situations: CARE Canada, CARE USA, CatholicRelief Services, the International Rescue Committee,Norwegian Church Aid, Norwegian Refugee Counciland the Norway United Nations Association, Save theChildren UK, Save the Children USA, Refugee EducationTrust, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNICEF and WorldEducation.The Focal Point for the standards process isbased at the International Rescue Committee in NewYork City.The standards process has received core

funding from the Swedish International DevelopmentAgency and the International Rescue Committee, and isseeking additional support for the consultative processand the publication of standards.

INEE is an open network of UN agencies, non-govern-mental organizations, donors, practitioners, researchersand individuals from affected populations workingtogether to ensure the right to education in emergen-cies and post-crisis reconstruction.The network isresponsible for gathering and disseminating best prac-tices in education in emergencies and ensuring a regularexchange of information among its members and part-ners. INEE is led by a Steering Group composed of rep-resentatives from CARE International, International Savethe Children Alliance, the International RescueCommittee, Norwegian Refugee Council, UNESCO,UNHCR, UNICEF and the World Bank.


RReeffuuggeeeess.. The 1951 Refugee Convention and the 1967Protocol state that refugees are those who have a well-founded fear of persecution and are forcibly displacedbeyond the state boundaries of their countries of origin.Based on these criteria, they are granted legal refugeestatus. According to the United Nations HighCommissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), refugee childrenare accorded the same rights and standards as refugeeadults. A child with refugee status cannot be forced toreturn to her/his country of origin (the principle ofnon-refoulement), and refugee children must be givenaccess to the same level of primary education to whichtheir host country counterparts have access.Secondary education must be provided at the samelevel that it is afforded to non-refugee aliens in the hostcountry (UNHCR, 1994, p. 18).

IInntteerrnnaallllyy DDiissppllaacceedd PPeerrssoonnss ((IIDDPPss)).. People who areforced to migrate within their home country’s bordersdue to war or natural disasters are considered IDPs.Given the fact that most conflicts today are civil ratherthan interstate, most war-affected forced migrants areIDPs (Harwood & Anis, unpublished report 2001;Machel, 2001; USAID, 2002). IDPs are particularly vul-nerable to suffering and exploitation because they falloutside of the UNHCR’s mandate and they are oftendifficult for aid organizations to reach for political rea-sons.

CCiivviilliiaannss ccaauugghhtt iinn ccoonnfflliicctt oorr ““ssttaayyeeeess..”” The numbers ofpeople who attempt to weather low intensity conflictsby remaining where they are, or who are unable toleave because of sieges (e.g., Sarajevo) or severe travelrestrictions (e.g., Palestinians living in the OccupiedPalestinian Territories) have increased with the increasednumber of civil conflicts.

RReettuurrnneeeess.. People returning to their region or countryof origin after conflict are referred to as “returnees.”The resettlement of returning refugees and IDPs is animportant component of reconstruction activities.

DDiissppllaacceedd cchhiillddrreenn aanndd oorrpphhaannss.. The USAID DisplacedChildren and Orphans Fund defines this target group asvulnerable children who are: (1) affected by armed con-flict, (2) living on or in danger of living on the street, (3)living with disabilities, (4) otherwise separated fromcaregivers” (USAID/DCOF, n.d.).

VViiccttiimmss ooff SSeexxuuaall aanndd GGeennddeerr BBaasseedd VViioolleennccee ((SSGGBBVV))..In the past several years, awareness has grown regard-ing specific dangers affecting girls and women, particu-larly in the midst of social chaos and crisis.

YYoouutthh aanndd aaddoolleesscceennttss.. There are different definitionsof this phase of a child’s life. Some agencies and gov-ernments take a broad view, for example, in a nationalpolicy document developed by Beirzeit University inpartnership with UNICEF, describe youth and adoles-cents as encompassing an age range from 15-35. TheINEE Task Team on Adolescents and Youth inEmergencies defines youth as young people betweenthe ages of 12 and 24 (INEE, n.d.).

CChhiilldd ssoollddiieerrss.. or children associated with fighting forces(UNICEF, 2004) are boys and girls who have been con-scripted by government or rebel forces to fight with orsupport an army. Children as young as five or six havebeen conscripted, but the average age is estimated tobe 12 or 13, depending on the region (Singer, 2002).

