e­conservationthe online magazine No. 23, March 2012

http://e-conservationline.com/

4 On Disinvestment of Cultural Heritage

By Rui Bordalo

A Decade of Disorder: Conservation and the Digital Revolution

By Daniel Cull

Pragmatism and Compromise in Conservation

By Peter D. Verheyen

News on e‐conservation magazine

By Rui Bordalo

Urban Conservation in High Asia.

The work of André Alexander and Tibet Heritage Fund

By Pimpim de Azevedo and Yutaka Hirako

Faces of Memory: the Newest Technology of Preservation and

Restoration of Hand‐Written and Printed Heritage

Review by Tatyana Krupa

Back to the Roots ‐ Workshop on Textile Dyeing with Natural Dyes

Review by Anna Karatzani

XTACH 2011

Review by Mark Beech

The Boxes for the Housing and Protection of Books:

Observations on their History and Development

By Gianlorenzo Pignatti

Lining, Relining and the Concept of Univocity

By Cecil Krarup Andersen

Salt Damage on the Wall Reliefs of Dendera Temple, Egypt

By Hesham Abbas Kamally

Security of Cultural Property: U.S. Engagement and

Potential for Improvement

By Erik Nemeth

First Aid of Rare Ptolemaic Textile in Tuna el‐Gebel Excavation, Egypt

By Harby E. Ahmed

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ARTICLES

NEWS & VIEWS

EDITORIAL

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lOn Disinvestment of Cultural Heritage

History has shown time and time again that (r)evolution is the only constant.Nevertheless, we seem always to be attracted to stability and we continually seek tomaintain the status quo. The dictionary defines status quo as "the existing state ofaffairs (at a particular time)" or "the situation as it currently exists". It is hard for us to letgo and to embrace constant change. But, as we will now see, maintaining the status quomay not be a fight worth having, as it may be part of the problem and not of the solution.

Simply put, conservation is nothing more than an attempt at keeping the materialmemories of what has been. One way or another, it has never been more than that,except for our present times. Nowadays, we are trying to achieve more than that bypreserving the perishable, the mundane, the superfluous present, and to keep it for thefuture. This can be seen, for example, in the attempts of archiving content of theinternet, conserving ephemeral art, etc. Cultural heritage is all about our culturalidentity, to know what we are and where we come from in order to understand how weare now. But if we value the material memories from the past, how is it that we are givingmore attention to those of the present? I believe this is because society in general ischanging and becoming more immediate: what is important is what we have now, notwhat we might have later, or what we had once, for that matter.

From this change of paradigm into the search of immediate or short‐term satisfactions,we are starting to no longer pay so much attention to our cultural heritage as we are toour present actions. And of course, we don’t invest in what we don’t value anymore. Thatis becoming a problem, as the unfortunate tendency in recent years is a continuousdisinvestment in cultural institutions. Regrettable examples are conservation coursesand museums being closed everywhere. And those that have managed to survive arehaving their budgets severally diminished. We continue to value cultural heritage but itsimportance is falling behind other immediate interests.

Disinvestment and budget cuts are now shaping the present state of cultural heritageand, hence, of the related professions. Although we should always hope for the better, itis not likely that investment in cultural heritage will become a priority in the near future.Assuming that this state is permanent, it is up to us to raise the continuous awareness socultural heritage is not forgotten during these times of “immediacy”.

Cultural heritage is by definition past and unchangeable. Thus, if we can’t adapt it to oursociety, perhaps we should try to adapt our society to it. At the end of the day, it is onlyby embracing changes that we are going though that we can preserve cultural heritageand enable its present memory to be unaffected.

Rui BordaloEditor‐in‐Chief

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A DECADE OF DISORDER: CONSERVATION ANDTHE DIGITAL REVOLUTION

In 1517 Martin Luther wrote a little tract known

as the ‘Ninety‐Five Theses’, you might have heard

of it? Less famous, though no less significant,

was his friend Christoph von Scheurl, who in 1518

used a printing press to distribute Luther’s ideas.

In many respects it was this new media distribu‐

tion system that caused the chaos of the protes‐

tant revolution, out of which the world we know

was born. Today our world is changing as a result

of another media revolution, we can potentially

date our entry into this revolution from the date

‘conservation‐restoration’ first appeared on

Wikipedia, which it did on 25th February 2002,

with the entry: “The process of halting the decay

and perhaps even renewing to the original state

works of art undergoing change is called Conser‐

vation and Restoration” [1]. From such humble

beginnings the entry has grown, and the site has

even become a location for conservation projects

[2]. We’ve now reached the ten‐year mark of our

entry into the digital revolution, so with this in

mind where do we as a profession stand with the

wiki‐technology that dragged us kicking and

screaming into this new epoch?

First, let’s take a step back. Wiki’s can be traced

back to 1994, when computer programmer Ward

Cunnigham was working on what he called wiki‐

wikiweb, named after the airport shuttles at

Honolulu airport. What Cunningham had develo‐

ped was a simple system that allowed anyone to

make additions and edits to a webpage, and cru‐

"Revolution is but thought carried into action"

Emma Goldman

By Daniel Cull

cially for those additions to be

tracked, and easily reverted. This

turned the consumer into a creator

fundamentally changing everything.

In 2001 Jimmy Wales and Larry

Sanger embraced this idea to launch

their new online encyclopedia, Wiki‐

pedia. The site was launched with the

following statement: “http://www.

wikipedia.com. Humor me. Go there

and add a little article. It will take

all of five or ten minutes. ‐‐Larry” [3]

Looking back, especially after the

SOPA‐inspired web "black out" [4],

it is somewhat incredible to think

that the website was launched with

so little fanfare, and amazing to re‐

member that the site didn't exist in

the twentieth century! The crucial

factor behind Wikipedia’s success is

the community, and sense of collec‐

tive ownership, that developed to

contribute to, and to fight to keep

it free from commercial activity. It is

this community that cares for the

site, guaranteeing its longevity and

continued growth; in terms of

quantity and quality.

Wiki‐technology is of course not the

exclusive domain of Wikipedia, far

from it. The conservation field is

e‐conservatione‐conservation

increasingly awash with wiki‐based projects

whether it is material specific research projects

[5], or institutional wide efforts to use wiki‐tech‐

nology [6]. The success, or failure, of these pro‐

jects will very much relate to the extent that the

institutions behind them forgo the traditional

institutional role and come to terms with the

new collaborative co‐ordination model at the

heart of this revolution. The social‐media theor‐

ist Clay Shirky stated that “when institutions are

told [...] there are other ways of coordinating

the value; they go through something a little bit

like the Kübler‐Ross stages of reaction” [7]. It

seems that many conservation institutions have

gone through denial and anger, and have cur‐

rently reached bargaining, it’s difficult to find

any that have yet truly accepted the chaotic col‐

laborative systems of the digital world. As we

consider how our field is being re/defined by the

social‐media revolution, it is worth remembering

A print screen of the English‐language Wikipedia page on 18 January 2012, illustrating its worldwide blackout in opposition toU.S. legislation such as SOPA and PIPA. Image by Wikipedia (some rights reserved).

that Clay Shirky predicted 50 years of chaos, so if

this is where we are after 10 years, I wonder

where we’ll be in 40 years’ time.

Notes:

[1] Wikipedia Contributors, “Conservation‐restora‐

tion”, Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, Date of

Revision: 25 February 2002 15:51 UTC, Available

online permanent link: URL

[2] D. Cull, “Wikipedia Saves Public Art: An interview

with Richard McCoy and Jennifer Geigel Mikulay”,

e‐conservation magazine 14, 2010, pp. 19‐27, URL

[3] L. Sanger, “The Early History of Nupedia and

Wikipedia: A Memoir”, Posted by Timothy on

Slashdot, April 18 2005, URL

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DANIEL CULLConservatorThe Musical Instrument Museum

Daniel Cull is from the West Country of the British

Isles. He trained at the Institute of Archaeology,

University College London, where he received a

BSc in Archaeology, MA in Principles of conser‐

vation, and an MSc in Conservation for Archae‐

ology and Museums. He was later awarded an

Andrew W. Mellon Fellowship at the National

Museum of the American Indian/Smithsonian

Institution, Washington, DC. He currently works as

a conservator at the Musical Instrument Museum

and as a collaborator with e‐conservation

magazine.

Website: http://dancull.wordpress.com

Contact: daniel.cull@themim.org

[4] L. Davies, “Wikipedia begins blackout in protest

against US anti‐piracy laws”, The Guardian, January

18, 2012, URL

[5] Salt Wiki, http://www.saltwiki.net

[6] Collaborative Knowledge Base, American

Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic

Works, http://www.conservation‐wiki.com/

[7] C. Shirky, “Institutions vs. Collaboration”,

TED Talk, July 2005, URL

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7

The News section is bringing up‐to‐dateinformation on cultural heritage topics such ason‐site conservation projects reports, reviews

of conferences, lectures or workshops andany other kind of appropriate

announcements.

If you are involved in interesting projects andyou want to share your experience with

everybody else, please send us your newsor announcements.

For more details, such as deadlines andpublication guidelines, please visit

www.e‐conservationline.com

By Peter D. Verheyen

PRAGMATISM AND COMPROMISE IN CONSERVATION

The ideas for this guest editorial began gestating

several months ago when I was first invited to

contribute it. In addition to my current experi‐

ences working as the head of a research library

preservation department, I had the good fortune

to work with interns and engage in professional

development activities. More recently, the 2011

American Institute of Conservation (AIC) confer‐

ence was especially thought provoking.

I write this from the perspective of an apprentice‐

trained bookbinder and conservator who has

spent most of his career working in academic re‐

search libraries in the US, work that has included

working primarily with special collections, but

also heavily used circulating collections and di‐

gitization. During this time I have also worked

with many other conservators, interns from con‐

servation/preservation programs and students

of museum studies and librarianship. While the

mission ensuring the long‐term health of and

continued access to the Library’s collections has

not changed, how we do that work and prioritize

activities has. This has been a result of changes

in staffing, funding, and the priorities of the or‐

ganization writ large.

The past year has seen a number of changes in

conservation education in the US. The closure of

the Preservation and Conservation Studies pro‐

gram at the University of Texas at Austin (founded

in 1981 at Columbia University) is perhaps the

most significant. The Mellon Foundation funded

coordination effort among the three remaining

major conservation programs (Winterthur, New

York University and Buffalo State) will seek to

ensure that conservators can continue to receive

formal training in book conservation. Unlike a

dedicated program for library/book conservators,

students in these programs will receive a more

fragmented experience with less time at the bench

than they received before. This will require greater

effort to obtain the additional training, in addi‐

tion to their other coursework. These changes

have led to a reexamination of alternative paths

to becoming a conservator including a renewed

interest in the apprenticeship model, programs

such as the North Bennet Street School in Boston,

and study abroad at programs such as West Dean

(UK). There are advantages and disadvantages to

the academic model and alternatives – greater

theory vs. hands‐on time at the bench – but with

a commitment to life‐long learning these can be

balanced. However, given the decline in available

positions, where can these graduates find em‐

ployment? This is one area where pragmatism can

make a significant impact.

What has always been missing are entry‐level

“assistant” conservator positions that enable a

recent graduate to work besides a more experi‐

enced conservator to develop their skills and re‐

ceive mentorship. Without these positions many

new professionals found themselves thrust into

leadership positions before they had an opportu‐

nity to mature their skills. “Technician” positions

are more often available, and seem to be increas‐

ingly calling for more experience and training.

Yet, these positions are deemed “beneath” inap‐

propriate to graduates of these programs. Perhaps

a realization that even routine benchwork is es‐

sential for building the treatment skills of trained

conservators, journeyman years if one will, will

lead to a perceptual upgrade of these positions,

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especially those calling for more developed skills.

This would also benefit those coming from alter‐

native training paths and give them a career path

that allows for upward mobility providing they

meet the other criteria. Could this be a win‐win

for the profession?

At the same AIC conference, Barbara Appelbaum

presented a very compelling paper entitled "Con‐

servation in the 21th Century; Will a 20th Century

Code of Ethics Suffice?" [1]. In it, she asked us to

think about AIC’s code of ethics and the concepts

of cultural heritage and personal property. In

particular she noted that “Thorough training is

required to practice in an ethical manner. Ethics

and guidelines for practice require substantial

knowledge in order to use them appropriately.

Another reason that ethics cannot be the ultimate

guide to conservation is that many different solu‐

tions to a problem can be equally ethical. As the

author of a rather long book on decision‐making,

I can attest to the fact that treatment choice is

not primarily a matter of ethics, but of judging

the large number of factors that come under the

term “appropriateness”.

Mary Striegel (Chief of Materials Conservation at

the National Center for Preservation Technology

and Training) wrote commenting on Appelbaum

on AIC’s Conservators Converse blog, “We must

realistically evaluate all that is going on around

us and understand the needs of the museum,

private collectors and the public“ [2].

Other presentations, in particular “Digitization

and Its Effect on Conservation Treatment Deci‐

sions: How Has Wide‐spread Digitizing and Col‐

lections Changed Our Approach to Treatment?”

[3] focused on the compromises conservators

have to make in support of large‐ and small‐scale

digitization. As conservators we enjoy being able

to give an item all the attention it requires,

becoming lost in the nuances and details until we

are done. However when working on a collection

level, especially in support of something like di‐

gitization we must change how we approach the

work, organize sustainable workflows, and often

make compromises in how far we take the work.

In the end, we find ourselves doing just enough

to stabilize the piece without compromising the

ability to properly treat it at a later date, all in

high‐volume production environment. Perhaps

frightening, these kinds of projects are only go‐

ing to become more common and important as

libraries and similar organizations with extensive

holdings begin to digitize for access. With the

attention given to these projects, conservators

must ensure that they become part of the plan‐

ning process as well and educate all involved on

issues of care and handling, as well as safe stor‐

age of the originals. As our budgets continue to be

cut, we must apply the same large‐scale method‐

ology towards improving storage and creating

enclosures and even treatment, ensuring that we

can make the maximum impact with the resources

we have. At the same time we must continue to

treat those items of greatest significance – they

will be the ones to receive the most attention and

handling – something that will nurture our need

for challenges and keep our skills sharp.

In the end, as our field changes in all respects –

from education, to employment, to the work we

do – we must ensure that we respond positively

and proactively, adapt to new situations and

demonstrate our continued value and the neces‐

sity of our work.

References

[1] B. Appelbaum, “Conservation in the 21th Cen‐

tury; Will a 20th Century Code of Ethics Suffice?”,

Ethos, Logos, Pathos: Ethical Principles and Critical

9e‐conservation

FREE

CONSERVATION

RESOURCES

Art Conservation Research

conservationresearch.blogspot.com

Thinking in Conservation, 39th Annual Meeting of

the American Institute for Conservation of Historic

and Artistic Works, Philadelphia, May 31‐June 3,

2011, URL [pdf]

[2] M. Striegel, “39th Annual Meeting – General

Session, June 1, “Conservation in the Twenty‐First

Century: Will a Twentieth Century Code of Ethics

Suffice?” By Barbara Applebaum”, in AIC Blog,

American Institute for Conservation of Historic and

Artistic Works, URL (accessed 19th February 2012)

[3] B. Doyle, “AIC 2011, Day Two Notes”, in Preser‐

vation & Conservation Administration News, URL

(accessed 19th February 2012)

PETER D. VERHEYENConservatorContact: pdverhey@syr.edu

Peter D. Verheyen began his involvement in pre‐

servation and conservation while a work‐study

student in the conservation lab at the Johns

Hopkins University Library. He interned in the

conservation lab of the Germanisches National‐

museum in Nuremberg, Germany, and completed

a formal apprenticeship in hand bookbinding at

the Kunstbuchbinderei Klein in Gelsenkirchen,

Germany. He also studied at the Professional

School for Book Restoration at the Centro del bel

Libro in Ascona, Switzerland and completed a

Mellon internship in book conservation at the

Folger Shakespeare Library. He has worked with

conservators in private practice and in academic

libraries, establishing the rare book conservation

lab at the Syracuse University Library where he is

now head of Preservation and Conservation. He

maintains Book_Arts‐L and the Book Arts Web.

From 2004 to 2012 he published The Bonefolder:

an e‐journal for the bookbinder and book artist.

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e‐conservation

NEWS ON E‐CONSERVATION MAGAZINE

By Rui Bordalo

e‐conservation magazine started back in 2007as an innovative project to cover the lack ofconservation publications freely available on theinternet. Focused on conservation and culturalheritage, it was published five times per yearreaching 23 issues so far. In these past years, wewere able to disseminate free knowledge to theconservation world by publishing more than 80articles and dozens of case studies and confer‐ence reviews among our sections. The magazinealways offered peer‐reviewed articles in orderto meet the high standards of its readers.

The publication of e‐conservation is only pos‐sible due to the group effort of our volunteers,who, along with their daily jobs have continu‐ously donated their free time and expertise toprovide the best publishing experience. Withoutthem, the magazine would not exist and theyare greatly acknowledged and appreciated.

In 2012 e‐conservation starts a new phase andwill go through some important changes. Per‐haps the most significant is that from now onthe magazine will be published bi‐annually,always in March and September of each year.This new periodicity will allow us more time toprepare it and thus it will add value both to itscontent and its quality. Issues will offer morecontent and diversity than before in the sameformats you already got used to ‐ pdf and htmlversions. As a consequence, part of the infor‐mation we regularly provide, such as news,

announcements, events and much more, will betaken over by our website and presented to youin a more updated and interactive manner.

Another major change is that the domain ofour website will change its actual name from“e‐conservationline.com” into the more simpleand user‐friendly “e‐conservation.org”. Thisnew domain was recently donated to us by Greekconservator Panagiotis Galatis to whom we wishto thank for his kind support. This change willallow us to reorganize the entire website whichwill be reformulated and enhan‐ced for a moreactual and interactive user experience.

Given the magnitude of these changes, we intendto implement them in different stages over theyear. We hope to do it smoothly and withoutcausing problems to our authors, readers andvisitors of the website. In case you would like toparticipate in the makeover of the magazinewith ideas or suggestions please contact us atgeneral@e‐conservationline.com or commentthis on our blog.

Thank you for yourcontinuoussupport!

12 e‐conservation

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When rapid urban development swept China in

the 1990's, traditional buildings in the old city of

Lhasa began to be demolished and replaced by

new construction. In the early 90’s, the old city

still retained some of its magic, the layout and

shape of the Tibetan quarter unchanged. One

could walk through its courtyards to the barking

of Apsos and stray dogs, become lost in the laby‐

rinthine alleys, suddenly emerging to find some

mysterious house, person or holy place.

André Alexander walked the old city as if he was

born there, knew every corner and shortcut, every

temple and teahouse. The replacement of the

traditional low rise residential buildings with four‐

storey concrete‐frame blocks was something he

could not bear to see. From that moment on he

devoted himself to the protection of the old city

and the study of Tibetan architecture. André first

put together a booklet about the old city demoli‐

tion and used it to network with international

scholars to solicit their support, and to reach out

to Tibetan scholars and citizens with influence

who thought that Tibetan architecture was worth

preserving. He had discussions with diplomat and

Tibetologist Hugh Richardson and with writer

Heinrich Harrer, ran around Lhasa with Tibetolo‐

gist Heather Stoddard, and held long discussions

with Sonam Wangdu, the first Tibetan archaeolo‐

gist, and other Tibetan scholars and retired politi‐

cians. He also had great admiration for Peter Aufs‐

chnaiter who surveyed the city of Lhasa in 1948 and

produced a map that André always carried with him.

At that time he founded the Lhasa Archive Project

with Andrew Brannan to document the old city,

the starting point of preservation efforts. André

invited his friend Pimpim de Azevedo to contri‐

bute drawings and maps of old Lhasa.

André kept up his persuasion, and never stopped

talking to anyone who could help to make a

change. In 1996, Tibet Heritage Fund (THF) was

founded, and that same year secured permission

to undertake the first house rehabilitation project,

using a municipal government construction com‐

pany. This house, an old residential building on

the Barkor street beneath the walls of the great

temple, was a first step, and showed what could

be done, but THF was not completely satisfied

with the quality of the building work.

The big challenge for André and his colleagues

was to persuade the old builders or craftsmen

masters that were still alive to join the projects

and pass their knowledge to the new generation

and to make them understand how valuable still

URBAN CONSERVATION IN HIGH ASIATHE WORK OF ANDRÉ ALEXANDER AND TIBET HERITAGE FUNDPimpim de Azevedo and Yutaka Hirako

From left to right: Yutaka Hirako, Pimpim de Azevedo andAndré Alexander, Tibet Heritage Fund core team in Bonpuripeak, Lhasa, 1998. Photo by Masaaki Kuwahara.

In memoriam of André Alexander (1965‐2012)

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13e‐conservation

André with his cat in Leh, 2011. Photo by THF team.

their skills are. After months of discussions and

André repeating that it was “now or never” first

old craftsmen came to join the projects bringing

lot of excitement and challenge together with

the needed skills.

The first job done by these master craftsmen was

the reconstruction of the Labrang Nyingba toilet.

The Labrang Nyingba house is an elaborate stone

construction on foundations that go back to the

early 15th century. One of the dry toilet towers

was damaged and in need of urgent restoration.

The craftsmen took it as a chance to prove that

they had the skills THF was looking for. Big stones,

small stones, compacted earth, layer by layer the

walls were built up, the rafters placed and the

walling continued. The elaborate stone work was

of extremely high quality, matching the original

wall of the house. It was a time of tension, but that

job turned out to be the beginning of a long rela‐

tionship between André, the craftsmen, and THF.

For André and THF, the involvement of communi‐

ties and residents was crucial. More than anyone

they needed to be won over. André had a way of

discussing everything with the residents, finding

out what they wanted and developing solutions,

and involving them in every stage of the conser‐

vation process.