SSttrreeeett cchhiillddrreenn.. According to Human Rights Watch(HRW), “the term street children refers to children forwhom the street more than their family has becometheir real home. It includes children who might not nec-

APPENDIX D:AFFECTED POPULATIONS


essarily be homeless or without families, but who live insituations where there is no protection, supervision, ordirection from responsible adults” (HRW, n.d.).

PPeeooppllee lliivviinngg wwiitthh HHIIVV//AAIIDDSS.. This term encompassespeople who have been diagnosed with HIV but maynot yet developed AIDS, as well as those who have.

OOrrpphhaann DDuuee ttoo AAIIDDSS.. A child who has at least oneparent dead from AIDS.

DDoouubbllee OOrrpphhaann DDuuee ttoo AAIIDDSS.. A child whose motherand father have both died, at least one due to AIDS.(UNAIDS, UNICEF & USAID, July 2004)


KEY UN AGREEMENTS OUTLININGCHILDREN'S RIGHT TO EDUCATION

SOURCE: NICOLAI. (2003). EDUCATION INEMERGENCIES TOOLKIT. LONDON: SAVETHE CHILDREN/UK PP.7-8.

The 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights:Article 26 outlines the right to free and compulsoryeducation at the elementary level and urges that pro-fessional and technical education be made available.Thedeclaration states that education should work tostrengthen respect for human rights and promotepeace. Parents have the right to choose the kind ofeducation provided to their child.

The 1951 Convention Relating to the Status ofRefugees: Refugee children are guaranteed the right toelementary education in Article 22, which states theyshould be accorded the same opportunities as nationalsfrom the host country. Beyond primary school, refugeechildren are treated as other aliens, allowing for therecognition of foreign school certificates and awardingof scholarships.

The 1966 Covenant on Economic, Social and CulturalRights:The right to free and compulsory education atthe primary level and accessible secondary-level educa-tion is laid out in Article 13.The covenant goes on tocall for basic education to be made available to thosewho have not received or completed primary educa-tion. Emphasis is placed on improving conditions andteaching standards.

The 1989 Convention of the Rights of the Child: Article28 calls for states to make primary education compul-sory and free to all, and to encourage the development

of accessible secondary, and other forms of, education.Quality and relevance is detailed in Article 29, whichmandates an education that builds on a child’s potentialand supports their cultural identity. Psychosocial sup-port and enriched curriculum for conflict-affected chil-dren are both emphasized in this article. Article 2 out-lines the principle of non-discrimination, including accessfor children with disabilities, gender equity, and the pro-tection of linguistic and cultural rights of ethnic minoritycommunities. Article 31 protects a child’s right to recre-ation and culture.

The 1990 World Declaration on Education for All: In1990, at a global meeting in Jomtiem,Thailand, the gov-ernments of the world committed to ensuring basiceducation for all.Ten years later at the Dakar WorldEducation Forum, governments and agencies identifiedhumanitarian emergencies as a major obstacle towardachieving the goals of Education for All (EFA).Withinthe Dakar Framework of Action, a call was made foractive commitment to remove disparities in access forunder-served groups, notably girls, working children,refugees, those displaced by war and disaster, and chil-dren with disabilities.

The Geneva Conventions: For situations of armed con-flict, the Geneva Conventions lay out particular humani-tarian protections for people – including children – whoare not taking part in hostilities. In times of hostility,states are responsible for ensuring the provision of edu-cation for orphaned or unaccompanied children. In situ-ations of military occupation, the occupying power mustfacilitate institutions “devoted to the care and educationof children”. Schools and other buildings used for civilpurposes are guaranteed protection from militaryattacks.

APPENDIX E:KEY UN AGREEMENTS OUTLINING CHILDREN'S

RIGHT TO EDUCATION


Regional Agreements: A number of regional agree-ments also address issues of education. References tothe right to education are found in the African Charteron the Rights and Welfare of the Child, Article XI; the

American Declaration on the Rights and Duties of Man,Article XII; and the Protocol to the EuropeanConvention for the Protection of Human Rights andFundamental Freedoms of 1952, Article 2.


APPENDIX F:USAID OFFICES' INVOLVEMENT IN EDUCATION IN

CRISIS SITUATIONS

As mentioned in Section II, State of the Field,USAID disaster relief mechanisms do not alwaysincorporate education in initial response stages. Forexample, the Bureau for Democracy, Conflict, andHumanitarian Assistance (DCHA) houses fouroffices that address violent conflict and disasterrelief: Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance (OFDA),Office of Transition Initiatives, the Office of ConflictManagement and Mitigation, and the DisplacedChildren and Orphans Fund (DCOF). Although theother agencies may be involved in supporting edu-cation in crisis programs, only DCOF makes signifi-cant mention of education in describing its work.43

See Appendix G for organizational charts of USAIDand DCHA.