In 1996, after some consultation with the Lhasa

City Mayor and various government offices the

Lhasa Old City Protection Working Group (LOCP‐

WG) was founded with the Mayor as chairman and

André as vice‐chairman. In cooperation with the

Lhasa prefecture government’s Cultural Relics

Bureau, 13 residential buildings and a monastery

were restored in Lhasa. During these projects,

more than 300 people were trained in masonry,

carpentry, painting, mural conservation, metal‐

work, water and sanitation, design and planning,

architecture survey and management. In 1998,

following a proposal by THF, 93 buildings were

14 e‐conservation

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officially listed as “Protected” sites by the muni‐

cipality and the Cultural Relics Bureau. In 2000

the local authorities notified THF that henceforth

the Cultural Relics Bureau would continue the reha‐

bilitation work, following the path beaten by THF.

THF then expanded its rehabilitation and conser‐

vation projects to other areas of the Tibetan cul‐

tural realm: China, Mongolia and India. In 2003,

André visited Ladakh, and in the old city of Leh,

immediately recalled old Lhasa. The conditions

were different, the houses were not public (gov‐

ernment) properties like in China but the private

owners were moving out of the old city and letting

their houses decay through neglect.

Again, André could not let the old town die. Using

his experience and knowledge of Tibetan archi‐

tecture and city planning, he developed a conser‐

vation plan based on the active involvement of

the residents and local government. The initiative

grew into a local NGO, the Leh Old Town Initiative

(L.O.T.I.). Before long they had repaved the streets

and put in drainage. The work was not limited to

residential buildings, it included temples and mu‐

ral conservation, and the team was contracted to

build a new monument in Leh, the Central Asia

Museum and Library in Tsal Soma. Recently, André

had also begun working on temple restoration in

Sikkim. Through involvement in these projects

many local people were trained in building skills

and conservation, but also in mural conservation,

management and architectural surveying. Many

students and international volunteers took part

in his projects and learned under his guidance

about Tibetan and Himalayan architecture and

culture.

André loved the Tibetan land of snow, he was

passionate about the beauty of its architecture

and art, people and environment. He dedicated

his life to protecting these beautiful, dignified

buildings, together with anyone who shared the

same dream. André’s vision, passion and dedica‐

tion to preserve Tibetan architecture and culture

will be carried on by Tibet Heritage Fund.

Tibet Heritage Fund work team in Lhasa, 2000. Photo by Tibet Heritage Fund.

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FACES OF MEMORY: THE NEWEST TECHNOLOGY OF PRESERVATIONAND RESTORATION OF HAND‐WRITTEN AND PRINTED HERITAGE

24‐28 October 2011Yerevan, Armenia

Review by Tatyana Krupa

Organised by:“Matenadaran” Mesrop Mashtots Institute ofAncient Manuscripts

On last 24‐28 October, the seminar “Faces of me‐

mory: the newest technology of preservation and

restoration of hand‐written and printed heritage”

was held in Yerevan, the Republic of Armenia. The

seminar was organized by the “Matenadaran” Mes‐

rop Mashtots Institute of Ancient Manuscripts

State Non‐Commercial Organization (Yerevan,

Armenia) with support of the Ministry of Culture

of the Republic of Armenia and the Intergovern‐

mental Foundation for Educational, Scientific and

Cultural Cooperation (IFESCCO) of Commonwealth

of Independent States (CIS) countries.

Representatives from 16 countries, namely Austria,

Armenia, Belarus, Georgia, Italy, Kazakhstan, Kyr‐

gyzstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Russia, Tajiki‐

stan, Uzbekistan, Ukraine, France and Estonia,

took part in this significant scientific‐practical

forum.

The first day was opened by a press‐conference

where the participants were introduced to the

basic tasks and topics of the meeting. The leaders

of the workshops, master‐classes and round tables

were introduced, as well as the new scientific staff

of the Matenadaran. Having received new staff

and a restoration laboratory, the Matenadaran

can now become a base for the preservation and

study of the archeological heritage of Armenia.

Next, Armenian Deputy Minister of Culture Arev

Samuelyan greeted the guests and the hosts of

the Matenadaran emphasizing the importance of

such significant events on a large scale in the

framework of the cultural‐historical heritage of

CIS countries, especially in Armenia as it is on the

threshold of the 500th anniversary of Armenian

book‐printing and the 20th anniversary of its

independence.

According to Mr. Hrachya Tamrazyan, director of

Matenadaran, the main task of the workshop was

the necessity of enhance the scientific‐creative

communication between the participant countries

of the forum and making joint efforts to preserve

the world printed and manuscript heritage.

I think it is important to mention that the post‐

soviet countries experienced during the last 20

years a breakdown of the restoration system and

the lack of the training of restorers that existed

during the USSR. As result, the level of profes‐

sional training was reduced. Among the problems

that contemporary Ukraine faces, in particular,

there is the lack of a complete training system

for restorers. Therefore, the organization of this

international workshop in Yerevan was a great

contribution to the revival of the position and fur‐

ther professional development in these countries.

During the other three days, the workshop work

was organized in three simultaneous sections:

restoration, fund keeping and technology. These

three sections are high priorities in any serious

Matenadaran's new storage facility.

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institutions that preserve and study printed and

manuscript heritage.

The restoration section started with a workshop

on “Problems of preserving and studying archeo‐

logical silk in Ukraine” given by Tatyana Krupa.

Although the workshop was focused on printed

and manuscript heritage, it should be kept in mind

that most ancient printed works and manuscripts

contain textiles, which also requires research and

preservation.

Patricia Engel (Austria) presented an interesting

master‐class on “Practical bases of neutralization

of medieval manuscripts” where she spoke about

the stabilization of corrosion of ferrous iron in

manuscripts, which is one of their main problems.

The seminar “Historical and technical methods of

restoring ancient stamps” given by Dayna Yoninaite

(Lithuania) was especially impressive. Ancient

stamps are one of the most difficult objects for

restorers. The Lithuanian methods that were pre‐

sented were based on their experience and during

the seminar the participants assisted to demons‐

trations with hanging stamps, pressed stamps and

stamp cases. Wax mixtures of stamps, lacquers

and techniques of making medieval stamps were

also analyzed during the seminar. It was especi‐

ally interesting to see the demonstration of fixing

cracks with the use of an electric soldering iron

with a thin tip.

Natalie Palamar (Russia) presented a master‐

class on “Scientific Research and Restoration of

Archive Documents and Ancient Photos” where

she summed up her 35 years of experience. The

participants were able to get acquainted with the

recent requirements and materials for the resto‐

ration of archive documents and old photos, and

for creating a stable environment to preserve the

objects.

Ann Tskhai’s (Russia) spoke about the “Restora‐

tion of the Two Armenian Manuscripts from Rus‐

sian State Library” during which she described

the badly preserved late medieval Armenian

manuscripts and how they were restored.

The restoration section ended with Gayane Eli‐

zyan’s (Armenia) master‐class on “Working with

Modern Equipments”. Her presentation introduced

the participants with the newest professional

equipments from the Matenadaran, such as the

Demonstration of the work on fixing cracks in wax objects byDayna Yoninaite, Lithuania.

17e‐conservation

NEWS

vacuum table used for cleaning and the stuffing

machine. This center of research and preservation

of manuscripts has now everything to develop

professional work, including a fine group of young

restorers with ambition to learn.

Aside the interesting master‐classes and practical

seminars, the participants had the opportunity

to visit the Matenadaran deposits and an exclusive

exhibition on ancient manuscripts from the Mate‐

nadaran funds. The legendary Echmiadzin Cathe‐

dral, the museum and treasury of Armenian Catho‐

lics were also visited. The remarkable town of

Garni, which it was also visited and was once one

of the capitals of ancient Armenia, was recently

awarded by UNESCO with the Melina Mercouri In‐

ternational Prize. Having spent 20 years on archae‐

ological research and 10 years on architectural‐

archaeological conservation of Chersonese

(Sevastopol, Crimea), I couldn’t help admiring

the temple of Garni, built in the 1st century BC.

The temple is considered to be a classical example

and it was restored in the Soviet times of Armenian

history. Although there are some problems with

open air sites of the world archeological heritage

of Garni and Erebuni, I could see improvements

such as neat towns, multilingual tables, profes‐

sionally restored roads for tourists and covered

pavilions under the thermaes.

At the end, this workshop led by the head of the

project Mr. Ara Khzmalyan was implemented as a

creative and uniting project. Personally, I have

taken back to Ukraine renewed knowledge and

books to use them in my native university.

I would like to express, on behalf of the partici‐

pants, my gratitude to the organizers of this event

for providing an opportunity to participate on

this remarkable forum. I would like to express my

special gratitude to the Intergovernmental Foun‐

dation for Educational, Scientific and Cultural Co‐

operation (IFESCCO) of CIS countries (Moscow,

Russia) for organizing this project.

TATYANA KRUPAConservator

Contact: krupa@maesu.org

Tatyana Krupa is Head of the restoration studio of

the Museum of Archeology and Ethnography of

V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University, Ukraine.

Patricia Engel (Austria) and Gayane Elizyan’s (Armenia)during the demonstration of the methods of stabilization offerrous iron corrosion in manuscripts.

18 e‐conservation

REVIEWS

Review by Anna Karatzani

30 November ‐ 2 December 2011Brussels, Belgium

BACK TO THE ROOTSWORKSHOP ON TEXTILE DYEING WITH NATURAL DYES

Organised by:Royal Institute for Cultural Heritage (KIK‐IRPA)

Between the 30th of November and the 2nd of

December 2011 the Royal Institute for Cultural

Heritage (KIK‐IRPA), Belgium organized “Back to

the Roots ‐ Workshop on Textile Dyeing with Natu‐

ral Dyes” under the auspices of the European

CHARISMA project (Cultural Heritage Advanced

Research Infrastructures: Synergy for a Multidis‐

ciplinary Approach to Conservation/ Restoration).

Ina Vanden Berghe from (KIK‐IRPA) together with

Jo Kirby (the National Gallery, London), Maarten

van Bommel (Rijksdienst voor het Cultureel Erf‐

goed, Amsterdam) and André Verchecken (inde‐

pendent expert, Antwerp) were coordinating the

workshop. A total of 10 participants (conservators,

conservation scientists and an archaeologist)

from seven European countries attended the

workshop. The three‐day workshop was divided in

lectures given by the coordinators and practical

sessions on dyeing experiments with a wide range

of natural dye sources.

On Wednesday morning, after welcoming the

participants Ina Vanden Berghe introduced the

speakers and presented the outline of the work‐

shop. Then, Jo Kirby gave the first lecture on

“Natural organic dyes: biological sources and

historical background” followed by Maarten van

Bommel on “Principles of textile dyeing / histo‐

rical recipes and lab recipes”. Jo gave a detailed

speech about the various natural dyes, their

sources (plants, insects and shells) and origin,

trying to explain the importance and value of

some natural dyes and the long distance trade

that was involved for their transportation at the

known dyeing centres of Europe. She used infor‐

mation from custom records (London and Florence)

to show the quantity of the different dyes that

were imported to Europe and their costs according

the place of origin and talked about the regulations

that were applied on the use of specific dyes for

high or less valued textiles. She also explained the

methods of application of the different types of

dyes to textiles with special reference to mordant

dyes and the various mordants that have been

used through time.

Maarten talked about the types of natural dyes

according to their application method (direct,

mordant and vat dyes) and the bonds that are

achieved between the fibres and the dyes in each

case. Then, he explained how the various dyes are

extracted from the plants and insects and what

the procedures were for obtaining the actual dye

and for preparing the dye bath. Finally, he gave

examples of various historical dyeing recipes in

order to confirm the difficulties that arise while

trying to apply the instructions of such a recipe

today, not only because the information given is

not clear but also because some of the ingredients

are difficult to identify.

Before the lunch break, Ina gave the outline of the

afternoon practical session. This first practical

e‐conservation 19

REVIEWS

session was entitled “Dyeing with a wide range

of historical relevant biological dye sources”. The

aim of this session was to examine the difference

in the final colour achieved by using different

mordants and the influence of the addition of

potash to the final colour. Each participant was

asked to apply two dye recipes with the same dye

source to five wool samples. Four of the samples

were pre‐mordanted with the alum, iron, copper

and tin while the last sample was unmordanted.

The two recipes were performed with and without

the use of potash, while one of the participants

used also saffron on silk.

The second day started with the discussion of the

results of the practical session with special refe‐

rence to the differences observed on the colour‐

hue achieved in each case. Then, André Verhecken

gave a lecture on “Historical recipes” where he

spoke about the historical sources of dyeing reci‐

pes from antiquity onwards at different geographi‐

cal areas. During his lecture, he tried to explain

the difficulties in the interpretation of the infor‐

mation given in the historical recipes, not only

because some of them are incomplete but also

because since the authors of the recipe books

were not dyers they were not able to give all the

necessary details. He also talked about the various

dye sources, their introduction to Europe and their

use for specific textiles.

Maarten’s second lecture, “Analytical identification

of natural organic dyes/case studies”, was about

the analytical methods that can be used for the

identification of organic colorants. After explain‐

ing the application of the various spectroscopic

Top to bottom. The participants working on the preparation ofthe dyeing recipes; preparation of the two dyeing baths forannatto (Bixa Orellana L.); and André Verchecken showingthe procedure for obtaining the yellow dye from safflower.

20 e‐conservation

A card with the wool samples after dyed with Persian berries(Rhamnus sp.).

REVIEWS

and chromatographic techniques and the results

obtained, he showed examples of the analysis

that his team has performed on many different

archaeological and historical textiles.

Once again, Ina gave the outline of the second

practical session entitled “Refining of dyeing:

Biological source – various process parameters”.

Each participant would execute two different dye

recipes on wool samples, one with madder and

one with weld by changing the dyeing parameters.

The variations were referred to extraction time

and temperature, dyeing time and temperature,

influence of potash and soap, consecutive dyeing

and the use of different mordants. The aim of this

practical session was to examine and evaluate

the influence of these parameters on the final

colour of the textile.

During the second practical session André demon‐

strated a dyeing with safflower on silk in order to

show us the whole procedure to obtain two differ‐

ent colours (yellow and red) from safflower.

For the evening of the second day Ina had orga‐

nized a dinner at a local restaurant and we all had

the opportunity to relax in a very warm and elegant

place, taste some local recipes and discuss.

The last day was dedicated to practical sessions.

The aim was to produce green, purple and black

shades using two consecutive dyeings, one with

indigo and other with a mordant dye (madder,

weld and redwood). Each participant performed

two dyeings on the same premordanted wool

sample (mordanted with either tannin, iron or

alum); the only difference was the order of the

dyeing baths. Five participants applied the indigo

dye first and five the mordant dye first. The second

dyeing was performed in the afternoon and after

the samples were dried the results of this and the

previous practical session were discussed.

During the lunch break we also had a tour at the

textile conservation laboratory of the institute

and we had the opportunity to see some of the

objects that were treated at the time as well as

the facilities available.

The workshop closed with a joined discussion and

the evaluation of the three day program while

reference cards with all the samples that had been

dyed during the four practical sessions were pre‐

pared for each participant.

The participation at this workshop was very

important for me because this was a unique

Participants during the preparation of the dyes.

21e‐conservation

REVIEWS

opportunity to obtain practical experience on

dyeing with natural dyes. During this three day

workshop I had the chance to perform various

dyeing recipes and to understand how the various

mordants and dyeing parameters affect the results

of each recipe. At the same time the lectures, the

discussions during the practical sessions and the

evaluation of the results helped me to acquire

valuable knowledge which I can disseminate to my

students at the TEI of Athens. I enjoyed the lec‐

tures very much and I have appreciated the fact

that all the speakers gave us their presentations

as well as detailed reading list and all the dyeing

recipes we performed in the laboratories of KIK‐

IRPA. Ina Vanden Berghe, the three coordinators

and the members of the KIK‐IRPA staff were ex‐

tremely helpful throughout the three day period

and ready to answer all our questions and find

solutions to any problem arising. I believe that

all the participants have enjoyed the workshop,

the discussions during the lunch and coffee‐

breaks at the restaurant of KIK‐IRPA and we all

hope that we will have the opportunity to

attend another one in the near future.

ANNA KARATZANITextile Conservator

Contact: Karatzani@teiath.gr

Anna Karatzani studied conservation of Antiqui‐

ties and Works of Art at the Technological Educa‐

tional Institute of Athens, Greece. She obtained

an MA in Conservation of Historic Objects from

De Montfort University (UK) and a PhD in analy‐

tical investigation of Byzantine‐Greek metal

threads from University College London (UK) in

2007. Since March 2011 she is Assistant Professor

in Textile Conservation at the Technological

Educational Institute of Athens, Greece.

Discussion of the results at the end of the practical session.

22 e‐conservation

XTACH 2011, an international conference on the

use of X‐ray (and related) techniques in arts and

cultural heritage was held on 7th‐8th December

2012 at the American University of Sharjah in the

United Arab Emirates (UAE). The conference was

organized in co‐operation with the National X‐ray

Fluorescence Laboratory (NXFL) and the Interna‐

tional Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).

The conference was inaugurated by Dr. Peter

Heath, Chancellor of the American University of

Sharjah and attended by Mr. Kwaku Aning, Deputy

Director General of the International Atomic

Energy Agency (IAEA), and Ambassador Hamad

Al‐Kaabi, Ambassador of the UAE to the IAEA,

university officials, faculty members and students.

The conference covered a variety of topics

including the usage of X‐ray and micro beam X‐ray

analysis, synchrotron based techniques, ion beam

and neutron based techniques, optical imaging

and mass spectroscopy, chromatography tech‐

niques, as well as best conservation practices.

XTACH11 provided an excellent forum for scien‐

tists in the region to interact, exchange ideas and

to initiate collaborations with each other as well

as with the international community. It showcased

some of the latest technical developments in the

field of non‐destructive testing for the diagnosis

and conservation of cultural heritage materials.

In addition to the presentations by the invited

speakers (Rene van Grieken and K. Janssens,

University of Antwerp, Belgium; Thomas Calligaro,

Centre de Recherche et de Restauration des Musées

de France; Stefano Ridolfi, Ars Mensurae, Rome,

Italy, and Andrzej Markowicz, IAEA, Austria), a

total of 25 other research papers were also presen‐

ted and discussed. Participants from 20 countries

participated in the conference: Austria, Belgium,

Egypt, Italy, India, Iran, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon,

Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Spain, Sri Lanka, Syria,

Thailand, the United Arab Emirates and Yemen.

A more detailed outline of the conference

programme is as follows.

Day 1 (7 December 2011)

A total of 13 papers were presented on the first

day. The conference began with an invited talk by

Thomas Calligaro (Centre de Recherche et de

Restauration des Musées de France) on “The Merits

of Ion Beam Analysis in Evidencing Art and Archae‐

ological Fakes”, which he demonstrated by showing

some recent investigations of rock crystal skulls.

These were investigated by examining the degree

REVIEWS

Review by Mark Beech

7‐8 December 2011Sharjah, United Arab Emirates

XTACH 2011INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON THE USE OF X‐RAY (AND RELATED)TECHNIQUES IN ARTS AND CULTURAL HERITAGE

Organised by:American University of Sharjah (AUS),National X‐ray Fluorescence Laboratory (NXFL),International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)

of water penetration (“Fick’s Law”) at the AMS

facility at Saclay, just to the south of Paris. He

concluded that Ion Beam methods were extremely

useful for the provenance and detection of fakes.

Rene Van Grieken (University of Antwerp, Belgium)

and colleagues then discussed “Atmospheric

Composition in the Alhambra, Granada, in the

Context of Preventive Conservation”. The Alhambra

is a UNESCO World Heritage site which has 3 million

visitors per year. Rene presented a fascinating

insight into the analysis of fine particles from the

site, such as less than 1 micron sized particles of

ammonium sulphate and nitrate, which are acidic

and hydroscopic, resulting from fertilizers in the

soils surrounding the site. He also illustrated the

high quantities of soot resulting from cars being

allowed near the entrances to the site, lamenting

the lack of specific European guidelines for parti‐

cles such as soot.

Martina Griesser and colleagues (Kunsthistorisches

Museum, Vienna) presented the “First Application

of a Newly Developed, Portable, Vacuum‐Chamber

Equipped XRF‐Instrument, Designed for the Sophis‐

ticated Needs of the Kunsthistorisches Museum,

Vienna”. This was a new movable (rather than

portable!) system for carrying out Portable Energy

Dispersive XRF.

Anjana Reddy‐Lingareddy (Historic Environment

Department, Abu Dhabi Authority for Culture and

Heritage) discussed “Pots, Plates and Provenance:

Sourcing Indian Coarse Wares from Mleiha using X‐ray

Fluorescence (XRF) Spectrometry Analysis”, based

on her recent joint‐research on the analysis of

Indian pottery samples from the archaeology site

of Mleiha (Sharjah) using X‐ray fluorescence (XRF)

to determine the provenance or origin of this

pottery dating from the 2nd ‐ mid 3rd century AD.

The paper and presentation were prepared in

collaboration with Dr. Gaffar Attaelmanan (Applied

Physics Department, University of Sharjah) and

Dr. Michel Mouton (CNRS, Paris). The analyses

were conducted on powdered samples collected

from the core of each sherd, which were then irra‐

diated for 1000 seconds using a 1.2 mm diameter

X‐ray beam. The resulting spectra were used for

quantification of the X‐ray intensity and elemental

concentration, and the levels of correlation were

statistically tested using the Chi‐test. Initial review

of the XRF results indicate that the Maharashtra

and Gujarat regions of India are probable source

areas for at least two of the types of wares.

B.S.B. Karunaratne (Postgraduate Institute of

Science, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka) then presented a

paper entitled “Use of X‐Ray Fluorescence and

REVIEWS

23e‐conservation

Dr. Peter Heath, Chancellor of the American University ofSharjah, makes the opening address at XTACH11.

Mr. Kwaku Aning, Deputy Director General of the InternationalAtomic Energy Agency, addresses XTACH11.

Diffraction Techniques in Studying Ancient Ceramics”.

Professor Karunaratne discussed the analysis of

ceramic samples from Anuradhapura, which was

from the 4th century BC until the beginning of the

11th century AD, the capital of Sri Lanka, as well

as from Pinwewa, another 4th century BC site.

This demonstrated that the vessels were similar

to modern pottery today, providing evidence that

some pots had been fired as high as 800 degrees

celcius, because of the presence of mullite, and

also calcite.

M. Abd El Hady (Conservation Department, Cairo

University, Egypt) and M.M. Kotb (Conservation

department, Fayoum University, Egypt) discussed

“Characteristics of Ancient Egyptian Glazed Ceramic

Objects as Revealed by Ion Beam Analysis”. A total

of 9 samples of glazed vessels from the Fatimid

and Mamluk period site of Al‐Fustat (10th‐16th

century AD), were examined by PIXE analysis. This

was carried out in Warsaw, Poland, using the Lech

Van de Graaf Accelerator.

The second invited talk was by A. Markowicz (IAEA,

Vienna, Austria) and colleagues who undertook a

“Review of the IAEA Activities in Support of Charac‐

terization and Protection of Cultural Heritage

Artifacts”. The International Atomic Energy Agency

(IAEA) is located in Siebersdorf, 35 km south of

Vienna, Austria. The facility houses the Nuclear

Spectrometry and Application Laboratory (NSAL).

He pointed out how the use of XRF was a simple,

fast and flexible method for the investigation of

the inorganic composition of objects, and illus‐

trated some of the Portable XRF spectrometers

they currently utilized.

Najeh Jisrawi (University of Sharjah, UAE) and

colleagues then discussed “Micro‐XRF Mapping as

a Tool for the Investigation of Oriental Paintings

The audience at XTACH11.

REVIEWS

24 e‐conservation

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25e‐conservation

and Manuscripts”. He demonstrated the use of a

XGT‐7200 which has a Si drift detector and dual

vacuum mode (air or partial vacuum), which had

proved very useful for looking at documents,

enabling a scan area up to 10x10 cm. The detection

of pigments like Titanium oxide, only invented in

1921, can help determine if paintings are modern.

Other examples of the analysis of documents from

the Juma Al Majid Center for Culture and Heritage

were also shown.

Jo‐Fan Huang (Conservation Department, Abu

Dhabi Authority for Culture and Heritage) gave a

useful overview of “Data and Interpretation:

Enhancing Conservation of Art and Cultural Heritage

through Collaboration between Scientist, Conservator

and Art Historian”. Following on from the previous

paper, she discussed the use of lead chromate,

which only went into use from the late 19th century

onwards, and Prussian Blue, which was first manu‐

factured in Berlin in 1704, China then monopo‐

lizing its trade from 1820 onwards.

Pisutti Dararutana (Chemical Department, The Royal

Thai Army, Thailand) and colleagues discussed

“Corrosion of Ancient Glass Beads found in Southern

Thailand”. These glass beads were from the ancient

site of Laem Pho. PIXE analysis was used to ana‐

lyse the glass beads using the facilities at Chiang

Mai university. This analysis revealed that they

were low magnesia alkali glass beads with 74‐75%

SiO2.

Eisa Yousif (Directorate of Antiquities, Sharjah)

and Atta Attaelmanan (University of Sharjah) pre‐

sented a paper on the “Role of XRF in the Restoration

of a Prominent Architectural Monument at the Site

of Mleiha”. XRF analysis was used to assist in the

restoration of the important site of Mleiha in

Sharjah emirate. Based on their analysis of local

Some of the conference delegates at XTACH11 standing in the American University of Sharjah.

REVIEWS

26 e‐conservation

samples they came to the conclusion that the

source of mud for manufacture of the mud bricks

used at Mleiha was an old lagoon al Al Khatem,

situated about 600m from the site.

Pisutti Dararutana (Chemical Department, The

Royal Thai Army, Thailand), Wanwisa Dhanmanonda

(Prince of Songkla University, Thailand) and Krit

Won‐in (Kasetsart University, Thailand) discussed

the “Characterization of Enameled Glass excavated

from Laem Pho Historical Site, Southern area of

Thailand”. Islamic glass fragments from Laem

Pho were investigated using SEM‐EDS, PIXE and

micro‐XRF.

The final presentation on Day 1 was Benjamin

Marcus (Conservation Department, Abu Dhabi

Authority for Culture and Heritage) who presented

a paper on the “Characterization of Traditional

Building Materials in Abu Dhabi Emirate, UAE”. He

provided an overview of how XRF, XRD, SEM‐EDX,

mortar analysis and chemical tests had been

utilized for current projects relating to the conser‐

vation of various historic buildings in Abu Dhabi.

These included the historic fort at Umm Al Hosn

and Al Hayla Tower in Liwa, the Iron Age site of

Hili 17 and the historic Bin Hadi Al Darmaki House

in Al Ain, as well as the historic buildings in the

old town of Delma Island.

All the delegates then departed in a bus for a tour

of Sharjah Museums. We were taken to the spec‐

tacular Museum of Islamic Civilization, followed

by a tour of the Sharjah Aquarium and a Gala

Dinner on the outdoor terrace of the Aquarium.

A perfect ending to a very interesting day!

Day 2 (8 December 2011)

A total of 16 papers were presented on the second

day. Day 2 began with an invited talk from Stefano

Ridolfi (Ars Mensurae, Rome, Italy) on “Portable

X‐ray Fluorescence Spectrometry for the Analyses

of Cultural Heritage”. He began by stating the

“Golden Rule” that cultural heritage objects are

unique, and so should be treated and respected

accordingly. The advantages of XRF were discus‐

sed: reliable, fast, cheap, simple, multi‐element

capability and concentration range (ppm ‐ %).

XRF is a penetrating technique, which gives

immediate results, therefore iterative sampling

can be undertaken. Its drawbacks are that

although it is non‐invasive, what are we in fact

analyzing? We might feel safe that there is always

a result, and that this is immediate, but is this

giving us false security? XRF provides a qualitative

analysis, but what about everything else? At the

end, he concluded saying that the use of portable

XRF is “simple but never easy!”

Mohammed Roumie (Lebanese Atomic Energy

Commission) presented a paper on “Authenticity

determination of Ag‐Cu Lebanese coins using

combines PIXE and RBS techniques”. A series of

Lebanese coins minted in 1952 were analysed,

combining PIXE and RBS to get better results.

Anjana Reddy from the Abu Dhabi Authority for Culture andHeritage presents her paper at XTACH11.

REVIEWS

27e‐conservation

This indicated that the coins only had a silver

enriched layer on their surface.

Seyed Mohammedamin Emami (University of

Isfahan, Iran) discussed “QXRD, XRF and Optical

Microscopy Applied to Characterization and Prove‐

nance of Ancient Ceramics from Haft Teppeh (1500‐

1150 BC),South‐West Iran”. This confirmed that

the Haft Teppeh pottery was similar to recent

locally produced pottery, but that it had been

produced with a different manufacturing process

and firing temperature.

Ibrahim Odeh (Yarmouk University, Jordan) pre‐

sented a paper on “The Application of Thin Films,

Coatings and Nano‐Materials Technologies in the

Conservation and Restoration of Artworks and

Archaeological Artifacts: Prospects and Possibilities”

where he explained about the importance of thin

films, less than 1 micron in thickness, and their

use as protective coatings.

Martina Griesser (Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vien‐

na) and colleagues then discussed the “Application

of X‐Ray and Neutron Tomography to Study Antique

Greek Bronze Coins with a High Lead Content”. The

use of oak wood cabinets can create an acidic

environment for storing coins. A total of 1,200

coins were analyzed in this study using UV‐Fluo‐

rescent microscopy to document corrosion areas,

which are highly fluorescent because of the

presence of carbonates. Twenty coins were then

examined using Neutron Diffraction at the Ruther‐

ford Appleton Laboratory at the University of

Oxford. This revealed that the coins contained up

to 20‐30% Pb and up to 8% Sn. She concluded that

Neutron Diffraction was a better method than

X‐rays for studying coins as more details can be

seen. She also recommended that coins should be

stored in steel cabinets flooded with nitrogen,

where the oxygen concentration is less than 1%.

Alessandro Re (National Institute of Nuclear

Physics, Torino, Italy) and colleagues presented a

paper on “Results of the Italian neu_ART project”.

In this paper he discussed the difficulties involved

in scanning a 3m tall chair ‘Doppio Corpo’ by

Pietro Piffetti, a famous 17th century Italian

furniture manufacturer. X‐Ray Tomography was

utilized to examine the chair.

Atta Attaelmanan (University of Sharjah) then

discussed the “Sensitivity of a Scanning X‐Ray

Fluorescence Analysis System for Archaeological

Applications”. He explained how the use of an X‐

ray analytical microscope can help to analyze

untreated archaeological potsherds. By taking

four fragments from the same pot, taking a single

point and measuring it five times, this enabled

him to monitor any changes in the instrument

performance (chamber temperature, voltage, etc.).

He identified anything between 2‐3% up to 10%

variation in major elements, and up to 20% vari‐

ation in minor elements, in the same sample! It

was suggested that future results should be opti‐

mized by using a longer analysis time, and by

sampling more points (e.g. up to 10).

Professor Nasser Hamdan, Chair of the XTACH11 OrganizingCommittee, and Professor at the Department of Physics,American University of Sharjah.

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28 e‐conservation

Daisy Joseph (Nuclear Physics Division, Bhabha

Atomic Research Centre ‐ BARC, India) and K.B.

Dasari (Institute of Science, GITAM University,

India) presented a paper on “EDXRF and PIXE‐

Investigative Tools for Study of Gemstones and

Pottery Samples”. She discussed the use of EDXRF

on gemstones and the use of internal PIXE for

pottery samples. Her work demonstrated that Fe

is present in naturally occurring gemstones but

is not present in synthetic ones.

Nasser Hamdan (American University of Sharjah)

and colleagues discussed the “Integration of

micro‐XRF, micro‐Raman and FTIR Techniques to

Study Islamic Manuscripts.” He discussed their use

to study pigments and paper structure of various

ancient manuscripts. A number of compounds

were identified including the use of Cu (green

colour) – possibly malachite, Pb (blue colour),

Pb3O4 (red lead), mercury Sulfide (HgS): red

vermilion or cinnabar, copper (green ink), and Fe

(black ink – ‘Iron Gall Ink’). In the 15th‐16th cen‐

tury there were principally four types of ink used:

soot ink, bister, cinnabar and vermilion.

Laxmi Tumung (University of Rovira i Virgili, Tarra‐

gona, Spain) presented a paper “Understanding

Use‐Wear on Non‐Retouched Shells, Mytilus sp. and

Ruditapes, by performing a Wood Working Experi‐

ment: An Experimental Approach”. This concerned

the use of microscopy for detecting structures,

polish, pitting, edge rounding and micro‐fractures.

Koen Janssens (University of Antwerp, Belgium)

gave the final of the series of four invited talks

on “X‐Ray Based Imaging and Spectroscopy of

Cultural Heritage Materials”. He discussed how the

use of new techniques such as a Macro Scanning

X‐Ray Fluorescence Spectrometer could be used

to examine important paintings such as the por‐

trait of Don Ramon Satué, painted in 1823, kept

in the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam, which hides

a new Goya beneath it. He also presented a fasci‐

nating description of the differences between the

existing copies of Van Gogh’s famous Sunflower

series of paintings. The example retained in the

National Gallery in London has quite bright

yellow flowers, in marked contrast to the much

browner flowers in the example owned by the Van

Gogh Museum in Amsterdam. At the end of the

19th century artists utilized chrome yellow in their

paintings. If one shines UV light onto chrome

yellow it becomes brown after only a few weeks!

This brown layer is a very thin layer, masking the

vivid yellow beneath, and is formed by chromium.

Atta Attaelmanan (University of Sharjah) and

Michel Mouton (CNRS, Paris) presented details

of the “Elemental Composition and Correlation of

Mleiha Potsherds”. Mleiha, located in Sharjah

emirate in the UAE, is an important Late Pre‐Isla‐

mic period settlement dating from the 3rd century

BC – 3rd century AD. Analysis of potsherds of Late

Mleiha black ware using XRF spectrometry ana‐

lysis confirmed the homogeneity of the samples.

A. Tamimi, F. Abed and R. Al Himairee (College of

Engineering, AUS, Sharjah) discussed the “Appli‐

cation of SEM and Image Processing in the Analysis

of Damaged Artifacts”. They discussed how thin

sections set in resin, pre‐cleaned with acetone,

had been investigated to investigate porosity and

particle size. SEM and image processing was used

to provide qualitative and quantitative data.

Ibrahim Odeh (Yarmouk University, Jordan) then

talked about “The Application of Plasma and Ion

Beam Sources in the Restoration and Preservation

of Archaeological Objects and Artifacts”, and his

examination of a jaguar hand rattle.

Massaoud Harfouche (SESAME, Jordan) and

colleagues presented details about the planned

“State‐of‐the‐Art XRF/XAFS Beamline at SESAME

REVIEWS

29e‐conservation

Bronze age and Pre‐Islamic pottery on display in the archaeology exhibition at the American University of Sharjah, prepared bythe Directorate of Antiquities, Government of Sharjah Department of Culture and Information.

for Scientific Research Applications”. There are a

series of synchrotrons around the world. This

presentation concerned the development of this

new facility in Jordan, which by the end of 2015

will be fully functioning, inshallah!

Ziyad Al‐Sarraj and Hasan Damboos (Ministry of

Science and Technology, Iraq) concluded all the

presentations with a short paper on “Characteri‐

zation of Iraqi Archaeological Samples Using Ion

Beam and the Complementary Techniques”.

Samples of pottery from the Iraq National Museum

dating from the Sumerian to Islamic periods were

examined using PIXE, XRF, XRD and SEM techniques.

The conference concluded with a Discussion Panel.

Thomas Callligaro (Centre de Recherche et de

Restauration des Musées de France) introduced

the Cultural Heritage Advanced Research Infra‐

structure (CHARISMA) website, highlighting

some of its components such as ARCHLAB Infra‐

structures (for bibliographies), FIXLAB (for large

instruments) and MOLAB (for mobile instruments).

He explained that CHARISMA was for people

working in Europe (or in associated countries).

There was some discussion then about the need

for a similar sort of network being established

for the Middle East region.

Stefano Ridolfi (Ars Mensurae, Rome, Italy) con‐

cluded the conference by giving a passionate

speech about the dangers of using portable XRF

machines by non‐specialists and how easily

mistakes in interpretation can be made, con‐

cluding that “… people are more important than

machines!”. With that the conference ended.

Other activities associated with XTACH11

Archaeology Exhibition,30 November – 10 December 2011

In collaboration with the Sharjah Department of

Culture and Information (Directorate of Antiqui‐

ties), the American University of Sharjah organi‐

zed an archaeology exhibition from the 30th

November until the 10th December 2011. Special

thanks go to Dr Sabah Jasim and Eisa Abbas from

the Sharjah Directorate of Antiquities for facili‐

tating this event. The exhibition included about

45 artifacts from different sites within Sharjah

emirate, some of which dated back as long as

7000 years ago. These artifacts included: flint

arrowheads, pottery and alabaster vessels, metal

objects including bronze arrowheads and coins,

as well as carnelian bead necklaces.

REVIEWS

30 e‐conservation

Trainers and delegates at the Regional Training Course on the use of X‐rays and related techniques in Cultural Heritage.

Regional Training Course, 3‐8 December 2011

In addition to the XTACH11 conference, the Ame‐

rican University of Sharjah, in cooperation with

the National X‐ray Fluorescence Laboratory and

the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA),

organized a regional training course from 3‐8

December, 2011. This concerned a similar range

of topics to those discussed at the XTACH11 con‐

ference. Participants of the course were trained

in the use of physical and analytical techniques

in cultural heritage. In addition to lectures from

the National X‐ray Fluorescence Laboratory and

from the IAEA, the NXFL team provided the

opportunity for trainees to undertake projects

on ancient pottery samples, metal artifacts and

Islamic manuscripts. The practical part of the

course included experiments on XRF (portable,

and micro XRF), Raman measurements, as well as

other sample preparation techniques. The training

course concluded by a series of presentations of

the results by the participants, attended by the

NXFL team and experts from the IAEA. This trai‐

ning course was organized as part of the activi‐

ties of the IAEA technical cooperation RAS1011

Project: Using Ion Beam Analysis and Complemen‐

tary Nuclear Techniques for Material Characteri‐

zation in ARASIA State Parties. The course was

attended by participants from Iraq, Jordan,

Lebanon, Qatar, Syria, the United Arab Emirates

and Yemen.

MARK BEECHCultural Landscapes Manager

Contact: mark.beech@adach.ae

Mark has been involved in archaeological research

in the UAE for the past 18 years. He is Cultural

Landscapes Manager in the Historic Environment

Department at the Abu Dhabi Authority for Culture

and Heritage since 2006. He is responsible for the

Abu Dhabi database of cultural heritage sites and

the use of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) as

a cultural heritage management tool. He manages

the Historic Environment Department team dealing

with "Preliminary Cultural Reviews", which form

the cultural component of Environmental Impact

Assessments within Abu Dhabi emirate.

arti

cles

AREAS OF PUBLISHING

Conservation TreatmentMural Painting

Painting

Stone

Sculpture

Textiles

Paper / Documents

Photography

Metals

Tile / Ceramic / Glass

Furniture

Music instruments

Ethnographic assets

Archeological objects

Conservation ScienceScientific research

Material studies and characterisation

Analytical techniques

Technology development

Biodeterioration

State‐of‐the‐art

Reviews

Preventive ConservationTheoretic principles

Case studies

Documentation in ConservationStandardisation

Documentation methods

Data management

Conservation TheoryEthics

Conservation History

Art History, Iconography,

Iconology, Chemistry, Physics,

Biology, Photography, Cultural

Management, Museology,

Computer Science, Legislation and

Juridical Processes, Conservation

Policies

and any other field applied to

Conservation and Restoration

of works of art.

Find out more: www.e‐conservationline.com

e‐conservation

BOXES FOR THE HOUSINGAND PROTECTION OF BOOKS:

OBSERVATIONS ON THEIR HISTORYAND DEVELOPMENT

ByGianlorenzo Pignatti

Introduction

Boxes and cases for the protection of books are

historical artifacts [1‐2] that only in the 20th

century have become reliable instruments for the

long term preservation of manuscripts and prin‐

ted books.

The design and construction of protective boxes

are today codified procedures. This is the result

of theoretical beliefs and the experience of sci‐

entists, artists, bookbinders and book conser‐

vators who gave important contributions to this

process.

The present work focuses on the British and Irish

cultural and professional environments, which

provided unique contributions to this aspect of

book conservation practice.

This work is not a complete investigation of his‐

torical box styles but aims to provide the reader

with some practical and useful observations on

the history and development of boxes for hous‐

ing and preserving books.

When Daniel Charles Solander designed a case for

storing specimens at the British Museum, he made

a crucial contribution to the development of boxes

for storing movable material, including books.

At the end of the 19th century, the anti‐restora‐

tion position of the printer William Blades and

members of the Arts and Crafts movement sup‐

ported the growing interest in the practice of

conserving the original. This theory led to an in‐

creased attention to box making as a valid alterna‐

tive to the restoration of books.

These considerations became part of the conser‐

vation works of Roger Powell, renowned conserva‐

tor and part of the team who designed the boxes

for the Book of Kells. Several Irish manuscripts

conserved by Powell during his career are today

housed in wooden boxes designed by him and

constructed with the collaboration of Edward

Barnsley’s workshop.

This work describes the wooden boxes designed

by Powell and their main features are discussed.

The final section of this work focuses on the

Phased‐Box, a renowned solution for the storage

of library collections, and provides observations

on the ethos of Phased‐Box making and recent

transformations of its use and function.

Early examples: Daniel Charles Solander andhis legacy

During the years 1768‐1771 the Swedish naturalist

Daniel Charles Solander (1733‐1782) accompanied

e‐conservation 33

Protective boxes and cases for storage of manuscripts and printed books have a long history. Daniel

Solander’s invention at the end of the 18th century was so significant that today his name identifies his

box. The 20th century has seen a great development of the book conservation practice, including box‐

making. Influenced by anti‐restoration beliefs and gifted with remarkable skills, British and Irish

master bookbinders have created wooden boxes that retain their original function many years after their

construction. In this paper, examples of wooden boxes are presented and their features are discussed.

Research into book conservation techniques increased after the Florence flood in 1966. The box‐making

practice was also influenced and the Phased‐Box evolved shortly after the flood. A glimpse into the

history of the Phased‐Box allows one to observe recent changes of this box‐style.

BOXES FOR PROTECTION OF BOOKS

Captain James Cook during a journey in the Paci‐

fic. On his return Solander was appointed head of

the Department of Natural Sciences in the British

Museum where he designed a solid wooden case

for the storage of the specimens collected during

the voyage.

The use of his box (named after him and today

commercially known as Solander box) was then

extended to other types of artifacts. The scarce

bibliographical references and the observation of

early examples can suggest that the style of Solan‐

der in use in libraries did not change much until

recent years.

Niccolo Caldararo quotes three interesting histo‐

rical references on the box [3]. In 1844, a certain

J. Maberby described it as a "[…] a wooden box,

backed with leather, the sides covered with marble

or other paper, having leather corners, so that it has

much the appearance of a book; one of the sides is

made to open as a lid, carrying with it the back

which is attached to […]" [3].

Sixty years after the death of Solander, Maberby

advised collectors of prints and drawings to use

the Solander instead of portfolios [3]. We can

assume that after this moment the use of these

boxes within private collections could have only

34 e‐conservation

GIANLORENZO PIGNATTI

Figure 1. Solander box constructed for Chester Beatty (1875‐1968), Dublin, Chester Beatty Library, MS Is 1466. © The Trusteesof the Chester Beatty Library, Dublin.Figure 2. Solander box constructed for a printed copy of theLeabhuir na Seintiomna (Dublin, Benjamin Iveagh Library, VIIB 6). © The Benjamin Iveagh Library, Farmleigh. By kind permis‐sion of the Governors and Guardians of Archbishop Marsh’sLibrary, Dublin.Figure 3. Solander box in Plenderleith, 1937.Figure 4. Contemporary Solander box for sale. By kind permissionof Talas.

increased (Figures 1‐2). Caldararo also recalls an

extract from the work Fragments of bookbinding

(1937) by Thomas Harrison: "The early boxes in

the British Museum attributed to Solander were

constructed of a wooden base with pine woods

sides and top. The top and base were ‘cabinet

made’ to prevent warping" [3].