For example, the most recent version of OFDA’sGuidance for Disaster Planning and Response strict-ly prioritizes shelter, water, sanitation, health, nutri-tion, food, agriculture and livestock, and most vul-nerable populations. An OFDA Disaster AssistanceResponse Team typically consists of sector specialiststo support an assessment of the priority sectorslisted. Therefore it may include an expert on pro-tection, but is not likely to include an educator(OFDA, September 24, 2004). OFDA maintains aninternal commitment to limit aid grants to 12month periods, thereby avoiding the congressionalcriticism that the office may be subjected to if itseems to be carrying out activities that have beenconsidered part of traditional development workand therefore outside of its mandate (McClelland,December 2000).

Ten years ago USAID established the Office ofTransition Initiatives (OTI) to bridge the gapbetween its disaster assistance and developmentwork. OTI is meant to provide quick, high-impact

intervention at appropriate moments. Thus OTIdefines “four key criteria for engagement: the coun-try’s importance to US foreign policy, the existenceof a ‘window of opportunity’ for democratic devel-opment, the likelihood that OTI’s efforts would havea significant impact, and assurance of an acceptablelevel of risk” (OTI, 2004, p. 6). The traditionalUSAID gaps that OTI strives to overcome consistof (1) delays in USAID responses to crisis causedby lack of contingency funds and a slow budgetingprocess; (2) lack of flexibility in hiring staff, procuringmaterials and making grants to small NGOs ill-equipped to deal with US government accountingprocedures (OTI, 2004, p. 9).

The Office of Conflict Management and Mitigation(CMM) was created in 2002 to assess widespreadviolent conflict and its relationship to, and impacton, development. CMM does not manage pro-grams of its own, but is intended to change the wayin which aid is planned implemented by providingtechnical expertise and support for USAID fieldoffices operating in countries at risk of conflict,(USAID, July 29, 04), e.g., conducting conflict assess-ments, developing “toolkits,” supporting conflictmanagement programs, developing a conflict earlywarning system, outreach and training.44

The Displaced Children and Orphans Fund(DCOF) was established in 1989 and has evolvedsince then to focus primarily on issues of loss anddisplacement among three groups of children: chil-dren affected by armed conflict, street children, andchildren orphaned and otherwise made vulnerableby HIV/AIDS (Cripe & Williamson, 2002, p. xii). Itprovides support to programs that emphasize pro-tection, demobilization of child soldiers, and reunifi-cation programs, among others.45

43 OTI manages a child soldier demobilization and reintegration program in Sierra Leone that has been well-received and evaluated, for final report, see BEPS (August2002).

44 Final Evaluation of the Office of Transition Initiatives' Program in Sierra Leone: http://www.beps.net/publications/FINAL%20EVALUATION%20OF%20OTI%20PRO-GRAM%20IN%20SIERRA%20LEONE.PDF for final.

45 For more information see: http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/cross-cutting_programs/conflict/.


Office of the Assistant Administrator (AA/DCHA)

Senior Deputy Assistant Administrator (DAA). (#1)

Office of U.S Foreign Disaster Assistance (OFDA)

Office of Program, Policy, and Management (PPC)

Deputy Assistant Administrator (DAA). (#2)

Office of Conflict Management and Mitigation (CMM)

(Office of Transition Initiatives) OTI

Office of Democracy and Governance (DG)

Deputy Assistant Administrator (DAA). (#3)

Office of Food for Peace (FFP)

Volunteers for Prosperity (VfP)

Office of Private and Voluntary Cooperation - American Schools and Hospitals Abroad (PVC-ASHA)

APPENDIX G:USAID ORGANIZATIONAL CHARTS: 1) DCHA AND 2)USAID AGENCY-WIDE


CFO

GDA Secretariat

Office of Security

Bureau forManagment/CIO

Bureau for Legislativeand Public Affairs

Bureau for Policy &Program Coordination

Office of the GeneralCounsel

Office of theAdministrator

Office of theInspector General

Office of EqualOpportunity Programs

Office of SmallDisadvantaged

Business/Minority

Burea forEconomicGrowth,

Agriculture& Trade

Bureau forDemocracyConflict &

HumanitarianAssistance

Bureau forEurope &Eurasia

Bureau forLatin America

& theCaribbean

Bureau forAsia & theNear East

Bureau forAfrica

Bureau forGlobal Health

DCHAField

Offices

E&EField

Offices

LACField

Offices

ANEField

Offices

AFRField

Offices

OFDA

DAA Deputy Assistant AdministratorOFDA Office of U.S. Foreign Disaster AssistancePPM Office of Program, Policy, and ManagementOTI Office of Transition InitiativesDG Office of Democracy and GovernanceFFP Office of Food for PeaceVIP Volunteers for ProsperityPVC-ASHA Office of Private and Voluntary Cooperation -