In addition to this, Caldararo includes the repro‐

duction of the Solander in use at the British Mu‐

seum since 1937 included in Harold Plenderleith’s

work (Figure 3).

Harris does not record any aesthetic feature (e.g.

tooled spine, false bands) of these boxes while

the other sources emphasize this aspect. The rea‐

son for this relates to the change of its use and

display purposes. The introduction of a plain wood‐

en case on a shelf of a library was a disturbing

presence to the eye of the collector and biblio‐

phile. Consequently, the decision to disguise the

shape of the box so that it resembled a book was

the best solution to overcome this aesthetic em‐

passe. With the progress of book conservation

sciences, the aesthetic embellishments were

gradually abandoned. The attention was focused

on the research and use of conservation grade

materials and the introduction of technical solu‐

tions that allowed ideal storage conditions and

safe access to the material. Today, the Solander

is a renowned and reliable instrument for the

storage and transportation of museum collections

and its use amongst institutions is a common

practice (Figure 4) [4‐7]. The technical and de‐

tailed description proposed by Roberts and Eth‐

erington [8] clearly refers to the classic style in

use in historical libraries: "The Solander box,

which is generally of a drop‐back construction, is

made of wood, has dovetailed joints and a back

shaped from a single piece of wood. The top and

bottom are held in place by screws and glue. The

box is secured by two spring catches fixed in the

e‐conservation 35

"fore edge" frames near the head and tail. When

properly constructed the Solander box is very nearly

dustproof and almost waterproof. The box […] is

generally covered in cloth, or, in more elaborate

instances, full morocco. It may even have raised

bands on the back (corresponding to the spine of a

book) and may be tooled".

A vivid description of the box and its advantage

for preserving books was also offered by William

Blades (1824‐1890) in 1881 in his notorious work

“The enemies of the books” [9]: "I remembering

purchasing […] a perfect copy of Moxon’s Mech‐

anic Exercises […]. The volumes were uncut, and

had the original marble covers. They looked so at‐

tractive in their old fashioned dress, that I at once

determined to preserve it. My binder soon made for

them a neat wooden box in the shape of a book,

with morocco back properly lettered, where I trust

the originals will be preserved from dust and injury

for many a long year. Old covers, whether boards

or paper, should always be retained if in any state

approaching decency. A case […] gives even greater

protection than binding. It has also this great ad‐

vantage: it does not deprive your descendants of

the opportunity of seeing for themselves exactly in

what dress the book buyers of four centuries ago

received their volume".

Blades not only described a Solander but also

made interesting observations on the key role of

cases and boxes for the preservation of old bind‐

ings. His empathy for retaining the integrity of

the book is highlighted in the following lines.

The subject of this quotation is William Caxton’s

(c.1422‐1491) book featured with the original

binding and its antagonist is “a well‐known Lon‐

don binder”: "Of course […] it was kept in its ori‐

ginal covers, with all the interesting associations of

its early state untouched? No such thing! Instead

of making a suitable case, in which it could be

preserved just as it was, it was placed in the hands

BOXES FOR PROTECTION OF BOOKS

of a well‐known London binder, with the order,

“Whole bind in velvet”. […] the volume now glows

luxuriously in its gilt edges and its inappropriate

covering and […] with half an inch of its uncut

margin taken off all round" [9].

Guy Peterbridge described Blades as "[…] a pre‐

servation pioneer in stressing the virtues of simple

boxing to protect old bindings, whose gratuitous

rebinding for the sake of a fresh appearance he

discouraged" [10].

Blades had a genuine understanding of old books.

He reflected an ethos and a respect for the evid‐

ence of old books that made him a precursor of

the 20th century theory of the preservation of

books.

Blades however was not the only one to under‐

stand the importance of “preserving the origin‐

al”. At the end of the 19th century, the members

of the international Arts and Crafts Movement,

born under the inspiration of John Ruskin (1819‐

1900), re‐discovered the cultural legacy and the

tradition of medieval craftsmanship. The Move‐

ment supported the anti‐restoration positions of

Ruskin and encouraged the preservation and in‐

vestigation of ancient artifacts. In this sense, it is

meaningful that the expression “would you know

the new, you must search the old” was a maxim

at the London County Council Central School of

Arts and Crafts, founded by Richard Lethaby in

1896 [10]. This theoretical principle influenced

the activity of the Arts and Crafts artists, includ‐

ing print making and book binding techniques.

William Morris (1834‐1896) and Thomas James

Cobden‐Sanderson (1840‐1922) were relevant

figures of the Movement. Morris’ critical positions

against the restoration of old buildings, in line

with Ruskin’s theory, must have reflected in his

approach to codices and early printed books. In

fact, Morris considered the book as if it was an

architectural structure formed by many parts.

The preservation and investigation of the ink,

the font, the decorations, the white margins of

the text block and the binding are essential ele‐

ments in understanding the historical value of

any book [10].

These considerations are relevant for the present

work because soon Douglas Bennett Cockerell

(1870‐1945), pupil of Sanderson, joined the

Movement. Cockerell was a master bookbinder

and executor of the conservation project of the

Codex Sinaiticus in 1935 [11]. Under Cockerell’s

influence Roger Powell established himself as one

of the most influential bookbinders and conser‐

vators of the 20th century.

Roger Powell and the Irish manuscripts

Roger Powell (1896‐1990) was taught by Cocker‐

ell at the London County Council Central School of

Arts and Crafts. From 1935 until 1947, Powell joi‐

ned Cockerell’s studio at Letchworth and in 1947

he opened his own studio in Froxfield in Hamp‐

shire (UK) [12]. Edward Barnsley (1900‐1987),

fine cabinet maker, also had his workshop in

Froxfield. Powell’s studio was a stroll away from

Barnsley’s workshop and this helped the creation

of a long lasting and prolific collaboration between

them: "[…] with the Barnsley and Powell work‐

shops only about ½ mile apart, it was a simple

matter to arrange the ordering from Barnsley of

quarter‐cut oak boards, special cases for books

and also book cabinets from time to time" [13].

In 1954, Powell completed the conservation work

of the Book of Kells (Dublin, Trinity College, MS

58). He was first invited to Dublin in 1952 and

completed several projects on medieval manu‐

scripts belonging to Trinity College and to the

36 e‐conservation

GIANLORENZO PIGNATTI

Royal Irish Academy (RIA). The collaboration

with Barnsley’s workshop was vital for the exe‐

cution of many of his Irish works including his

last project in 1981 ‐ the conservation of the

Cathach of St. Columba, the Psalter traditionally

ascribed to the saint and written between A.D.

560 and 600 (Dublin, Royal Irish Academy, MS 12

R 33).

The four volumes forming the Book of Kells are

housed in four wooden boxes stored horizontally

in a wooden cabinet. The box for the MS 58/2

was examined for this work (Figures 5‐6). Dove‐

tail joints secure the side walls of the base while

16 brass screws ensure a firm adhesion of the

walls to the base. The lid is completely removable

from the base and its opening/closing mechanism

is composed of a brass leaf spring. The rotation of

the leaf spring into metal catches keeps the lid

closed and the volume under slight pressure

(Figure 7). This reduces the risk of deformation of

the vellum sections forming the text block [14].

Powell’s intention was that the leaf spring should

provide the book with a smoother pressure than

the classic metal fastenings typical of the mon‐

astic bindings [15].

A leather strap assists the removal of the box

from the cabinet. To minimize the tension on the

binding structure (e.g. sewing structure, head‐

bands) and on the text block during handling,

the foredge of the book corresponds to the side

with the leather strap: when the box is handled,

the gravity‐force is focused on the spine of the

binding reducing the risk of physical damage to

the book.

37e‐conservation

Figures 5 to 8 (up to down). Wooden box for one volume of theBook of Kells: frontal view; internal base of the box; top view ofthe box with the lid closed, the leaf spring is hooked in the catches;and external side of the base. © Trinity College Library, Dublin.

BOXES FOR PROTECTION OF BOOKS

38 e‐conservation

Figure 9 (top left). Wooden cabinet for the storage of the four boxes housing the Book of Kells. Reproduced by kind permission of theEdward Barnsley Educational Trust, Froxfield.Figure 10 (top right). Wooden box of the Ricemarch psalter. Front view. © Trinity College Library, Dublin.Figure 11 (bottom left). Back view with the releasing system closed. © Trinity College Library, Dublin.Figure 12 (bottom right). Back view with the releasing system open. © Trinity College Library, Dublin.

GIANLORENZO PIGNATTI

The Book of Kells is part of the permanent exhib‐

ition at the Trinity College Library and normally

two volumes at a time are exhibited. The pair are

changed approximately every three months so the

boxes are moved several times a year [16]. Under

visual examination the box looks very solid and

sturdy and the only damage associated with its

use are scratches on the external side of the base,

possibly caused by the sliding of the box on a hard

surface such as metal (Figure 8). Powell and Barns‐

ley also designed the cabinet for the boxes. All

had to be stored in a safe (Figure 9): "Between the

carcase and the walls of the safe there is an air‐space

at the sides of about 1/8 inches [c. 3 mm]. There

is about 1 inch [c. 25 mm] above and below and

1/4 inches [c. 6 mm] behind" [14].

The boxes and cabinet were constructed in 1954

by Roger’s son, David, and Herbert Upton at the

Barnsley workshop. It took 106 hours for a total

cost of £45 [17].

The box structure reproduced in Figures 10‐12 was

designed for both the Ricemarch psalter (TCD, MS

50) and Garland of Howth (TCD, MS 56). It is a box

for vertical storage and the spine of the volume is

fully exposed. The main feature of this box format

is the wooden lever at the back. The lever is hinged

to the box and when rotated it pushes the boards

of the binding allowing the sliding of the volume

out of the case. There is no contact between the

text block and the lever. Direct contact is only

applied on the new wooden binding boards pro‐

vided by Powell during conservation work.

This releasing system seems too invasive and

today it is unlikely that it would be considered

a viable option in a conservation project. If we

contextualize historically this project we can

understand Powell’s consideration: the contact

between the lever and the new binding was not

relevant comparing to the preservation of the

39e‐conservation

BOXES FOR PROTECTION OF BOOKS

only surviving component of the manuscript, the

text block.

Between 1968 and 1981, Powell was committed to

the conservation projects of the Lebor na hUidre

(RIA, MS 23 E 25), Book of Lecan (RIA, MS 23 P 2),

Leabhar Breac (RIA, MS 23 P 16), Book of Fermoy

(RIA, MS 23 E 29) and Cathach of St. Columba. All

manuscripts were provided with wooden boxes for

horizontal storage and except the Book of Fermoy

the others were all constructed by David Powell

(George Taylor of Barnsley’s workshop collaborated

at the construction of the box for the Cathach).

An historical reference regarding the Cathach and

its historical shrine provides us with a practical

example of the evolution in the box design atti‐

tudes during the centuries. The manuscript was

considered an important relic of the saint and it

was used as a talisman on the battlefield. The

shrine for the Cathach was constructed between

the years 1062 and 1098 in order to protect the

relic when it was held by the army battalion [18].

The following extract from the Ordnance Survey

Letters of County Mayo (1834‐1841) proves the

exceptional relationship between the manuscript

and its protective case. The religious and symbolic

values that featured the manuscript were trans‐

ferred to the shrine, here anthropomorphized,

that became an active component of the relic:

"[…] a box [the shrine] with some gems inserted

into its cover, which resembled glass eyes, and that

whenever any one perjured himself these eyes were

wont to turn round to roll like human eyes, and

make signs of melancholy disapprobation of the

conduct of the profane perjurer […]" [18].

The boxes designed and constructed by the Pow‐

ells for the RIA material are of the same structure

(Figures 13‐14) and have the same mechanical

solutions featured in the original drawing of the

box for the Book of Fermoy, now part of the Barns‐

ley archive [19]. The only exception is the case

for the Book of Lecan that differs in appearance

(Figures 15‐16).

The base and the lid are individual entities. When

it is closed, the lid is hooked into a groove on the

back of the base (Figure 17) and the two compo‐

nents are kept firmly in place with one or two

metal catches. All boxes are lined inside with soft

material (e.g. felt, pig skin leather, foam covered

with linen) in order to provide the volume with

better housing (Figure 18). In 1985‐87, the same

structure was proposed by Eric Pearce for the cons‐

truction of the box for the Book of Ui Maine (RIA,

MS D ii 1) previously conserved by Anthony Cains.

Powell’s legacy and influence can be recognized in

another project. The fine wooden boxes designed

40 e‐conservation

Figure 13 (top).Wooden box of the Cathach of St. Columba. Bypermission of the Royal Irish Academy, Dublin. © RIA.Figure 14 (bottom). Open box. The conservation report (left) ishoused within the manuscript. Lid on the right. By permissionof the Royal Irish Academy, Dublin. © RIA.

GIANLORENZO PIGNATTI

41e‐conservation

for the manuscripts belonging to the Parker Lib‐

rary at Corpus Christi College in Cambridge (UK)

recall the RIA boxes. It is no coincidence that

Nicholas Pickwoad, who trained and collaborated

with Powell, contributed substantially to the

Parker’s boxing project that took place in the

mid‐1980s [20].

Roger Powell was aware of the importance of a

wooden case as an active component in the correct

storage and preservation of a book. In 1975, he

wrote in the conservation note of the Book of

Fermoy [21]: "The case to keep the book under

slight pressure has been made in the workshop of

Edward Barnsley CBE in African Sapele. So far as

possible the book should always be kept in the

case with the catch closed. If left unrestrained

vellum becomes cockled; if this happened it might

become impossible to close the case".

Cains arguably states that Powell "was a distin‐

guished codicologist long before he knew the

word" [21].

His sensitivity as a conservator and codicologist

had intensified after the experience of the Flor‐

ence flood in 1966. In the conservation notes for

the RIA manuscripts Powell showed an increased

Figure 15 and 16. Wooden box of the Book of Lecan. Lateral view of the closed box and lateral view with the lid open (lower bottom).By permission of the Royal Irish Academy, Dublin. © RIA.

BOXES FOR PROTECTION OF BOOKS

interest in the scientific approach to conservation

work and the use of long‐term stable materials

[21] . In 1969, his refusal to carry out any treat‐

ment on the 7th century bound manuscript Stony‐

hurst Gospel (British Library, Loan 74) proved his

definite awareness of the importance of preser‐

ving original bindings [22]: "[…] it is [the Gospel]

no longer in a state to be treated with anything but

informed veneration. Repair is not the answer, uni‐

que evidence must not be disturbed".

The Phased Conservation Box

After the Florence flood of 1966, restorers faced

an overwhelming and unprecedented number of

volumes in need of treatment. The volumes were

classified according to different standards in or‐

der to optimize the time and prioritize treatments.

The organization of the work according to a

“phased structure” was later introduced at the

Library of Congress of Washington D.C. In 1967,

Peter Waters was hired as Conservation Officer at

the Library of Congress where he dealt with the

preservation programme of the collection

belonging to the Library [23] and his first‐hand

experience during the Florence flood certainly

influenced his new commitment [24] .

The Phased Conservation Project started in the

mid‐1970s and had the purpose of providing a

quick and effective solution for the preservation

of fragile material from the vast collection of the

Library. In Waters’ intention, the Project was the

answer to the daily care and assistance of the

collection: "an extension of collection mainten‐

ance" [24].

The core of the project was represented by the

Phased Conservation Box, a custom‐made pro‐

tective box constructed from folded boards. The

full conservation treatment of a single volume is

generally a long and expensive process, alterna‐

tively the use of a Phased Box is a fast and cost

effective way to temporarily store books in need

of treatment.

The use of a Phased Box for damaged material

also slows down some deterioration processes,

part of what Feller called the “autocatalytic

phase” in the life of the artefact [25‐26]. This

phase is the moment of greatest decay for any

object and it develops as a “cascade effect” that

could lead to the definite dissolution of the item.

This phase only stops when all the chemical and

physical decaying processes have reached their

natural conclusion and the object eventually

enters its “autoretardant phase” [25‐26]. The

European Law collection at the Library of Con‐

gress was clearly in its “autocatalytic phase” and

its phase boxing was the preferred solution to

temporarily stop the decay: "Most [volumes]

were in such a dilapidated state that every morn‐

ing one could move along the rows of volumes and

sweep up fragments" [23].

The use of the Phased Box postpones every treat‐

ment on the volume. When this is considered in

relation to the studies in Codicology and Archae‐

ology of the Book, it becomes of high relevance

because this box preserves the integrity of ori‐

ginal book structures[27] .

In the introduction of the “Boxes for the protec‐

tion of rare books” [28], Waters stated that fra‐

gile material of limited usage and consultation

was ideal for being “phase boxed”. In fact, when

it is open the Phased Box is more cumbersome

than other types of boxes and it could be unprac‐

tical for the reader. In addition to this there were

concerns about the wear and tear of the box due

to continuous opening and closing, which lead to

physical damage of the folding flaps.

42 e‐conservation

GIANLORENZO PIGNATTI

Phase boxing is a common practice in libraries

where are developed according to their specific

needs and specifications. According to Baker

and Dube, approximately 40% of the seventy

three institutions participating in their survey

use Phased Boxes for their collections [24].

Since the Phased Box was first introduced in lib‐

raries its role and function have changed. It was

born as a temporary protective case, linked to a

specific “phase” in the life of the artifact. Today

it is increasingly considered as a permanent box

and it is often constructed to store books after

full conservation treatment (Figure 19). It is part

of this evolution the protective case designed at

the Derry and Raphoe Diocesan Library Project

[29]: "The visible spine allows librarians, archiv‐

ists, scholars who are looking for books of a par‐

ticular period to select them from the shelves

without necessarily opening the Phase‐Boxes.

[…] the optional information sheets give further

more precise details about both the binding and

the text and record the conservation and consul‐

tation history of the book. They will limit the

damage caused by unnecessary manipulation".

43e‐conservation

Figure 17. Wooden box of the Book of Ui Maine. Detail of thewooden grove on the base. By permission of the Royal IrishAcademy, Dublin. © RIA.

Figure 19. Books conserved and housed in their Phased Boxes.Delmas Conservation Bindery. By kind permission of theGovernors and Guardians of Archbishop Marsh’s Library, Dublin.

Figure 18. Wooden box of the Lebor na hUidre. Lid on the left. By permission of the Royal Irish Academy, Dublin. © RIA.

BOXES FOR PROTECTION OF BOOKS

44 e‐conservation

The Visible‐Spine Phase Box is technically a more

complex version than the classic style. It protects

the book and provides users with bibliographical

information at the same time. These features

suggest that this box was created under different

considerations and for distinct purposes: there is

the perception that it was designed as a long term

preservation box. It could be suggested that there

are today cases when the term “phased” is no

longer appropriate for this type of protective box.

Conclusions

Daniel Solander designed and created a box of

extraordinary success. The 19th century anti‐resto‐

ration theory which originated in Europe, promo‐

ted the adoption of boxes for preserving books

within collections and the circulation of the So‐

lander was probably influenced by this ideal.

The Solander and its modern variations are found

today in many historical libraries and this proves

its solid reputation as a reliable instrument for the

storage of bibliographical material.

Thanks to his collaboration with experienced and

skilled professionals (Douglas Cockerell, Edward

Barnsley, David Powell), Roger Powell made an

essential contribution to the practice of designing

and constructing wooden boxes for manuscripts.

The development of this very specific field of book

conservation and preservation evolved from the

collaboration of professionals who shared an

amount of practical knowledge and skills.

The Florence flood was a central moment for the

development of the research into box‐making.

The Phased‐Box partially derives from this tragic

event. This work could draw a parallel between

the introduction of Solander’s creation within

libraries and the adoption of the Phased‐Box:

both circumstances were significant for the de‐

velopment of protective cases for books.

All the subjects tackled in the present work deserve

further investigation and especially the geogra‐

phical limits must be extended to include other

European and American projects. The Author hopes

that the observations presented contribute to a

better understanding of the development of this

significant aspect of book conservation practice.

Acknowledgments

My gratitude goes to Dr. Jason McElligott, Keeper

of Archbishop Marsh’s Library, for his observa‐

tions and generous support. My warm thanks to

Conservators Noureen Qureshi (Delmas Conser‐

vation Bindery, Dublin) and John Gillis (Trinity

College, Dublin) for their editing and proofreading

and to all colleagues, librarians and archivists

for their cooperation and help.

References

[1] F. Pesando, Libri e biblioteche, Edizioni Quasar,

Roma, 1994

[2] C. Gallavotti, La custodia dei papiri nella Villa

suburbana Ercolanese, Tipografia Eugubina,

Gubbio, 1940

[3] N. Caldararo, “The Solander box, its varieties

and its role as an archival unit of storage for prints

and drawings in a museum, archive or gallery”,

Museum Management and Curatorship 12, 1993,

pp. 387‐400. The quoted work is: H. Plenderleith,

GIANLORENZO PIGNATTI

The conservation of prints, drawings and manus‐

cripts, Oxford University Press, 1937

[4] R. Lane, “Environmental carrying case design”,

The Paper Conservator 11, 1987, pp. 95‐98

[5] A. Wise, C. Granowski and B. Gourley, Out of

the box: measuring microclimates in Australian‐

made Solander boxes, URL [pdf] (accessed 11th

Dec. 2011)

[6] D. Vinod and M. Shin, “Hygrometric half‐lives

of museum cases”, Restaurator 14, 1993, pp. 30‐44

[7] D. Vinod and M. Shin, “The moisture buffering

capability of museum cases”, Material Research

Society 267, 1992, pp. 453‐458

[8] M. T. Roberts and D. Etherington, “Solander

Box”, in Bookbinding and the conservation of

books. A dictionary of descriptive terminology,

URL (accessed 11th December 2011)

[9] W. Blades, The Enemies of the Books, Trübner,

London, 1880, pp. 89‐93, URL

[10] G. Petherbridge, Roger Powell: the compleat

binder, Brepols, Tournhout (B), 1996 p. 38

[11] F. Marzo, Codicology: the history of the

structural features of the Codex Sinaiticus, URL

(accessed 11th December 2011)

[12] H. Nixon, Roger Powell and Peter Waters, The

Slade, 1965

[13] A. Donnelly and P. Waters, Roger Powell, the

compleat binder: liber amicorum, Brepols, Tourn‐

hout, 1996, p. 18

[14] R. Powell, Report on the repair and rebinding of

the Book of Kells, Trinity College, Dublin, MS 2586

[15] R. Powell, Notes on the conservation work of

the Book of Durrow, Trinity College, Dublin, MS 2589

[16] Private e‐mail of Susan Bioletti, Head of

Conservation and Preservation Department of

the Trinity College Library, Dublin. E‐mail of the

24th May 2010

[17] Private e‐mails of Gilly Anderson, the Edward

Barnsley Workshop. E‐mails of the 28th January

and 1st March 2010

[18] R. O'Floinn, “Sandhills, silver and shrines:

fine metal work of the medieval period from Done‐

gal”, in Donegal, history and society: interdisci‐

plinary essays on the history of an Irish county,

Geography Publications, Dublin (ROI), 1995,

pp. 85‐148

[19] Edward Barnsley archive, Box 45

[20] N. Hadgraft, “Storing and boxing the Parker

Library manuscripts”, in Conservation and

preservation in small libraries, Parker Library

Publications Cambridge, 1994

[21] Anthony Cains, Roger Powell, the compleat

binder: liber amicorum, Brepols, Tournhout,

1996, p. 85

[22] R. Powell and P. Waters, “Technical descrip‐

tion of the binding”, in The Stonyhurst Gospel,

Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1969

[23] P. Waters, “Phased Conservation”, Book and

Paper Group Annual 17, 1998, URL (accessed 11th

December 2011)

[24] W. Baker and L. Dube, “Identifying standards

practices in research library book conservation”,

American Library Association 54(1), 2007, URL [pdf]

(accessed 11th December 2011)

45e‐conservation

BOXES FOR PROTECTION OF BOOKS

CALL FOR SUBMISSIONS

e‐conservation magazine is open to submission

of articles on a wide range of relevant topics

for the cultural heritage sector.

Next deadlines for article submission are:

for Issue 24, September 2012 – submissions

due 15h May 2012

for Issue 25, March 2013 – submissions due

15th November 2012

Nevertheless, you can always submit your

manuscript when it is ready. Upon revision,

it will be published as soon as possible

depending on:

‐ the number of the manuscripts on hold,

submitted earlier by other authors

‐ the release date of the upcoming issue

‐ the pre‐allocated space in the magazine

to each section

Please check our publication guidelines

for more information.

[25] R. Feller, Accelerated aging: photochemical

and thermal aspects, Getty Conservation Institute,

Los Angeles, 1994, URL (11th December 2011)

[26] B. Applebaum, Conservation Treatment

Methodology, Butterworth‐Heinemann, Oxford,

2007, pp. 48‐64

[27] B. Ogden, “On the preservation of books and

documents in original form”, Abbey Newsletter

14(4), 1990, URL (accessed 11th December 2011)

[28] M. R. Brown, Boxes for the protection of rare

books: their design and construction, Library of

Congress, Washington, 1994

[29] A. Scola, “Introducing the visible spine

Phase‐Box”, Society of Archivists 244, 2009

GIANLORENZO PIGNATTIConservator‐restorer

E‐mail: gianlorenzop@hotmail.com

Gianlorenzo Pignatti is a book conservator

graduated at the University of Tor Vergata in

Rome, Italy. Previously, he obtained a book con‐

servation diploma at the Conservation Centre

“Bertesi” in Cremona, Italy in 2005, and has

since then trained and collaborated with Italian

institutions and private conservation studios.

From 2008 until 2011 he was based in Dublin,

Ireland where he was employed as book conser‐

vator at Archbishop Marsh’s Library. Between

2010 and 2011, he supervised the preservation

project of the collection which included the

dusting of the volumes and the condition survey

of the collection. He is now based in Florence,

Italy as a freelance book conservator.

46 e‐conservation

GIANLORENZO PIGNATTI

LINING, RELININGAND THE CONCEPT OF UNIVOCITY

ByCecil Krarup Andersen

Introduction

In structural conservation of paintings there is a

range of words that young conservators have to

learn. They describe the many types of structural

treatments that are given to paintings on canvas.

The amount of words in use is large, and some

of the words are more or less synonymous. An

example that will be discussed here is lining and

relining, words that in some traditions have the

same meaning and in others have different mean‐

ings. To understand the conservation language

requires a vast amount of knowledge about the

history of conservation and the use of words in

different regions of the world. This article focuses

on the terminology in structural conservation of

paintings on canvas, but the diversity in termino‐

logy seems to be a common issue in many fields of

conservation. When Gaël de Guichen received the

Forbes price in 2006 he said: ‘I have the impres‐

sion that we live in the tower of Babel’ [1], refer‐

ring to the discussion concerning the terms

‘conservation’ and ‘restoration’.

The European Committee for Standardization has

begun working on standardization of English

terminology within the conservation field (CEN/

TC 346 WG1) [2]. This is a task that involves con‐

servators from many European countries. In the

Second Draft from the CEN working group concer‐

ned with terminology, it is stated that the purpose

of the work with standardization is to “bring

greater understanding and better collaboration

amongst those who have responsibility for cultu‐

ral heritage’ [2, p. 4]. The working group wish

“to avoid confusion, to ensure that what one

person means by a word corresponds with what

another person means” [2, p. 4].

We find it difficult to agree on common under‐

standings of words, and the need for univocity –

the character of being univocal or having one

voice – has been expressed in order to ensure

uniform communication in a common language.

This need arise from the increasing demand to

communicate work and research results to

colleagues, the public, museum staff and so on.

Many conservation and research projects are

crossing country boundaries, which is why the

CEN working group expresses a need to make

sure that conservators speak the same language

and use the same words. Consistency in our

The Greenwich Lining Conference in 1974 was the first international conference where conservatorsdiscussed lining treatments and their consequences. At the conference, a glossary was issued withdefinitions of the words used by conservators in an attempt to move towards consistency in the Englishterminology used by conservators worldwide. In the glossary, lining was defined as the treatment wherea new support is attached to the back of a canvas. Relining on the other hand was defined as therepetition of a lining. After the conference extensive research was done in structural conservation and anumber of new lining methods were introduced. The question is whether the terminology used was nowmore consistent with the Greenwich definitions. The aim of this article is to establish how and when thewords referring to lining treatment have been used from 1974 till now in an attempt to clarify to whatdegree the definitions from the Greenwich Conference have been accepted and used amongconservators. The analysis is based on a search in the bibliographic database AATA Online resulting in363 abstracts written by authors mainly from Europe and USA. It has been assessed whether the wordsin these abstracts and their titles have been used according to the Greenwich definitions or not.Surprisingly the investigation shows a decreasing consistency in the use of terminology. Theconsequences of the lack of consistency in the terminology are discussed.

48 e‐conservation

CECIL KRARUP ANDERSEN

of the paintings and the situation called for inter‐

national consensus on degrees of intervention

and the choice of methods and materials. It was

what Schaible later called ‘Doublierungskrise’, or

‘lining crisis’ in English [3].

The crisis showed a lack of consensus about what

was good lining praxis, and this lack was reflected

in the confusion in the terminology. Lining, trans‐

fer, relining and backing were all words used about

the same thing. Two important and comparable

handbooks written by Stout and Keck illustrate

the confusion, as one used relining and the other

lining [4, 5].

Conservators realized that there was a need for

international cooperation on the subject, and in

1974 the first international lining conference

was held at the National Maritime Museum in

Figure 1. A glue‐paste lining in progress on a suction low pressure table. The tensioned painting is placed on top of a new canvas.Both the original canvas and the new canvas have been prepared with glue‐paste adhesive. The painting will be attached to thelining canvas using heat and negative pressure. Photo by Mikkel Scharff. © The Getty Trust.

language also becomes an issue in the literature

searches that are the basis for all research.

Searching words in bibliographic databases

require agreement on common terms.

Otherwise stated, the word lining will be used

here to describe the treatment where a support is

attached to the back of a painting and the word

relining to describe the removal and replacement

of a support attached to the back of a painting.

Delining is used to describe the removal of a lining.

The lining treatment (Figure 1) has been one of

the most discussed subjects in conservation litera‐

ture. In the 1960s an increased lining activity

resulted in a discussion of the negative effects of

the lining methods used at the time. Painting

conservators had realized that many lining

treatments changed the appearance and texture

LINING, RELINING AND THE CONCEPT OF UNIVOCITY

49e‐conservation

Greenwich, England. At the conference, conserva‐

tors discussed lining treatments and their conse‐

quences in an international forum. This required

a common understanding of the different words

in use, and a glossary was issued in an attempt

to move towards consistency in the English

terminology used by conservators worldwide.

The concept definitions from the Greenwich

Conference represent the starting point of this

article, since they represent the first interna‐

tional standard for the terminology of structural

conservation.

In the glossary from the Greenwich conference

lining was defined as “The sticking of a fabric

(traditionally a fine linen canvas) to the reverse

side of a canvas picture. The purpose of which may

be to counteract structural weakness in the original

canvas itself and/or to secure cleavage between

the paint ground and the canvas layers” [6].

Relining was defined as “The lining of a painting

which has been lined before. Removal of the old

lining canvas and adhesive and mounting on a

new lining canvas with new lining adhesive” [6].

In the following years there were more attempts

to define conservation terminology in reference

works, and they define lining and relining in a

similar way [7, 8].

After the Greenwich conference there was reason

to believe that there would be a movement

towards consistency in the terminology, but when

going through the literature on structural conser‐

vation written since, the confusion is still evident:

in 1975 an article came out that summarized

replies from conservators on a questionnaire

regarding lining [9]. The title alone, ’Relining:

Materials and techniques: Summary of replies to a

questionnaire’ illustrates this point. Even though

all three authors had been editing the ’Handbook

of terms used in the lining of paintings’ from the

Greenwich Conference [6] they still used the term

relining in the heading for their article one year

later. In 1984, the article was followed up by a

similar article, ’Lining in 1984: Questionnaire

replies’ [10], and the updated answers to similar

questions were discussed. In this article the

Greenwich definitions were followed.

Etymology in European Lining Words

In 2005, Hackney wrote that relining in some cases

means lining [11] and a search in the Abstracts of

International Conservation Literature (AATA) [12]

and the Bibliographic Database of the Conservation

Information Network (BCIN) [13] confirms this

confusion. Articles using the word relining go back

to the 1930s [14] and perhaps further back. On

the other hand, a book title shows that the word

lining is used as early as 1853 [15]. Etymology

offers a plausible explanation for the reason why

both words are used about the same phenomenon.

The verbum ‘line’, meaning ‘to cover inner side

of…’, goes back to the late 14th Century. It is

derived from lin (linen cloth), because linen was

frequently used as a second layer of material at

the inner side of garment in the Middle Ages [16].

The word lining can be compared to the Spanish

‘forración’ and the Italian ‘foderatura’. These

words mean lining (of paintings) and can also be

translated as ‘to cover the inside of a garment’.

Another tradition is the one where words for

lining come from words for doubling. In German

‘doublieren’, Dutch ‘doubleren’, Danish ‘dublere’

and Swedish ‘dubblering’.

The most common French word for lining is

‘rentoilage’. Linen in French is again ‘lin’ but a

50 e‐conservation

CECIL KRARUP ANDERSEN

51e‐conservation

canvas is ‘toile’. This comes from Latin tela (web).

‘Entoiler’ means to cover the inside with canvas,

but ‘rentoiler’ means to line a painting. ‘Rentoiler’

is also connected to the Spanish word ‘reentelado’

(‘tela’ is canvas) and the Italian ‘rintelatura’ that

also both mean lining.

‘Rentoiler’ was earlier used about the more

radical treatment where the original canvas on a

painting was removed and replaced with a new

one. Since it was a replacement of the canvas the

prefix ‘re‐‘ was used. Methods became less radical

but the word ‘rentoilage’ remained the same. It

now also meant ‘to apply a new canvas on top of

the old one’.

It is a reasonable assumption that the English

relining with the same meaning as lining, comes

from the direct translation of ‘rentoiler’, ‘reente‐

lado’ and ‘rintelatura’ into English ‘re‐linen’ /

‘re‐lining’.

Searching for Lining and Reliningin Bibliographic Databases

As previously mentioned, the conservation field

has two major international bibliographic data‐

bases: AATA [12] and BCIN [13]. In this article,

AATA is used because it provides the reader with

an abstract in English on records in all languages.

This makes conservators able to compare the

translations and the use of English terms in

different parts of the world.

One of the aims of this article is to establish how

and when the English words referring to the lining

treatment have been used from 1974 till 2010 in

an attempt to clarify to what degree the defini‐

tions from the Greenwich Conference have been

accepted and used among conservators worldwide.

A search in AATA with a combination of the index

words ’lining’ and ‘paintings’ resulted in more

than 500 records. The titles and/or abstracts

from 1974 to 2010 that include the words lining

or relining in any form have been chosen as the

basis for this analysis. Records that dealt with

works of art on paper, parchment panel or leather

were also disregarded.

The result was 363 abstracts written by authors

mainly from Europe and USA although other conti‐

nents are also represented. It was then assessed

whether the words in these abstracts and their

titles have been used according to the Greenwich

definitions or not. Not all the abstracts to the

articles were written by the authors themselves.

In some cases another conservator had been

responsible for the English abstract. Neverthe‐

less, their words are searchable in the database.

Results

Figure 2 shows how many records were found

each year and how the words were used accord‐

ing to the titles and abstract texts. ‘Follows the

Greenwich definition’ means that lining is used

as ‘the sticking of a fabric to the reverse side of a

canvas picture’ or that relining is used as ‘the

lining of a painting which has been lined before.

Removal of the old lining canvas and adhesive

and mounting on a new lining canvas with new

lining adhesive’[6].

Three records from the 363 used ‘new lining’

instead of relining and they were not regarded as

following the Greenwich definition. 110 records

used the word relining, and in some cases it could

not be established from the abstract text whether

it was in fact a repetition of a lining or a use of the

word that was not consistent with the Greenwich

definition. In the cases of doubt a special category

was used called ‘not clear’. Only 27 records from

the 110 using relining could without doubt be

LINING, RELINING AND THE CONCEPT OF UNIVOCITY

52 e‐conservation

identified as dealing with relining as defined in

the Greenwich glossary.

In Figure 3 the results are divided in decades and

shown in percent (numbers at the bottom are the

actual number of records). It is clear that a decreas‐

ing percentage (and number) of records follow the

Greenwich definitions through the decades. In the

last decade the conservation vocabulary has be‐

come so inconsistent that only 60% of the abstracts

and titles follow the Greenwich definitions. In

some cases both lining and relining are used in the

same abstract about the same type of treatment.

The word relining is most common in Central and

Southern Europe, whereas records from Northern

Europe, Great Britain and the USA seem to use the

word lining according to the Greenwich definition.

The topics considered in the records are shown in

Figure 4. Most of them describe lining methods

and materials or the history of lining methods

and materials. The number of these articles is,

however, decreasing. A smaller, but increasing

amount of records are considering concerns with

lining methods and recommend avoiding linings.

The same pattern is seen for the group where

alternative methods are described and for the

group where relinings and delinings (repetition

of linings and removal of linings) are described.

This shows that there is a still growing concern

about the use of linings and the challenge of

relining and delining comes up more and more

often. This information can only be retrieved by

reading all the abstracts or articles since the

terminology is not used consistently enough to

allow us to get access to the appropriate records

by searching in index terms. The conservator

who is interested in the challenges of relining

will have a lot of sorting to do before he finds

the right articles to read.

It is interesting how the word minimalism is also a

complicated word to search. Because minimalism

is argued in so many different cases it cannot be

related to a certain type of treatment. When con‐

servators use cold lining, strip lining, delining and

not lining they may claim to be mini‐malists. The

words ‘non‐intervention’, ‘non‐interventionalist’

Figure 2. The use of the words lining and relining in records from AATA‐online, abstracts of international conservation literature(http://aata.getty.edu/NPS/).

CECIL KRARUP ANDERSEN

53e‐conservation

and ‘minimalist’ became common in the 1980s

[10]. In earlier days conservators would sometimes

define themselves as ‘liners’ but with the new

terms conservators now define themselves by

their choice of refraining from lining. The term

‘not lining’ was also used [17] and a number of

articles have been published describing how con‐

servators had succeeded in not lining paintings

[18‐21]. Yet in 2003 the minimalistic ideal was

questioned by Ackroyd and Villers in an attempt

to move the discussion towards a post‐minima‐

listic paradigm [22].

Implications of Inconsistency

It is clear that we have not standardized our termi‐

nology and the question is whether univocity is

what we want to aim for. Temmermann argues

that the univocity ideal can be questioned accor‐

ding to Socio‐cognitive Terminology [23]. This

concept is based on the assumption that differ‐

ences in terminology can be used to achieve a

more precise perception of the meaning of a

concept. Lining and relining are not only used in

different geographic areas. They are also used in

different traditions of understanding the concept

of structural conservation. This implies that there

is a lot we can learn from studying the words we

use, and forcing everyone to use the same words

may deprive some conservators of the possibility

of expressing themselves in a way that can be

precisely perceived in their area (geography, lan‐

guage, etc.). However the areas in which conser‐

vators move have been enlarged over the years,

and whenever we need to communicate interna‐

tionally it can be an advantage to agree on common

rules for the use of language.

The results presented here suggest that there is a

language barrier between countries making our

communication difficult. Central and Southern

European countries are using a different termino‐

logy which is confirmed by the etymological expla‐

nation of the differences in the use of words. This

means that research results from some countries

are in risk of being misinterpreted by conservators

from other parts of the world and vice versa. The

Figure 3. Percentage of records following the Greenwich definitions. Under each column is the actual number of records in each category.

LINING, RELINING AND THE CONCEPT OF UNIVOCITY

54 e‐conservation

written evidence of the work conservators do is

increasingly important and the consequences of

inconsistent terminology can be manifold. Cases

like condition reports when paintings are lent

out, insurance cases, exchange of research and

conservation treatment records are examples of

the increasing international corporation and

exchange that has called for agreement in the

definition of terms.

Conclusions

The study shows a growing inconsistence in the

use of structural conservation terms but the impli‐

cations may cover much more than inconsistency.

When conservators insist on diversity in the use

of terms related to lining it could be a symptom of

diversity in opinions in different regions, schools

and traditions. The study offers a platform for

further research into the more philosophical issues

and differences of opinion within the subject of

structural conservation. To uncover different

definitions of words can be to map our differences

and degree of communication both when it comes

to geographic areas and philosophical schools. The

study implies that we do not agree on the definiti‐

ons of concepts and the premises behind concepts.

However, communication at international levels

is being complicated by the inconsistency in

terminology. Time, resources and information are

spent on trying to understand the state of the art

in lining of paintings and it becomes unclear how

the field is evolving. It is clear that a univocal defi‐

nition of certain words is desirable as a working

tool for international communication between

disciplines within the investigation and conserva‐

tion‐restoration of cultural heritage. The CEN

initiative may offer a unique opportunity to move

forward into a common interdisciplinary under‐

standing of our working language within the

European Babylonian continent. The Greenwich

definitions or definitions similar to them seem to

be the obvious choice for a common definition of

words since they offer a possibility to differentiate

Figure 4. The most common topic in lining literature is reviews or descriptions of methods and materials. However retreatment andalternatives are considered with increasingly frequency.

CECIL KRARUP ANDERSEN

55e‐conservation

between linings and relinings. As shown earlier,

delining and relining are increasingly significant

subjects, a fact that can be difficult to recognize

if it is not possible for the next generations of con‐

servators to appreciate the differences between

lining and relining. It is therefore to be hoped

that other non‐European countries will be invited

to listen and comment on the CEN progress in

order to accept the same definitions in due course

and hereby achieve a common tool for reports,

papers and so on on an international level.

Sandardization and univocity may however not

bring greater understanding. With Temmermanns

arguments we may want to embrace our differences

and explore what the real reasons for them are.

Our diverse use of terms may help us to point out

issues of importance or even point directly to the

heart of the concept of conservation. Why do we

do it, for whom do we do it, what is our final goal

and what means can be used to achieve it?

References

[1] G. De Guichen, “A common Definition of Conser‐

vation and Restauration: Agree or disagree, but

we are living in the tower of Babel”, Studies in

Conservation 52, 2007, pp. 69‐73

[2] Conservation of cultural property – Main general

terms and definitions concerning conservation of

cultural property, prEN15898, URL (15‐06‐2010)

[3] V. Schaible, “Neues Überlegungen zur Feutich‐

keit an Leinwandbild”, Zeitschrift für Kunsttech‐

nologie und Konservierung 1(1), 1987, pp. 75–94

[4] C. Keck, A Handbook on the Care of Paintings,

American Association for State and Local History,

1965

[5] G. L. Stout, The Care of Pictures, Dover Publica‐

tions, New York, 1971

[6] W. Percival‐Prescott and G. Lewis (ed.), "Hand‐

book of terms used in the lining of paintings",

Conference on Comparative Lining Techniques,

National Maritime Museum, London, 1974

[7] Narcisse (Network of Art Research Computer

Systems in Europe, Glossaire multilangue, glossário

multilingue), Commision des Communautes Euro‐

péennes DGXIII Luxemburg, Arquivos Nacionais/

Torre do Tombo Lisboa, 1993, CD‐ROM

[8] The Conservation Dictionary, P.K. NET Infor‐

matics, Athens, Greece, 2001

[9] S. Rees Jones, A. Cummings and G. Hedley,

“Relining: Materials and techniques: Summary of

replies to a questionnaire”, ICOM Committee for

Conservation 4th Triennial Meeting, Venice, 1975

[10] G. Hedley and C. Villers, “Lining in 1984:

Questionnaire replies”, ICOM Committee for

Conservation 7th Triennial Meeting, Copenhagen,

1984, pp. 84.2.22‐25

[11] S. Hackney, “Relining, Lining, De‐lining,

Minimo intervento conservativo nel restauro dei

dipinti: atti del convegno”, Thiene (VI), Secondo

congresso internazionale: colore e conservazione,

materiali e metode nel restauro delle opere poli‐

cromi mobili, 29‐30 ottobre 2004, Il Prato, 2005,

pp. 29‐35

[12] Abstracts of International Conservation

Literature, http://aata.getty.edu/NPS/

(accessed 08‐07‐2010)

LINING, RELINING AND THE CONCEPT OF UNIVOCITY

[13] Bibliographic Database of the Conservation

Information Network, http://www.bcin.ca/

(accessed 08‐07‐2010)

[14] F. Schmidt‐Degener, “Wax relining of picture

canvases”, Mouseion 32(1), 1932 pp. 86‐87

[15] H. Mogford, Handbook for the preservation

of pictures: containing practical instructions for

cleaning, lining, repairing, and restoring oil

paintings, with remarks on the distribution of

works of art in houses and galleries, their care and

preservation, Winsor & Newton, 1853

[16] "Line", Online Etymology Dictionary, URL

(accessed 1.9.2010)

[17] P. Ackroyd, A. Phenix and C. Villers, “Not

lining in the twenty‐first century: Attitudes to

the structural conservation of canvas paintings”,

The Conservator 26, UKIC, 2002, pp. 14–23

[18] W. Gabler, “Eine Möglichkeit der Restaurie‐

rung von Rissen in Leinwandgemälden ohne

Doublierung, dargestelt am Beispiel des Gemäldes

‘Die Nacht’ von Ferdinand Hodler”, Mitteilungen

Deutcher Restauratoren Verband, 1980‐81, pp. 22–25

[19] I.V. Nazarova, E. L. Malachevskaya, and L. I.