American Schools and Hospitals Abroad

Senior DAADAA DAA

PPM DGOTIOffice of ConflictManagement andMitigation (CMIM)

FFP VIPPVC-ASHA

Office of the Assistant Administrator (AA/DCHA)

THE CMM OFFICE WITHIN THE BUREAU FOR DEMOCRACY,CONFLICT,AND HUMANITARIAN ASSISTANCE (DCHA)

Global Information Networks in Education (GINIE) www.ginie.com

Global IDP Project www.idpproject.org

Global Humanitarian Assistance www.globalhumanitarianassistance.org

Humanitarian Practice Network www.odihpn.org/

International Institute for Educational Planning (IIEP) www.unesco.org/iiep

International Labour Organisation (ILO) www.ilo.org

Interagency Network for Education in Emergencies (INEE) www.innesite.org

International Organisation for Migration (IOM) www.iom.int

Overseas Development Institute www.odi.org.uk/index.html

Norwegian Refugee Council (NRC) www.nrc.no

UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) www.reliefweb.int

UNHCR www.unhcr.ch

UNICEF www.unicef.org

UNESCO www.unesco.org

USAID Development Experience Clearing House www.dec.org/default.cfm

Women’s Commission for Refugee Women and Children www.womenscommission.org


APPENDIX H:SELECTED WEBSITES

Adapted from: Payne & Fraser, (March 2004).Qualityand Access to Education for Refugee and InternallyDisplaced Children Including Young Adults

UNESCO is increasingly engaged in emergency educa-tion, including the Education in Crisis andReconstruction Unit, the Educational Policy Researchand Studies Unit and the International Institute forEducation Planning.

International Institute for Education Planning(IIEP)

IIEP provides collaborative research, training and policydevelopment work. UNESCO and the IIEP are con-ducting a joint program, aiming to:

contribute to building up the field of education inemergencies and reconstruction

build capacity in planning and managing educationin this context

support the efforts to disseminate and exchangeinformation and to network.

IIEP partners include the US Social Science ResearchCouncil, UNESCO's International Bureau of Educationin Geneva and The World Bank.

IIEP Seventh Medium-Term Plan for 2002-2007 includethe following activities for 2002-2003:

A state-of-the-art review (booklet), with a practi-cal approach

Case studies (Burundi, East Timor, Honduras,Kosovo, Palestine, Rwanda, Sierra Leone, andSudan).

Policy-related studies, including: responsibility andco-ordination of education (role of governmentvis-à-vis other actors); validation of pupil qualifica-tions for refugees, returnees and internally dis-placed persons; teacher management in emergen-cies.

A Handbook on planning and managing educationin emergencies and reconstruction, to be pub-lished in 2003.

Training and policy forums.The IIEP SummerSchool, which in July 2003 looked at post-conflictreconstruction in the education sector (hostedjointly with the World Bank.The IIEP SummerSchool was based around four main modules:Access to Education,Teacher Management,Curriculum and Education System Development.

The review of the Summer School, available on the IIEPwebsite, covers a series of generic questions, focused oneducational planning and management functions of min-istries of education in emergencies and reconstruction.These include providing access; ensuring quality and rel-evance; building planning and management capacity; andsecuring funding and developing external relations.

IIEP is also conducting several studies of thematic policyissues in association with UNESCO Headquarters’Section for Support to Countries in Crisis andReconstruction (ED/EPS/CCR).The first four of thesepolicy studies will cover:

responsibility and coordination of education inemergencies and reconstruction: the roles of gov-ernment vis-à-vis other actors;

accreditation, certification and validation of pupil


APPENDIX I:UNESCO INVOLVEMENT IN EDUCATION IN CRISIS

and teacher qualifications for refugees, returneesand internally

displaced persons; education for reintegration ofyouth at risk in post-conflict situations, with someemphasis on vocational education; education forprevention of and educational response to naturaldisasters.