Yashkina, “Technique of restoring Paintings on

Canvas without Lining”, Preprints from ICOM‐CC

9th Triennial Meeting, Dresden, 1990, Vol 1, p. 132

[20] K. Beltinger, “Reversible supports for paint‐

ings as an alternative to lining", Lining and Back‐

ing: The support of paintings, paper and textiles,

Postprints from the UKIC Conference, 7‐8 Novem‐

ber, 1995, pp. 111–118

[21] M. Bustin and T. Carley (ed.), “Alternatives

to Lining, The structural treatment of paintings

on canvas without lining”, conference held jointly

by the British Association of Paintings Conservator‐

Restorers and the United Kingdom Institute for

Conservation Paintings Section, 19 September, 2003

[22] C. Villers, “Post minimal intervention”, The

Conservator 28(1), 2004, pp. 3‐10

[23] R. Temmerman, “Questioning the univocity

ideal,” Hermes, Journal of Linguistics 18, 1997,

pp. 51‐90

CECIL KRARUP ANDERSENConservator‐restorerContact: cka@kadk.dk

Cecil Andersen holds a BA and a MA degree from

the School of Conservation, The Royal Danish

Academy of Fine Arts in Copenhagen, Denmark.

Presently she is enrolled in the PhD programme

at the School of Conservation where she is enga‐

ged in research focusing on the effect linings

have on Danish Golden Age paintings on canvas

from the nineteenth century. The focus in her

research is on mechanics in paintings and struc‐

tural treatments. The PhD is a collaboration

between the School of Conservation, The National

Gallery of Denmark and the Smithsonian Institu‐

tion in Washington, USA.

56 e‐conservation

CECIL KRARUP ANDERSEN

SALT DAMAGEON THE WALL RELIEFSOF DENDERA TEMPLE,EGYPT

By Hesham Abbas KamallyBy Hesham Abbas Kamally

58 e‐conservation

The present study aims to identify and to characterize the main deterioration mechanisms that affect

the wall reliefs of Dendera temple, Upper Egypt. The temple is famous for its beautiful wall reliefs,

painted with religious scenes and inscriptions. Nowadays the reliefs show considerable damage,

particularly due to salt weathering processes. In particular, the wall reliefs show salt crystallization at

varying levels, in and between grains, and within the cement materials. The change in temperature and

relative humidity in the studied area play an important role in the salts crystallization and hydration

causing several deterioration features such as cracks, powdering, paint and plaster detachment,

flaking, discoloration and iron oxides stains. Several samples were examined by polarizing microscopy

(PLM), X‐ray diffraction analysis (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy equipped with an energy

dispersive X‐ray analysis system (SEM‐EDX). The results reveal that the damage in wall paintings are

mainly attributed to the effect of different salts such as gypsum (CaSO4•2H2O), anhydrite (CaSO4),

halite (NaCl), mirabilite (Na2SO4.10H2O) and sylvite (KCl). These results allowed the identification of

the types of salts and deterioration features, information that may be used in the future for

conservation purposes.

Introduction

The Hathor temple is one of the best preserved

temples in Egypt (Figure 1A). It is located in the

town of Dendera, about four kilometers from Qena

and 60 kilometers north of Luxor on the west bank

of the Nile. The temple was constructed during

the Ptolemaic period and dedicated to Hathor,

the wife of god Horus. It was constructed on the

remains of an older temple erected in the predy‐

nastic period by followers of Horus. Underneath

the floor of the temple several crypts decorated

by important wall reliefs were found. One of these

crypts is today accessible to visitors. Generally,

the Dendera temple complex was completely cons‐

tructed from local sandstone, except for several

limestone blocks found in the ancient crypts

concealed under the temple.

Today, the Dendera temple is threatened by dam‐

age and loss of its wall reliefs by deterioration

including salt effloresces, scaling, powdering and

flaking. After the construction of the Aswan High

Dam (1960‐1970), several environmental effects

were observed in the area such as soil salinization,

rising groundwater level and groundwater conta‐

mination. The increase in groundwater level, high

rates of evaporation, seepage and sewage water

from cultivated lands and surrounding local

houses represented the main factors leading to

the salinity problems. The increase of groundwa‐

ter level and soil salinity lead to deterioration of

many monuments in the Upper Egypt [1‐4]. The

deterioration of different monumental rocks in

Egypt is primarily due to water‐soluble salts such

as gypsum and halite [5]. Generally, when water

evaporates salt will deposit on and beneath the

wall painting surface, and in the pores between

grains [6]. The mechanism of stone deterioration

by salt action is attributed to different processes

such as crystallization, hydration, mineral disso‐

lution, osmotic pressure and thermal expansion

[7]. The present paper aims to identify which salts

are precipitated and to explain the mechanism

that lead to the damages of Dendera temple wall

reliefs. The obtained results will help us to under‐

stand the weathering mechanisms affecting the

wall reliefs and consequently to choose the

HESHAM ABBAS KAMALLY

e‐conservation 59

SALT DAMAGE AT DENDERA TEMPLE

appropriate methods and suitable materials for

its conservation.

Local Climatic Conditions

The climate of this area is arid, characterized by

a large temperature range (hot summer and cold

winter) and rare rain fall. The maximum and

minimum temperature of the atmosphere of Qena

during July ranges between 45 °C and 25 °C while

in December it ranges between 27 °C and 4°C.

Relative humidity is about 53% in winter and 29%

in summer.

Geology of the studied area

The geology of the area was largely studied and

is referred in literature [8‐12]. The rock units

forming the studied area can be arranged strati‐

graphically as shown in table I.

Materials and Methods

Four samples were collected from several locations

from the friable layers of wall reliefs at Dendera

temple. These samples were crushed and milled

in an agate mortar to avoid contamination and

were studied by X‐Ray diffraction analysis (XRD) to

determine its chemical composition. The powder

diffraction patterns of the samples were obtained

using a Phillips PW 1840 diffractometer with Cu‐kαradiation and Ni filter. The scanning speed is 2θ‐1

degree/min at constant voltage 40 KV and 30 Ma.

The detection limit of the method was ±2% W/W.

Three samples of salt were scraped from the al‐

tered wall reliefs at Dendera temple and studied

by electron microscopy. The samples were exam‐

ined to provide information about the crystal

shape, structural state and morphology of the

minerals as well as the salts’ elemental composi‐

tion and alteration products. A JEOL JSM‐5300

scanning electron microscopy (SEM) equipped

Figure 1. The site of Dendera temple, about four kilometers from the city of Qena, Egypt.

60 e‐conservation

Table I. Typical stratigraphy of Dendera, Egypt.

with an Oxford ISIS Link energy dispersive X‐ray

(EDX) from the central laboratories of the Faculty

of Sciences, Alexandria University was used.

Furthermore, sandstone samples were collected

and taken from some altered fragments that had

previously fallen off. Several thin sections from

these samples were studied and photographed

under Polarizing microscopy (PLM) at the Central

Laboratories of the Egyptian Geological Survey

And Mining Authority. Petrographic examination

allowed to determine and describe the sandstone

minerals, physicochemical alteration, the relation

between grains and the state of preservation.

Results and Discussion

Field observation

The decay and weathering survey revealed many

different types of deterioration found in the wall

reliefs such as cracks, loss of superficial layers,

powdering and salt crystallization. This problems

are mostly due to the rising groundwater level,

seepage and sewage water from cultivated lands

and surrounded houses (Figure 2A), making

these the greatest problem at Dendera temple.

The field observation revealed several wall reliefs

in danger due to the growth of salts. The salt

crystallization and hydration processes lead to

loss of cohesion between grains and caused the

current detachment of individual grains. Many

wall reliefs have aggregates of salts forming

bristly efflorescence's of individual crystals

penetrating the surface (Figure 2B) and leading

to losses in the reliefs (Figure 2C). For example,

the peeling of plaster can be observed at approxi‐

mately the same distance from the ground, as

shown in Figure 2C. Moreover, limestone reliefs

bulging and bursting points were observed as

result of salt subflorescences, changing the

morphology of the stone surface and ultimately

causing losses of the superficial layers of rock

GeologicTimescale

Holocene

Late Pleistocene

Plio‐Pleistocene

Pliocene

Eocene

Paleocene‐lateCretaceous

Upper Cretaceous

Pre‐Cambrian

Composition

Silty clay(Neonile deposits)

Sands and gravels with clay interbeds(Prenil deposits)

Clays, sands and gravels capped by travertine beds(Proto‐ and Pre‐Nile deposits)

Clays with someinter‐bedded sands

Chalky and dolomiticlimestone and marls with flint bands and nodules

Shale facies with thin interbeds ofchalk and phosphate

Sandstone with shale interbeds, it unconformablyoverlies the igneous and metamorphic rocks

Highly fractured igneous and metamorphic rocks

Depth(meters)

1 to 14

~30

~60

~25

> 200

~300

~400

‐

HESHAM ABBAS KAMALLY

e‐conservation 61

Figure 2. Deterioration aspects of wall reliefs in Dendera temple: (A) The groundwater delivering salts into the temple foundationsevaporate leaving salts behind; (B) Strongly aggregates of salts form bristly efflorescences; (C) Wall reliefs were completelylosses in a belt as a result of salt efflorescences; (D) Limestone wall reliefs bulging as a result of subflorescences; (E) Saltsdeposits on the painted layers mask the colors of wall reliefs; (F) The areas with high load of salts are characterize by a visiblydarker weaken surface as a result of previous restoration by Portland cement.

SALT DAMAGE AT DENDERA TEMPLE

A B

C D

E F

62 e‐conservation

Figure 2G and 2H. Deterioration aspects of wall reliefs in Dendera temple: (G) Brownish‐yellow stains on the sandstone reliefs;(H) Lamination, iron concretion and Portland cement represent weakned areas and induce several types of alteration.

reliefs (Figure 2D). Discoloration, and removal of

paint layers were observed in reliefs as a result of

the high humidity and the presence of soluble

salts (Figure 2E). There are evidence of previous

restorations at the temple, carried out with diffe‐

rent techniques and in different periods. Some of

these interventions are in good condition while

others are aesthetically or scientifically unaccep‐

table. Several areas with high load of salts are

characterized by a visibly darker and weakened

surface as result of a previous restoration with

Portland cement (Figure 2F). Furthermore, alka‐

line cleaning solutions such as ammonium hydro‐

xide, which have been used locally for over a de‐

cade to clean the wall reliefs, can cause damage

sandstone containing iron oxides or leave disfigu‐

ring brownish‐yellow stains as shown in Figure 2G

stain. In addition, several sedimentation structures

such as lamination, iron and carbonate concre‐

tions were observed in sandstone blocks. These

structures are weakness zones and can cause

several alteration features in rock reliefs (Figure

2H). Granular disintegration and loss of carbon‐

ate and iron concretions in the rock relief of Bes

(god protector of women during childbirth) were

observed as a result of the use of Portland cement.

This cement is too hard for the weathered sand‐

stone and is a source of salts that cause intensive

disintegration of the relief surfaces.

Petrography of the sandstone wall reliefs inDendera temple

Several sandstone reliefs in Dendera temple are

friable or semi‐friable and have different colors

from pale brown to dark brown. The microscopic

examination of several thin sections revealed that

the sandstone consists mainly of quartz (main

component), rock fragments, feldspars (micro‐

cline and plagioclase), calcite, hematite, micas,

clay and heavy minerals. Quartz grains occur as

turbid color, fine to medium grained and vary from

angular to subrounded grains. It was affected by

mechanical breakage and chemical process which

produced micro‐fractures and cleavages dissect‐

ing the quartz grains into several subindividual

grains (Figure 3A).

These grains are mostly monocrystalline and

polycrystalline, both types have undulose extinc‐

tion (Figure 3B) which may be attributed to the

HESHAM ABBAS KAMALLY

G H

Figure 3 (left to right, up to down). The examination of the sandstone samples under polarised microscope: (A) Microfractures andcleavages dissected the quartz grain into several subindividual grains; (B) Quartz grains occur as monocrystalline, polycrystallinewith undulose extinctions; (C) Plagioclase and microcline grains occur as subrounded grains slightly weathered; (D) Different rockfragments occur as subangular to subrounded grains; (E) Ferruginous cement occurs as thin films of brown colour coating andfilling the interspaces between the quartz grains; (F) Calcite patches filling the microcracks in the feldspar grains.

e‐conservation 63

fractures and cleavages. The quartz grains with

undulose extinction were considered unstable

grains, easily breaking into very small grains.

Feldspar grains are represented by microcline and

plagioclase grains. Microcline occurs as subrounded

grains and have cross hatching twinning in some

cases (Figure 3C). Plagioclase grains occurs as

angular to subangular grains slightly weathered

and may exhibit patchy extinction which may in‐

dicate that the grains were affected by mechanical

stresses. In the advanced stage of weathering

process, plagioclase occurs as cracks and altered

SALT DAMAGE AT DENDERA TEMPLE

A B

C D

E F

64 e‐conservation

to fine grained of sericite and clay minerals which

give a dusty and cloudy appearance of feldspar

minerals (Figure 3C). The rock fragments occur

as subangular to subrounded grains and partly

planar boundaries scattered between the quartz

grains and other constituents Figure 3D. The sand‐

stone grains cemented by ferruginous cement. It

occurs as thin films of pale brown colour coating

and filling the interspaces between the quartz

grains. Small cubic shaped and irregular masses

from magnetite are scattered between the quartz

grains and other constituents. Moreover, in the

intensive alteration processes hematite gives a

brown to dark chocolate colour pigmentation to

the altered sandstone blocks (Figure 3E). Small

patches of calcite fill the cracks in the plagioclase

and quartz grains and are disseminated between

the mineral constituents (Figure 3F). Also, epidote

occurs as anhedral to subhedral grains wrapped

with iron oxides scattered between the quartz

grains (Figure 3B).

Scanning electron microscope (SEM)

The scanning electron microscope results confirm

that a major deterioration cause of the wall reliefs

is the abundance of soluble salts in the rock, plaster

and paint layers. SEM micrographs revealed the

salt deposits on the relief surface cause several

alterations such as cracks, pores (Figure 4A) and

losses of cohesion between grains. The salt crys‐

tallization consists of gypsum, halite, anhydrite

and mirabilite filling the pores and coating the

surfaces of rock reliefs as shown in Figure 4B.

Halite was identified in SEM micrographs as large

euhedral cubic aggregates while mirabilite occurs

as euhedral prismatic crystals scattered on the

wall relief surfaces (Figure 4B).

The underground water between the limestone

wall reliefs, by dissolving the calcite grains

(rhombohedral pits) with aid of salt action and

degrading its mechanical characteristics, ultima‐

tely lead to the disintegration of the wall reliefs in

Dendera temple (Figure 4C). Many different salt

crystals such as mirabilite and gypsum tend to

grow within the pores or in highly localized areas

between calcite grains under different conditions

of RH and temperature (Figure 4D). For example,

at different moisture levels, salts will crystallize

in various sizes and shapes: a granular crust of

smaller and isometric crystals is formed on a wet

substrate whereas columnar and thick whisker

crystals are formed at a nearly dry surface [13].

Commonly, the gypsum crystals grow within the

pores as thin plates. Tiny white dots of gypsum

were detected in the sandstone grains causing

many deep pits, bumpy surfaces and disintegra‐

tion of the sandstone wall reliefs. Moreover, SEM

micrographs revealed that many gypsum crystals

occur as blocky‐shaped and rectangular crystals

grow beneath the painted layer (Figure 4E).

Intensive pressure developed during crystalliza‐

tion and dehydration of salts within and between

grains of rock reliefs. This build up stresses in rock

reliefs and causes a variety of cracking patterns in

calcite grains (Figure 4F). In other cases, gypsum

and halite salts grow preferentially in the calcite

cleavage plane enlarging the cleavages and dis‐

sected it into several flakes as shown in Figure 4G.

In addition, SEM micrographs show a large grain

of feldspar in sandstone wall reliefs dissected by

fractures, flakes and pits as a result of sodium

sulfate and gypsum crystallization, ultimately

lead to fragmentation of rock reliefs (Figure 4H).

Energy Dispersive X‐Ray analysis (EDX)

EDX microanalysis of three salt samples from the

wall relief surfaces essentially consist of calcium

(Ca), silicon (Si), sulfur (S), chlorine (Cl), sodium

HESHAM ABBAS KAMALLY

A B

e‐conservation 65

Figure 4. SEM micrographs of deteriorated wall reliefs in Dendera temple: (A) Cracks, pitting and losses of cohesion between grainsof wall reliefs; (B) Different salt crystals such as halite, mirabilite and tiny salt crystals filling the pores and coating the surfaces ofrock reliefs; (C) Dissolution of calcite crystals; (D) Mrabilite and gypsum crystals growing in pores between calcite crystals; (E) Gyp‐sum crystals occur as blocky‐shaped and rectangular crystals grow beneath the painted layer; (F) A variety of cracking patterns incalcite grains; (G) Gypsum and halite salts grow on calcite cleavage plane and dissected it into several flakes; (H) Many cracks andseparation of scales from the rock reliefs as a result of gypsum and sodium sulphate salts.

SALT DAMAGE AT DENDERA TEMPLE

A B

C D

E F

G H

66 e‐conservation

(Na), aluminum (Al), iron (Fe), magnesium (Mg),

potassium (K) and phosphorus (P). The sulphate

and chlorine ions are attributed to the gypsum,

anhydrite, mirabilite, sylvite and halite salts

formed within the rock reliefs. The results of EDX

analysis of the salt samples are listed in Table II.

The high concentration of sodium (0.7‐4.2%) and

chlorine (1.7‐15.5%) may be attributed to the

crystallization of halite salt on the wall reliefs.

The source of these ions may be due to contami‐

nation of groundwater and dissolution of halite

salt from soil and sediments during the movement

of groundwater between them. The analysis also

revealed a high concentration of sulfate (15‐47.4%)

and calcium (40.8‐58.7%) ions which may be at‐

tributed to the crystallization of gypsum and an‐

hydrite salts on the wall reliefs. The most common

damaging salts consist of sulfate, chloride and

nitrate anions [14]. The sources of sulfate ions

may be ascribe to air pollution and contamination

of the groundwater by sulfate fertilizer and disso‐

lution of sulfates from gypsum bearing sediments

in the studied area. Sulfates may be originated

from air pollution [14]. Moreover, the source of

calcium ions may be attributed to the plaster

layers, limestone and sandstone wall reliefs.

In addition, the high amount of magnesium was

detected by EDX analysis, attributed to epsomite

salt [MgSO4.7(H2O)]. The source of magnesium

may be groundwater contamination and dissolu‐

tion of dolomite or leaching from clay sediments

in the study area. Iron oxides also were detected

by EDX analysis, attributed to hematite minerals

present as cement or alteration products of fer‐

romagnesian mineral in sandstone wall reliefs.

X– Ray Diffraction analysis (XRD)

Two samples of salt were taken from the weathered

wall reliefs and two other samples were collected

from wall reliefs sandstone fragments that had

previously fallen off. The results are summarized

in table III. The table show that the salt contain

gypsum, calcite, halite, anhydrite, hematite,

mirabilite and sylvite (KCl) while the altered sand‐

stone wall reliefs samples composed of quartz,

microcline, orthoclase, vaterite, magnetite, kaoli‐

nite, halite, anhydrite, gypsum, bernalite, halite,

epsomite and illite. Clay minerals are represented

mainly by kaolinite and illite dispersed in the

sandstone wall reliefs as result of chemical altera‐

tion of the feldspar minerals. These results are in

accordance with the EDX analysis and SEM micro‐

graphs.

Salt crystallization

The XRD analysis showed that the salts consisted

mainly of gypsum, anhydrite and halite although

other salts of mirabilite, sylvite and epsomite

were also detected. Iron oxides are represented

by hematite and magnetite minerals. After the

Samples

ABC

Mineral Composition (%)

1.0

0.8

2.4

5.9

3.2

10.1

0.5

0.3

0.7

Ca

51.3

40.8

58.7

Mg

4.5

1.2

3.1

Na

2.1

4.2

0.7

Fe

0.8

0.4

2.0

S

18.5

47.4

15.0

P‐

‐

0.3

Cl15.5

1.7

7.0

KSiAl

Table II. Energy Dispersive X‐Ray analysis results of the salts from the Dendera Temple wall reliefs.

HESHAM ABBAS KAMALLY

e‐conservation 67

construction of the High Dam, the temple was

exposed to many deterioration features such as

disintegration, exfoliation, dissolution of build‐

ing materials and crystallization of salts. Differ‐

ent soluble salts reacted with the foundations and

the lower parts of the wall reliefs and deposited in

the pores, plaster, cement and grains. Fathy et al.

reported that the groundwater in the study area

has a high concentration of different salt ions such

as sodium (12.0‐767.5 mg/l), sulphate (7.4‐880.3

mg/l), chloride (17.1‐1380 mg/l), magnesium

(12.8 ‐148.4 mg/l) and bicarbonate (111.6‐651.5

mg/l) [15].

Consolidation treatments and other previous

restoration with grey Portland cement plays an

important role to the high concentration forma‐

tion of various salts affecting the wall reliefs and

causing disintegration. Moreover, the ancient

Egyptians used a fine white plaster based on gyp‐

sum and calcite for the construction of the painted

wall reliefs at Dendera temple. These minerals are

being dissolved in water and are re‐crystallized

on the wall relief surface leading to many deterio‐

ration forms. Gypsum was detected in very high

concentration on the wall reliefs, crystallized at

high level of relative humidity and/or presence

of water from any source. Larsen reported the

presence of sulfates and sodium chlorides in com‐

bination with the existing calcium from stone,

mortar and lime resulted in the formation of gyp‐

sum [16]. Anhydrite may be developed due to

dehydration of gypsum in low humidity. The volu‐

me of gypsum decrease when transformed to an‐

hydrite resulting in many cracks and microcracks

in the wall.

Maekawa and Agnew stated that gypsum loses

water after reaching 42 °C transforming into an‐

hydrite [17]. The intensive stresses generated

during the growth of gypsum crystals, generally

called crystallization pressure, induces damage.

Halite, which is naturally found in the Egyptian

soil and marine sediments, was also identified.

Chlorides are extremely dangerous because they

are very soluble and hygroscopic, and penetrate

into the rock structure and break up grains and

cement. Their hygroscopicity allows them to ab‐

sorb the humidity of the air and to retain it in the

wall structure causing deterioration of many

types. The wall sodium sulfate crystals usually

precipitate as mirabilite. Many authors have

attributed the damage caused by sodium sulfate

salts to the volume change and hydration pres‐

sure created when thenardite is transformed into

mirabilite [18‐21]. These salts causes deterioration

Sample

1

2

3

4

MaterialType

Salts fromwall reliefs

Alteredsandstone wall

reliefs

Composition(± 2 %)

Gypsum (40.08%), calcite (29.86%), hematite (6.65%), halite (4.17%),anhydrite (3.52%) bernalite (14.35%) and mirabilite (1.37%)

Gypsum (41.58%), calcite (26.82%), anhydrite (8.40%),halite (10.48%), hematite (10.14%) and sylvite (2.58%)

Quartz (60.20%), microcline (4.58%), orthoclase (22.58%), magnetite(1.20%), illite (0.60%), anhydrite (0.97%), gypsum (1.08%), epsomite

(7.47%) and dolomite (1.32%)

Quartz (78.62%), orthoclase (7.08%), vaterite (4.32%), magnetite(2.04%), Kaolinite(4.4%), bernalite (2.52%) and Halite (1.02%)

Table III. Results of X‐ray diffraction analysis of wall reliefs at Dendra temple.

SALT DAMAGE AT DENDERA TEMPLE

in the rock such as salt crystallization, scaling,

crumbling and flaking [22, 23]. Moreover, salts

also play an important role in the deterioration

of the wall reliefs by increasing the salts thermal

expansion coefficient. For example, when tempe‐

rature rises to about 50 °C, halite has a volumetric

expansion of 1% leading to intensive stresses

which commonly play a great role in the breakdown

of the internal structure of the reliefs in Dendera

temple. In this study, the presence of sylvite was

found to be due to chemical reaction, an ion ex‐

change between calcium (from calcite) and potas‐

sium sulfate fertilizer used in the area. Also, ortho‐

clase and microcline grains found in the sandstone

blocks may be a source of potassium ions, which

commonly react with chlorides forming sylvite

salt.

Sylvite salt is also very dangerous because it has

a high ability to recrystallize in humid conditions

[24]. In addition, the change in temperature and

relative humidity during the year in hot conditions

can induce further deterioration. When tempera‐

ture and relative humidity increase the rate of

chemical reaction also increases. Moreover, the

extensive changes in air temperature in closed

areas such as Dendera’s crypts and chambers in‐

crease the salts crystallization and recrystalliza‐

tion in the pore space between grains, exert addi‐

tional pressure and causing several alterations

such as powdering, disintegration, cracking and

flaking [7]. The crystallization of salts and their

recrystallization take place during a change in

relative humidity which may develop a stress of

high magnitude termed hydration pressure. We

known that every visitor in the archaeological

site produces a series of variations in the interior

microclimate due to their metabolic process [25].

Generally, an individual walking slowly (3.2 km/h)

in an environment of 15°C develops a heat power

of approximately 200 W, releasing 100g of water

vapors and 100g of CO2 [26].

Conclusion

Several factors are causing the deterioration of

wall reliefs in Dendera temple such as increase of

the groundwater level, absence of sewage net‐

work, seepage from the irrigation system and from

the increasing urban areas surrounding the temple.

The results of the present study revealed that the

disintegration processes of wall reliefs in Dendera

temple are mainly caused by salt crystallization.

Crystallization and hydration pressures of different

salts within the pores and between sandstone and

limestone grains is consider the main cause for

disintegration. These processes lead to intensive

stresses in the internal structural of stone and

cause alterations such as microcracks, cleavages,

exfoliation, blistering and powdering of the

painted wall reliefs.

The microscopic examination of several thin sec‐

tions revealed that sandstone grains were affected

by mechanical breakage and chemical processes

which produced micro‐fractures and cleavages

commonly dissected the quartz grains into several

subindividual grains. Also, the interaction of

feldspar grains with soluble salts is one of the

important alteration processes in sandstone,

beginning at the boundary of twinned and finally

producing clay minerals. Gypsum, halite and

mirabilite was identified by SEM micrographs

from crystal habit and EDX analysis. These SEM

micrographs show alterations such as cracks,

pores, dissolution and dissection of calcite and

feldspar crystals reducing the mechanical strength

of the rock reliefs. The EDX analysis results revealed

that there are some harmful elements such as

chlorine and sulphate that combined with other

elements to form different types of salts. The XRD

results confirmed the petrographic examination,

SEM micrographs and EDX analysis. These analyses

revealed that the salts of Dendera’s wall reliefs

consists of gypsum, calcite, halite, anhydrite,

e‐conservation68

HESHAM ABBAS KAMALLY

hematite, mirabilite and sylvite (KCl). All the

results also confirmed that the greatest deterio‐

ration factor affecting the wall reliefs at Dendera

temple can be essentially attributed to the direct

effects of salt phenomena. In addition, faulty

restoration and inappropriate previous treatments

increased the damage of the wall reliefs.

Acknowledgments

The author wishes to thank Dr. Fathy Ashor, Direc‐

tor of Conservation in Dendera temple, Supreme

Council of Antiquities in Egypt. This work has been

supported by the High Institute of Tourism and

Restoration, Alexandria, Egypt.

References

[1] A. S. Saleh, Study of the reconstruction of the

Beard of the Sphinx, Part 1, 1983, Egyptian Anti‐

quities Organization.

[2] SWECO, Effects of ground water on Pharaonic

monuments. Reconnaissance study report, Egyp‐

tian Antiquities Organisation, 1982

[3] M. A. El Hady, and M. B. Ismaeil, The effect of

environmental conditions on deterioration of monu‐

ments in Assiut and Upper Egypt, 1st International

Conference on Environment and Development in

Africa, Assiut, 21‐24 October, 1995

[4] M. B. Ismaeil and G. El‐Habaak, “Durability

characteristics of some diorite and granodiorite

monuments”, Bulletin of the Faculty of Arts 5(2),

1995, pp. 59‐85

[5] L. Gauri and G. Holdren, “Preliminary report

on the deterioration of stone at the sphinx”,

Newsletter of American Research Center in Egypt

114, 1981, pp. 35‐47

[6] L. K. Gauri, "Stone conservation planning:

Analysis of intricate systems", Science and Tech‐

nology in Service of Conservation, IIC, London,

1982, pp. 46‐50

[7] C. Rodriguez‐Navarro and E. Doehne, “Salt

weathering: influence of evaporation rate, super‐

saturation and crystallization pattern”, Earth

Surface Processes Landforms 24, 1999, pp. 191‐

209

[8] R. Said (ed.), The Geology of Egypt, A. A. Balke‐

ma, Rotterdam, Brookfield, 1990

[9] E. Ahmed, Sedimentology and tectonic evolution

of Wadi Qena area, PhD Thesis, Geology Department,

Assiut University, 1983

[10] M.M.S. Askalany, Geological studies on the Neo‐

gene and Quaternary sediments of the Nile Basin,

Upper Egypt, PhD Thesis, Assiut University, Egypt,

1988

[11] I.M. El‐Balasy, Quaternaqy geology of some

selected drainage basins in Upper Egypt (Qena‐ Edfu

area), PhD Thesis, Cairo University, 1994

[12] A. Mansour and G. Kamal El‐Dein, Geology

and landscape of Qena Governorate, Report sub‐

mitted to Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency,

SEAM Programme, 2001

[13] A. Arnold and K. Zehnder, “Monitoring Wall

Paintings Affected by Soluble Salts”, in S. Cather

(ed.), The Conservation of Wall Paintings, Proceed‐

ings of a Symposium organized by the Courtauld

Institute of Art and the Getty Conservation Institute,

London, July 13‐16, 1987, The J. Paul Getty Trust

1991, pp. 103‐116

SALT DAMAGE AT DENDERA TEMPLE

e‐conservation 69

[14] S.H. Perry and A.P. Duffy, "The short‐term

effects of mortar joints on salt movement in

stone", Atmospheric 31(9), 1997, pp. 1297‐1305

[15] A. Fathy, A. Ayman and A. Adly, “Degradation

of groundwater quality of quaternary aquifer at

Qena, Egypt”, Journal of Environmental Studies 1,

2009, pp. 19‐32

[16] P.K. Larsen, “The salt decay of medieval bricks

at a vault in Brarup Church, Denmark”, Environ‐

mental Geology 52(2), 2007, pp. 375‐383

[17] S. Maekawa and N.H. Agnew, “Investigation

of environmentally driven deterioration of the

Great Sphinx and concepts for protection”, A. Roy

and P. Smith (ed.), Archaeological Conservation

and its Consequences, Preprint of the contributions

of the Copenhagen Congress, 1996, International

Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic

Works, London, 1997, pp. 116‐120

[18] R. U. Cooke, “Salt weathering in deserts”,

Proceedings, Geologists’ Association of London 92,

1981, pp. 1‐16

[19] E. M. Winkler, Stone: Properties, Durability in

Man's Environment, Springer‐Verlag, Berlin, 1973

[20] A. S. Goudie, “Sodium sulfate weathering

and the disintegration of Mohenjo‐Daro, Pakistan”,

Earth Surface Processes 2, 1977, pp. 75‐86

[21] H. Marschner, "Application of salt crystalliza‐

tion test to impregnated stones", in UNESCO/RILEM

International Symposium on Deterioration and

Protection of Stone Monuments, Reliure, Paris, 1978

[22] P. Storemyr, “Weathering of Soapstone at

Norwegian monuments an overview of current

knowledge”, The restoration workshop of Nidaros

cultural, Trondheim, Norway, 2000, pp. 1‐2

[23] B. Fitzner, K. Heinrichs and D. La Bouchar‐

diere, “The Bangudae Petroglyph in Ulsan, Korea:

studies on weathering damage and risk prognosis”,

Environmental Geology 46, 2004, pp. 504–526

[24] G. G. Amoroso and V. Fassina, “Stone Decay

and Conservation: Atmospheric Pollution”, Clean‐

ing, Consolidation and Protection, Elsevier Science

Publishers, Amsterdam, 1983

[25] M. Hoyos, J.C. Soler, S. Canaveral, Sanchez‐

Moral, E. Sanz‐Rubio, “Microclimatic Character‐

ization of a Karstic Cave: Human Impact on Micro

Environmental Parameters of a Prehistoric Rock

Art Cave (Candamo cave, northern Spain)”, En‐

vironmental Geology 33(4), 1998, pp. 231‐242

[26] P. Diaz‐Pedregal, A. Diekmann, “How to Recon‐

cile Archaeological Site Protection and Visitor Ac‐

cessibility”, APPEAR Position Paper 2, 2004, pp. 1‐9

HESHAM ABBAS KAMALLYConservation scientistContact: heshamabbas@windowslive.com

Hesham Kmally is a conservation scientist

specialised in conservation of rock inscriptions.

He obtained his Master degree in Geochemistry,

Petrography and Structural Studies of Rocks from

South Valley University, Egypt in 1999. He was

director of the Conservation Center at the Nubia

Museum in Aswan, Egypt up to 2003, after which

he pursued a PhD in Archaeological Quarrying

and Conservation of Rock Inscriptions in Aswan

from the same university in 2005. He now works

at the Conservation Department of the High

Institute of Tourism, Hotel Management and

Restoration, Egypt.

e‐conservation70

HESHAM ABBAS KAMALLY

SECURITY OF CULTURAL PROPERTY:U.S. ENGAGEMENT AND

POTENTIAL FOR IMPROVEMENT

By Erik Nemeth

Introduction

The tightening interrelation of cultural patrimony

and regional security characterizes the relevance

of cultural security to foreign policy. Targeting of

religious monuments in political violence and

political backlash against collateral damage of

historic sites illustrate the hard and soft, or “smart

power”1, that derives from cultural patrimony.

Monetarily, trafficking in antiquities and tribal

art demonstrates the value of cultural patrimony

to transnational organized crime and insurgencies

that may derive funding from looting [1]. The risks

of political violence and looting also present op‐

portunities for engagement. Policy on the protec‐

tion of religious monuments in conflict and inter‐

diction of post‐conflict looting of archaeological

sites can garner goodwill in regions of political

interest, and development of intelligence on the

market for antiquities can provide insights for

leveraging cultural patrimony in strategies for

counterinsurgency and, optimally, for mitigating

risk of conflict.

A reactive policy on protection of cultural proper‐

ty in regional conflict misses opportunities for

managing evolving security threats of non‐state

actors in developing nations. International con‐

ventions have demonstrated the progressive sig‐

nificance of artworks and historic sites in political

and armed conflict of the past century. Plunder

of Jewish collections and cultural cleansing of

Slavic monuments during World War II compelled,

in part, the 1954 Hague Convention on Protection

of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict.

During the Cold War era, large‐scale looting of cul‐

tural artifacts in developing nations across Latin

America, Africa, and Southeast Asia motivated the

1970 UNESCO Convention on the Means of Prohibi‐

ting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and

Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property. Creative

implementation of the conventions presents op‐

portunities for strategic foreign engagement. Cul‐

tural security and cultural intelligence represent

examples of corresponding innovation in foreign

policy and security strategies.

Cultural Security – past and potential mani‐festation in foreign policy

The 1954 Hague Convention and 1970 UNESCO

Convention recognize the significance of cultural

patrimony in armed conflict and foreign affairs.

Measured engagement of the United States in the

conventions betrays the challenges of strategically

leveraging cultural patrimony in foreign policy.

While immediately signing the 1954 Hague Con‐

vention, the United States delayed ratification

Recent armed conflict in Iraq and Afghanistan and political violence in Egypt have revealed the strategic

significance of cultural property. This paper assesses the role of historic sites and antiquities in foreign

engagement. Over the past century, U.S. foreign policy has had successes and shortcomings in

leveraging protection of cultural patrimony to strategic advantage. The contrast of successful policy on

the protection of immovable cultural property, such as religious monuments, in armed conflict and

missed opportunities for tactical intelligence on the trade in movable cultural property, such as

antiquities trafficking, identifies potential for development of foreign policy.

1 For an introduction to the concept of “smart power” as abalancing of hard power, such as military strength, and softpower, such as an appeal to cultural sensibilities, see JosephNye, The Future of Power, Public Affairs, New York, 2011.

72

ERIK NEMETH

55 years until 2009 and, to date, has neither rati‐

fied, nor approved, the first (1954)2 and second

(1999)3 protocols. In contrast, the United States

accepted the 1970 UNESCO Convention in 1983.

The delay in ratification of the 1954 Hague Con‐

vention suggests a reluctance to risk ramifications

of military engagement that carries liability for

collateral damage of cultural property. The shorter

delay in accepting the 1970 UNESCO Convention

speaks to the political advantage of demonstrating

respect for movable cultural patrimony of foreign

nations. Subsequently, the United States entered

into bilateral treaties to regulate the transfer of

cultural patrimony with at least 19 nations across

Latin America, Africa, Europe, and Southeast Asia.

The United States, however, has not signed or rati‐

fied the 1995 UNIDROIT Convention on Stolen or

Illegally Exported Cultural Objects (Rome, 1955),

which supports the “restitution of stolen cultural

objects”.

The participation of the United States in the inter‐

national conventions indicates foreign policy that

acknowledges the value of protecting cultural sites

from collateral damage during armed conflict but

does not optimally leverage the political clout of

protecting movable cultural property [2]. Even

prior to the ratification of the 1954 Hague Con‐

vention, the United States successfully applied

knowledge of locations of cultural sites to minimize

collateral damage in strategic bombing during the

military campaign in Iraq in 2003 [3] but had less

success in protecting museums [4] and private

collections [5] or in preventing wide‐spread, post‐

conflict looting of archaeological sites [6,7]. Ac‐

ceptance of the 1970 UNESCO Convention and

establishment of bilateral treaties indicate an

awareness of the political clout of movable cultural

patrimony, but delay in acceding to the protocols

of the 1954 Hague and 1995 UNIDROIT Conven‐

tions suggest a lack of innovation in leveraging

movable cultural patrimony in foreign policy.

Measures to prevent trafficking independent of

military intervention hold potential for foreign

policy that applies the hard and soft power of

cultural patrimony. As demonstrated by the return

of prized antiquities from the Getty Museum in

California and the Metropolitan Museum of New

York to Greece [8] and Italy [9] in 2006, cases for

repatriation pose political risk. The forced repat‐

riation by Greece and Italy illustrates the vulnera‐

bility of museums and private collectors in the

United States, and demands by China for the

United States to exercise more influence over

collecting practices that enable the illicit market

in Asian antiquities [10] reveal the political risk

of the vulnerability. The risk presents opportuni‐

ties to engage in discussions on: 1) programs of

stewardship or repatriation of displaced cultural

patrimony and 2) legitimate markets for exporting

cultural patrimony. Programs for repatriation and

market development represent a practical basis

for engaging foreign nations to garner goodwill

in geographic regions of strategic interest.

Art‐Specific Cultural Intelligence – leveragingthe art market in security strategies

In the context of countering transnational ter‐

rorism and organized crime, the United States

e‐conservation 73

SECURITY OF CULTURAL PROPERTY

2 The Protocol to the Convention for the Protection of CulturalProperty in the Event of Armed Conflict 1954 concerns theexport, import, and return of cultural property of occupiedterritories.

3 The Second Protocol to the Hague Convention of 1954 for theProtection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict1999 improves the convention based on experiences ofconflicts that took place at the end of the 1980s and thebeginning of the 1990s.

has integrated intelligence on cultural property

into military action and law enforcement. Strategic

bombing in Iraq in 2003 spared sites of cultural

heritage, and initiative of soldiers to secure mu‐

seums [11] and archaeological sites resembled

the spirit of the Monuments Men of World War II.

In law enforcement, the FBI responded to the

plunder of the Iraq National Museum in Baghdad

by forming the Art Crime Team in 2004. With a

mission of “addressing art and cultural property

crime cases in an assigned geographic region”,

the group of thirteen agents, in some respects,

follows from the Art Looting Investigation Unit

(ALIU) of the Office of Strategic Services of World

War II [12]. Officers of the ALIU tracked down and

interrogated art dealers who had formed the net‐

works that acquired artworks for Nazi officials [13].

Strategic bombing and initiative of soldiers

demonstrate proactive protection of cultural

patrimony in military engagement, but cultural

sites and antiquities also present opportunities

for pre‐conflict engagement of foreign nations.

The United States could inquire with the nation in

question about holdings of museums and regions

of unexcavated cultural artifacts. The intelligence

would allow the United States to follow success‐

ful practices of moving museum collections out

of anticipated conflict zones [14] and to plan for

protection of sites at risk of post‐conflict loot‐

ing. As a complement to the soft power garnered

by demonstrating respect for foreign cultural

patrimony, intelligence on the illicit trade in art

has tactical value outside of military interven‐

tion. Trafficking in antiquities that may fund ter‐

rorist groups [15‐18] and that may rival [19,20]

and intersect with markets in weapons and nar‐

cotics [21,22] represents a continuous, transna‐

tional security threat. Assessing worldwide col‐

lecting trends and establishing networks in the

art world would yield intelligence to counter the

threat.

The market in antiquities and tribal art presents

a range of opportunities for collection of art‐

specific cultural intelligence [23] Analysis of the

relative market value of antiquities and tribal art

by nation of origin [24] can aid in assessing the

risk of organized crime engaging in looting and

in assessing the threat that revenue from traf‐

ficking could serve as a source of funding for in‐

surgencies. An understanding of the market

demand for artworks from a particular “source

nation” would enable the United States to engage

the local government in methods for converting

looting into a legitimate part of the economy.

Such art‐specific cultural intelligence would also

help to prioritize development of contacts. Deal‐

ers, collectors, and middlemen [25] could provide

intelligence not only on the networks that traffic

in cultural patrimony but also on intersecting il‐

licit markets. In particular, dealers and middle‐

men who operate in the nation of interest may

provide insights into public‐sector corruption,

local organized crime, and markets for weapons

and narcotics. In combination, assessments of

relative market value of cultural patrimony and

contact with local players in the art market offer

an innovation in collection of cultural intelligence.

Comparative Examples

The examples in Table 1 illustrate the historical,

worldwide significance of cultural patrimony to

foreign engagement. The examples represent a

range of geographic regions and the economic,

political, and military significance of cultural

patrimony. The distinction between immovable

and movable cultural property creates a distinction

in the strategic value of cultural patrimony to

foreign policy. In the context of cultural security,

immovable cultural property includes historic

structures and religious monuments, and movable

cultural property includes artworks and artifacts

74 e‐conservation

ERIK NEMETH

that museums and private collectors acquire

through licit and illicit trading. The examples

suggest that Western nations have more actively

engaged in protection of immovable cultural

property than in mitigating the risk of looting of

and trafficking in movable cultural property.