In 2002-3, the UNESCO IIEP and Section for Supportto Countries in Crisis and Reconstruction developed ajoint program to build government’s capacity to planand manage education in emergencies, beginning withdocumentation of case studies.

IIEP is also involved in more direct program work. Forexample, within UNESCO’s education program forAfghanistan, IIEP will be embarking on activities in edu-cational planning and management capacity building,thereby contributing to reconstruction and peace in thecountry and to security in the region and in the worldat large.

The operational unit has programs in the followingregions:

AFRICA ProgramReconstruction and education in emergencies, particu-larly special classroom kits for refugee children.Technicaltraining or intellectual assistance to the independentmedia.

Former YugoslaviaReconstruction and development of school curricula.Restoration of historical city centers as UNESCO hasbeen entrusted by the Dayton Peace Agreement.

IraqAction plan (Oil for Food, res. 986) comprising thereconstruction of 150 schools mostly in the northernpart of Iraq, production of school stationary.

LebanonRehabilitation of Beirut and Tyre city centres, long-scaleproject of archeological excavations. Technical supportin the development of basic education.

HaitiImprovement of education quality in Haiti. Support forthe expansion of the national radio network byinstalling new transmitters.

AfghanistanReconstruction – facilitating workshops for Ministry offi-cials to discuss priority education concerns.


Source: Smith, A. & Vaux, (2003). Education, conflictand international development. London: Department ofInternational Development p. 35.

FORMS OF PEACE EDUCATION

Skills-based programmes involve workshops in com-munication skills and interpersonal relations as well asconflict resolution techniques. It is important to consid-er how the development of interpersonal skills in con-flict resolution might have an impact on the dynamics ofinter-group conflict within wider society.

Peace programmes that are explicitly labeled ‘peaceeducation’ often share many of the characteristics ofskills-based programmes but a defining characteristicmay be that a particular orientation is taken towards‘violence’. In some cases the defining characteristic maybe that the programme material is heavily contextual-ized within a specific local or regional conflict.Therationale as to why peace education programmes aredirected towards certain groups (children, adolescents,adults, politicians, combatants, bereaved) is also animportant question to ask.

Multicultural and intercultural education emphasizeslearning about diversity and concepts such as mutualunderstanding and interdependence. It may be simplisticto think that conflict arises simply because of lack ofunderstanding of other cultures. McCarthy (1991) sug-gests that such approaches lack impact if they ‘abandonthe crucial issues of structural inequality and differentialpower relations in society’.

Human rights education. Here the emphasis is on uni-versal values, concepts of equality and justice, and theresponsibilities of individuals and states.There are signifi-cant difficulties in achieving approaches that are well

integrated within the curriculum and other school activi-ties. One issue is the absence of a human rights dimen-sion in initial teacher education. Other difficulties includelack of commitment at political level because of thechallenges that human rights education might raise.

Civic education, citizenship and education fordemocracy.. Modern civics programmes go beyondsimple ‘patriotic’ models of citizenship that requireuncritical loyalty to the nation state. By defining ‘citizen-ship’ in terms of human rights and civic responsibilities,such programmes attempt to uncouple the concept of‘citizenship’ from ‘nationality’ in a way that may make itmore difficult to mobilize political conflict around identi-ty issues.

Education for international development. The rele-vance of such programmes for the prevention of con-flict has been heightened by the impact of globalizationand the events of 11 September 2001.The relationshipbetween global security, the role of international devel-opment aid and social justice issues in an unequal worldis an important question.

Summary of the Inter-Agency Peace EducationProgramme (PEP)

Sources:

Payne, L. & Fraser, (March 2004). Quality and Access toEducation for Refugee and Internally Displaced Children(Including young adults). DFID.

Obura, A. (March 2002). “Peace Education Programmein Dadaab and Kakuma, Kenya Evaluation Summary” Inassociation with David W. Khatete and Zipporah Rimbui.UNHCR.

Central tenet: Peace can be fostered through the


APPENDIX J:PEACE EDUCATION

adopting “peace promoting behavior” and by the prac-tice of “specific peace related skills, which can betaught” (Payne & Fraser, March 2004, p. 55).

The objectives of PEP are:

promotion of ‘positive peace’, enhancing the quali-ty of life for all individuals, and for the communityand nation; and they aim to prevent violent con-flict.

teaching peace building skills to pre-empt conflict,including an initiation into mediation techniquesfor conflict resolution and dispute containment.

in order to strengthen skill acquisition, provideopportunities for individuals to acquire newunderstandings, values and attitudes related topeace. (Payne & Fraser, March 2004, p. 55)

PEP has two main thrusts to encompass all potentialschool and out-of-school learners, from camp leadersand secondary school graduates in the camp, to illiter-ate adults, housewives, goatherds, and youth who havemissed out on schooling:

A. The schools program, with one peace lesson aweek for all children at primary and secondaryschools, with corresponding teacher guides for28 lessons per year for eight primary grades.

B. The community workshop program, for adultsand out-of-school youth, comprising an exten-sive program - a weekly workshop over ten ortwelve weeks; or a more intensive option run-ning over ten/twelve consecutive half days.

In addition there is a public awareness program usingposters and drama, akin to a communication compo-

nent, and a fourth component of various planned andspontaneous PEP activities, which are characterized bytheir multiplicity and inventiveness and by the diversityof their initiators. Refugees are active participants in theprogram.

PEP has adopted a skills–oriented approach aimed atbehavior development and/or behavior change. It usesa variety of activities for teaching and learning effective-ness in the program, focusing on the learning of specificskills and on skill practice during each workshop andeach lesson of the year.The same skill is then practicedin the wider context of school life, in the home, and inthe street.The program is characterized by experientiallearning. PEP aims at improving the quality of life for allrefugees, now and in the long term. It focuses on con-flict prevention, and includes elements of conflict resolu-tion, opting for mediation techniques which producemore satisfying long term positive outcomes for every-one, in preference to intrusive methods with lessdurable outcomes.

PEP describes itself as an education program ratherthan a communication or conflict resolution program. Itemphasizes skill acquisition, and is activity-centered. Itpromotes peace building and conflict prevention.

As an education program, PEP aims at individual learn-ing over time, through long-term programs: a twelveyear program in schools and an initial 12-unit communi-ty workshop reinforced by follow-up activities over theyears. PEP is first and foremost a skills acquisition pro-gram targeting various peace building skills such as: theskills of cooperation; communication skills - includingenhanced listening, speaking skills and the skill ofremaining silent; skills of trusting, of practicing empathy;skills of assertiveness deriving from enhanced self-


esteem and self-image; the skill of taking increased indi-vidual and social responsibility - for one’s life and deci-sions, and for other people; the skill of controlling emo-tions; mediation skills (a conflict resolution skill, togetherwith problem solving, negotiation, and reconciliationskills) derived from an increased attitude of toleranceand open-mindedness.

PEP is not a communication program despite the factthat is has a minor communication component, which itcalls ‘public awareness’. It is also not a conflict resolu-tion program, although it includes a small componenton conflict resolution skills. It teaches conflict mediation

techniques, which promote the active participation ofthe parties, concerned in finding a win-win, durablesolution facilitated by a mediator.

Teacher / facilitator training follows a pattern of an initialten-day training of facilitators and teachers, followed byinservicing over two further ten-day sessions during theyear. It is supplemented by regular visits of PEP advisorsto schools/workshops and monitoring; professionaldevelopment meetings, which are fortnightly or monthlywhen regular, organized by PEP advisors for mixedgroups of teachers and facilitators; and follow-up train-ing at a later date.


PHOTO CREDITS:

Page 1Photo Ms. Francoise Beukes. An accelerated learning class in Baghlan province.

Page 5Photo by Creative Associates Interternational, Inc. Girls from Al Eman School in ,Iraq display the

student kits they received from the USAID Revitalization of Iraqi Schools and Stabilization ofEducation (RISE) project.

Page 17Photo by Lawrence Ndagije. Students gather for a Presidential Initiative on AIDS Strategy for

Communication to Youth (PIASCY) assembly at Angole Were Primary School in Uganda wheredrama, song and poetry are used to relay messages about HIV/AIDS prevention and life skills.

This skit is of a person sick with AIDS visiting a counselor to get advice on how to live with thedisease.

Page 25Photo by Sarida Matug Children huddle together in a makeshift classrooms in Sitangkai,Tawi-

tawi Province, in Southern Philippines trying to seek elementary education through CAII-assistedAlternative Learning Systems (ALS) program in the area.

Page 31Photo by Creative Associates International, Inc.??????????

DESIGN & LAYOUT:

graphics/Creative Associates International Inc.

U.S.Agency for International Development1300 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW

Washington, DC 20523Tel: (202) 712-0000Fax: (202) 216-3524

www.usaid.gov

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