Conclusions

The United States foreign policy has progressed

by recognizing the strategic value of protecting

historic structures and religious monuments in

armed conflict. Further opportunities exist in

monitoring trafficking in cultural artifacts such

as African tribal art. In particular, knowledge on

the market for cultural artifacts would provide

tactical intelligence to counter public‐sector

corruption and organized crime in developing

nations that hold political interest. In combina‐

tion, foreign policy on the protection of immovable

and movable cultural patrimony holds potential

for strategic innovation in cultural diplomacy.

75e‐conservation

Table I. Engagement through protection of monuments and political risk of unprotected cultural patrimony.

Region Immovable Cultural Property Movable Cultural Property

LatinAmerica

Tikal, Guatemala

The University of Pennsylvania conducted archae‐ological excavations at the site in the 1950s and1960s. Since declaration of Tikal as a UNESCOWorld Heritage site in 1979, the Guatemalangovernment has developed the site as a touristattraction.

Machu Picchu, Peru

Peru challenged, for nearly a century, the rightof the Peabody Museum of Natural History atYale to retain artifacts from Machu Picchu. Thepersistence led to a memorandum of under‐standing on the return of Inca artifacts fromYale to Peru.

Africa

Axum Obelisk4, Ethiopia

After agreeing with the United Nations in 1947to return the obelisk, Italy announced plans forthe return in 1997 and began the process in 2003.The return coincided with efforts by Italy to repa‐triate antiquities from museums in the UnitedStates.

Looting, Mali

Colonial accretion and looting since the 1970smotivated “emergency action” by the UnitedStates in 1993 to restrict import of particulararchaeological material. Prized Malian tribalart has commanded prices approaching two‐million U.S. dollars at auction.

WestAsia

Cultural Heritage Sites, Iraq

Strategic bombing by the United States limitedcollateral damage of historic buildings, religiousmonuments, and cultural institutions duringmilitary intervention in Iraq in 1991 and 2003.

Looting, Iraq

The destabilization that followed the 1991 Per‐sian Gulf War enable looting, and the plunder ofthe National Museum in Baghdad during the2003 Iraq War prefaced widespread looting inthe nation.

SoutheastAsia

Angkor Wat, Cambodia

France pursued study and conservation of thesite through the École française d’Extreme Ori‐ent, which conducted research at Angkor Wat;from the 1930s to the 1960s the enterprise ofAngkor Conservation grew to over 1000 employees.

Antiquities, Cambodia

Cambodian cultural heritage remains at risk oflooting as characterized by the Red List ofCambodian Antiquities (2010). ICOM Red Listsdescribe and illustrate movable cultural heritage,which is targeted in looting and illicit trafficking.

4 The size and weight (24 meters and 160 tones) qualify theobelisk as “immovable”. Indeed, moving required separatingthe obelisk into sections.

SECURITY OF CULTURAL PROPERTY

References

[1] United States National Central Bureau of In‐

terpol, Cultural Property Crimes Program, 2008,

URL (accessed 21.08.2010)

[2] P. Gerstenblith and K. Hanson, “Chapter 9 ‐

Congressional Responses to the Looting of Iraq's

Cultural Property”, in L. Rothfield (ed.), Antiquities

under Siege: Cultural Heritage Protection after the

Iraq War, Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, Lanham,

New York, Toronto, Plymouth, UK, 2008, pp. 103‐115

[3] R. Atwood, Stealing history: tomb raiders,

smugglers, and the looting of the ancient world,

St. Martin's Press, New York, 2004, pp. 267‐268

[4] L. Rothfield, The Rape of Mesopotamia: Behind

the Looting of the Iraq National Museum, The Uni‐

versity of Chicago Press, Chicago, 2009, pp. 112

[5] J. Rosenberger, 'Plundered Kuwaiti art surfaces

in London', Art in America 80, 1992, pp. 29‐31

[6] M. Bailey, 'A nation's history under siege',

The Art Newspaper 12(111), 2001, pp. 1‐8

[7] E. C. Stone, 'Patterns of looting in southern

Iraq', Antiquity 82(315), 2008, pp. 125–138

[8] H. Eakin and A. Carassava, “Getty Museum Is

Expected to Return Ancient Gold Wreath to Greece”,

The New York Times, December 11, 2006

[9] E. Povoledo, “Italy and U.S. Sign Antiquities

Accord”, The New York Times, February 22, 2006

[10] R. Kennedy, “China's Request for Art‐Import

Ban Stirs Debate”, The New York Times, April 1, 2005

[11] M. Bogdanos, Thieves of Baghdad, Bloomsbury

Publishing, New York and London, 2005, pp. 213

[12] E. Nemeth, 'Plunderer and Protector of Cul‐

tural Property: Security‐Intelligence Services

Shape the Strategic Value of Art', The Journal of

Art Crime 1(1), 2009, pp. 25‐40

[13] M. Salter, US Intelligence, the Holocaust and

Nuremberg Trials: Seeking Accountability for Geno‐

cide and Cultural Plunder, Vol. II, K.A.S. Sibley (ed.),

Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Leiden, 2009

[14] UNESCO, Museum‐in‐Exile: Swiss Foundation

safeguards over 1,400 Afghan artefacts, 02 April

02, 2008, URL (accessed 07.08.2010)

[15] "Art and Al Qaeda", Artnet News 2005, August

02, 2005, URL (accessed 25.11.2009)

[16] D. Johnston, "Picking Up the Stolen Pieces

of Iraq's Cultural Heritage", The New York Times,

February 14, 2005

[17] R. S. Mueller, Remarks prepared for Director

Robert S. Mueller, III, Federal Bureau of Investiga‐

tion, November 15, 2004, URL [pdf] (accessed

21.02.2010)

[18] L. d. l. Torre, 'Terrorists Raise Cash by Selling

Antiquities', Government Security News 4 (3), 2006,

pp. 1,10,15

[19] J. Astill, “Plunder goes on across Afghanistan

as looters grow even bolder: Trade in antiquities

worth up to £18bn as thieves excavate sites”,

Guardian, December 13, 2003

[20] A. Loyd, "Afghans' lost city plundered for il‐

legal London art trade", The Times, December 7,

2002, p. 26

[21] N. Brodie, “The concept of due diligence and

the antiquities trade”, Culture Without Context 5,

1999, pp. 12‐15

76 e‐conservation

ERIK NEMETH

[22] M. Bogdanos, "The Terrorist in the Art Gal‐

lery", The New York Times, December 10, 2005, p. 5

[23] E. Nemeth, “Art‐Intelligence Programs: The

Relevance of the Clandestine Art World to Foreign

Intelligence”, International Journal of Intelligence

and CounterIntelligence 21 (2), 2008, pp. 355‐374

[24] E. Nemeth, Market Value of Culture: Quanti‐

fying the Risk of Antiquities Looting, Arts & Cul‐

ture, Blouin Creative Leadership Summit, 2010

[25] N. Brodie, “Pity the poor middlemen”, Cul‐

ture Without Context 14, 2004, pp. 7‐9

ERIK NEMETHCultural Intelligence ResearcherContact: erik.nemeth@culturalsecurity.org

As an independent researcher in Santa Monica,

California, Erik explores the interrelation of

cultural property and international security —

cultural security. In publishing on the intersection

of art history, illicit markets, political violence,

and intelligence studies, he examines the potential

for "cultural intelligence" to inform foreign

policy. Erik directs CulturalSecurity.net and works

as Adjunct Staff with RAND Corporation. He also

serves on the editorial board of Journal of Art

Crime and as a trustee of Association for Research

into Crimes against Art (ARCA). Erik holds a B.A.

in Computer Science and a PhD in Vision Science

from the University of California at Berkeley.

77e‐conservation

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SECURITY OF CULTURAL PROPERTY

80

FIRST AID OF RAREPTOLEMAIC TEXTILEIN TUNA EL‐GEBELEXCAVATION, EGYPT

By Harby E. Ahmed

case

stud

y

79e‐conservation

RARE PTOLEMAIC TEXTILE

Introduction

The excavation of Tuna el‐Gebel was a scientific

joint venture between the Institute of Egyptology

of the University of Munich, Germany and the

University of Cairo, Egypt. The ibis burial place at

Tuna el‐Gebel, located at west of the ancient city

of Thermopolis Magna, has been the first, and for

a long period, the only ibis and baboon animal

cemetery during the reign of Pharaoh Pasmetkhos

(664‐619 BC).

The number of ibises deposited in the extensive

subterranean galleries network clearly exceeds

one million individuals in total, indicating that on

average some 15000 birds had been placed each

year in the galleries by the cult servants. Although

most specimens originated from more than a

dozen ibises feeding places around Tuna el‐Gebel,

there is evidence of mummified specimens from

elsewhere such as from the Province of Faiyum. In

addition to the bundles and mummies of Sacred

and Glossy Ibises which constitute most part of

the collection (> 80%), at least 115 other verte‐

brate taxa could be found in the galleries, compri‐

sing domestic (cattle, sheep, dogs and cats) and

wild mammals (such as shrews, monkeys, ichneu‐

mons, wild cats, and gazelles), reptiles (crocodiles

and snakes) and fishes, as well as a huge variety

of birds (such as herons, storks, geese, ducks,

birds of prey, and owls). The archaeological zone

of Tuna el‐Gebel (Figure 1) is situated in a flat

desert landscape at west of the cultivated Nile

valley, 5 km to the south of the modern village,

opposite to a wide desert valley [1].

Textiles are sensitive materials since they are very

prone to damage when exposed to light, heat,

humidity, pollution and microorganisms. They

are extremely vulnerable to decay when stored or

displayed in inappropriate environmental condi‐

tions. The main purpose of this conservation in‐

tervention is to improve the properties of the

textile objects, enhancing their long term stabi‐

lity by slowing down the rate of further deteriora‐

tion. Conservation processes comprised cleaning

disinfection, consolidation, mounting and stor‐

age [2, 3].

Description and Condition

Among other findings, a piece of dyed textile with

vertical and horizontal threads colored with blue

and dark beige was unearthed (Figure 2). The

piece (registry number T.G 4184) belongs to the

Ptolemaic era and was found in the Tuna el‐Gebel

excavations (Gallery D‐D‐2) in February 2001.

The width of the vertical beige threads and of the

vertical blue strips is 2.5 cm and 1 cm, respec‐

tively. The horizontal stripes are repeated every

12 cm. The textile is severely damaged and there

are many parts missing in the middle.

The textile has dark stains of unknown source that

were difficult to remove when traditional methods

Among the findings of the excavations of Tuna el‐Gebel, Egypt several pieces of textiles were unearthed.These textiles were found in poor conservation state and risked further deterioration if left untreated.This article describes the analytical study and simple conservation interventions that were applied tothese textiles, here exemplified with the treatment of a single object. Prior to the intervention, scanningelectron microscopy was used to analyze the fibers to identify them and to characterize theirdeterioration. This case study provides a clear example of the type of damage that exist on the textilesrecovered in Tuna el‐Gebel.

80 e‐conservation

Figure 1. Show the subterranean animal necropolis at Tuna el‐Gebel, Middle Egypt, Plan of Galleries B, C and D. The textile wasdiscovered in Gallery D‐D‐2 which is shown in black color on upper left of the plan.

were used. There are also other unclear parts,

probably due to the soil and dust from the tomb

ground, that were difficult to clean. The edges of

the textile show some sort of solid that could be

gypsum. Archeologists have identified this piece

as being a cloth bag to place the ibis mummy. It

should be noticed that there are two threads

above the piece which could have been used for

closing the bag opening. The textile has weak or

missing parts in the irregular edges. Considering

its poor conservation state, the textile object

required conservation intervention, especially

cleaning for the removal of foreign material to

avoid further damage.

After its discover, the textiles were initially pre‐

served under uncontrolled conditions in cellars

at the Ibis cemetery (Figures 2 and 3). The exist‐

ence of high humidity in the cellars is a constant

throughout the year making these textiles more

easily exposed to degradation under these con‐

ditions.

Examination and Analysis

Visual Study

The initial visual assessment revealed that the

textile presented a poor conservation condition

(Figures 4 and 5). The textiles were weak and very

dirty since they were covered with dust, soil and

stains. In general, the object suffered from inten‐

sive surface damage resulting in fiber deformation,

missing parts and holes especially along the ob‐

jects edges. The fringes were weak and suffered

from abrasive damage and tearing.

Morphological Study

The morphology of the textile surface was exam‐

ined using a scanning electron microscope (SEM)

FEI Quanta 200 ESEM FEG. The textile fibers were

examined according to the Tabulations of Recog‐

nition Characteristics for Fibers [4, 5]. The res‐

ults showed that both warp and weft yarns were

HARBY E. AHMED

81e‐conservation

Figure 2. View from the front and back of the textile with dyed trappings consisting of vertical and horizontal threads coloredwith blue and dark beige.

Figure 3. Views of the textile showing different details from its conservation condition prior to the conservation intervention.

RARE PTOLEMAIC TEXTILE

Figure 4. Several views and details of the textile. There are unclear parts, probably from dust and soil from the tomb ground,and dark stains from unknown source.

Figure 5. Details from the mechanical damage: fiber deformation, missing parts and holes, especially along the edges.

82 e‐conservation

HARBY E. AHMED

composed of linen fibers. The SEM micrographs

(Figure 6) show changes in the fiber morphology.

In particular, it can be seen that the fibers are

roughened, damaged, broken with transverse

cracking and longitudinal splitting characterized

by scratches, slits and holes in the fibers. These

damages are the effects of degradation induced

by light, relative humidity and soiling. Further‐

more, dust, dirt and adhesive can also be seen

covering the fibers.

Dyes Stability Test

The direction of the yarn spin and woven struc‐

ture were recorded before the dye testing. Prior

to wet cleaning, it is important to test the stabi‐

lity (solubility) of the colors. The test consisted

in wetting a small sample area with the cleaning

solution of each color using a cotton swab (Fig‐

ure 7). The test showed that all the dyes were

stable and did not bleed with the solution used

for the wet cleaning [6, 7].

Conservation Intervention

Mechanical cleaning

The object was covered with dirt, namely dust,

lose sand particles and calcified and compact

sand deposits, that was removed with the use of

different types of smooth and rough brushes. To

help the removal of the calcified sand, an air

blower together was also used with the brushes.

Temporary Support Reinforcement

Before proceeding with any wet cleaning procedure,

the object was temporarily inserted between two

layers of fine nylon tulle (sandwich method) in

order to offer the fabric the necessary support to

withstand the cleaning process (Figure 8A). The

stitching was made with a very thin needle and

cotton thread using a running stitch. The needle

was carefully inserted between the yarns and not

through them to avoid any damage to the weak‐

ened fibers. In this process, it is very important

to keep the stitches tension fairly loose, allowing

Figure 6. SEM micrograpphs of the fibers, which were identified as linen. It can be observed that the fibers were extremelyroughened, damaged and covered with particles of dirt.

83e‐conservation

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Figure 7. The stability test had the objective of determining if the dyes were soluble in the cleaning solutions. For the test, acotton swab immersed in the cleaning solutions used for washing was placed in contact with the colored fibers.

Figure 8. Details from the wet cleaning procedure: (A) the textile was placed temporarily between two layers of fine nylon tulle(sandwich method); (B) wet cleaning procedure using water and natural detergent Synperonic N; (C) local dry cleaning withalcohol for the soiling parts with smooth brushes; (D) drying the object after the cleaning process.

84 e‐conservation

HARBY E. AHMED

A B

C D

an even weight distribution across several yarns

for each stitch.

Wet cleaning

The main purpose of the wet cleaning was to re‐

move the rests of harmful deposits of soils and dirt

that were disfiguring or causing physical and

chemical damage to the textile. The selection of

the most appropriate cleaning method depends

from several factors such as the nature of the dirt

and of the materials, structure, and condition of

the textile [8]. To avoid causing unnecessary

movements during the cleaning of the textile, the

washing is best performed in the same tray and

changing the cleaning solutions when required.

The solution used for the first bath consisted of

one part of detergent Synperonic N to 100 parts of

distilled water at 30 ºC. The solution was agitated

for 15 minutes to increase its penetration in the

fibers and the release of the dirt particles (Figure

8B). Then, a second and third baths with pure

distilled water were given, each for 10 minutes and

again agitating the water. This operation reduced

the soiling, relaxed the fibers, removed the creas‐

ing and brightened the colors [2, 9, 10]. A pH

indicator was used to control the solutions’ pH.

Dry cleaning

After the wet cleaning was completed, it was

observed that some soiling was not removed.

Figure 9. Details of the textile after the cleaning and attachment to linen support.

85e‐conservation

RARE PTOLEMAIC TEXTILE

Hence, further cleaning was attempted using

smooth brushes with alcohol for 15 minutes (Fig‐

ure 8C). However, this procedure had poor results

and the dirt was not completely removed. After‐

wards, the textile was inserted in a bath with

distilled water and alcohol without soap for five

minutes to remove any undesired traces and to

equalize the effect of the alcohol on the fibers.

This step was applied on all the pieces that were

cleaned. This process also allowed the steriliza‐

tion of the fabric from the effect of fungi and

fungal spores that could have been present [11].

Drying and Laying out

The drying process of wet textiles can provide an

opportunity to realign distorted fibers. The wa‐

ter acts as a lubricant reducing the stress of the

fibers and allowing the straightening of the yarns

with minimum risk. Blocking and drying are con‐

sidered a crucial part of wet cleaning process [3].

To proceed with the next stage – drying – a table

was prepared and covered with sheets of black

plastic. Then, the textile pieces still wet from the

wet cleaning were placed on top of the table and

Figure 10. General view of the textile after conservation. the framing provides support for the object and will reduce futurehandling to a minimum.

86 e‐conservation

HARBY E. AHMED

covered with sheets of Japanese papers to absorb

any water surplus (Figure 8D). It should not be

forgotten that while wet the textile is soft and

can easily be damaged during handling [3, 12].

The Final Support

In order to prepare the textile for storage and

display, it is necessary to provide the fabric with

a new support to increase its strength. For this, a

wooden frame was prepared by a carpenter from

a nearby village to the location of excavations.

The wooden frame was later coated with Paraloid

B72 (10% in acetone) to isolate the wood from the

environmental conditions, minimizing thus the

movements of the wooden frame [2]. Later, a new

undyed linen support was prepared and washed

to remove any chemical residues from the sizing

and finishes, and to prevent shrinkage at a later

time due to the humidity changes. After washing

and drying, the linen was ironed to remove creases

and it was then attached to the wooden frame with

tacks [13].

Mounting

Once the new fabric support was prepared, the

textile object was placed carefully over the fabric

(Figures 9 and 10). In mounting, it is important

to choose the right materials such as needles and

threads to provide the maximum visual satisfaction

and to ensure of the future stability without the

risk of adverse effects [2]. Usually, conservators

recommend silk threads as the best choice, fol‐

lowed by cotton, viscose rayon or polyester, de‐

pending on availability. In this project, a very fine

undyed silk thread was used. In the beginning, the

object was fixed in the support with wide stitches

to preserve its place. Later on, two types of stitches

were used: the first type, an overcast stitch, was

used to support the edges of the object; and the

second type, a running stitch, was used to support

the internal areas adjacent to primary stitches

and damaged areas. These stitches ensured that

the mounted textile was not strained, although

they were tight enough to prevent movements or

abrasion on the mounting. This type of framing

ensures good support for the object and will re‐

duce future handling to a minimum rate (Figure

11). The mounting is the last stage of the inter‐

ventions, after which the object becomes ready

for either storing or display [2, 14, 15].

Conclusion

The present article described the analysis and

conservation intervention of a textile found in

the archeological excavations in Tuna el‐Gebel,

Egypt. The textile, dating from the Ptolemaic

period, is thought to have been a bag for a Ibis

mummy. Analyses by SEM have shown that the

textile found in the excavations of Tuna el‐Gebel

are made of linen. The objects surface presented

an intense accumulation of dust and dirt affecting

its mechanical properties and the appearance of

the object, giving it a dull grey and opaque tone.

The conservation intervention, which included its

cleaning and mounting in a proper support, had

the objective of increasing its stability. Although

there was a noticeable improvement of the appear‐

ance and integrity of the object after the interven‐

tion, there was one type of dirt that could not be

removed by wet or dry cleaning. After the clean‐

ing and its mounting, the object is free from dirt,

has become softer and it is aesthetically more

pleasing.

Physically, the wrinkles and folds are also much

less obvious. It is recommended that the textiles

should be moved from the excavation to the to

the Al‐Ashmounin Museum storage as soon as

possible after the conservation treatment for safe

keeping of the pieces. It is also recommended that

87e‐conservation

RARE PTOLEMAIC TEXTILE

further research should be carried out to study

the materials used in the manufacture of the

textile, namely the natural dyes and mordents.

Acknowledgements

The author would like to thank Dr. Mahmoud

Eibed from the Faculty of Archeology, Cairo Uni‐

versity, Egypt. Furthermore, Katrin Schlueter and

Mélanie Flossmann‐Schütze from the institute of

Egyptology of the Ludwing Maximilian University,

Munich, Germany are acknowledged for their

contributions.

References

[1] A. von den Driesch, D. Kessler, F. Steinmann,

V. Berteaux and J. Peters, “Mummified, deified

and buried at Hermopolis Magna ‐ the sacred

birds from Tuna El‐Gebel, Middle Egypt”, Ägypten

und Levante XV, 2005, pp. 204‐244

[2] S. Landi, The Textile Conservator’s Manual,

Butterworth‐Heinemann, 1992

[3] A. Tímár‐Balázsy, and D. Eastop, Chemical

Principles of Textile Conservation, Butterworth‐

Heinemann, 1998

[4] J. Columbus, “Washing Techniques Used at the

Textile Museum”, Bulletin of the American Group,

International Institute for Conservation of Historic

and Artistic Works 7, 1967, pp. 14‐16

[5] J. Batcheller, "Optical and scanning electron

microscopy techniques for the identification of

hair fibers from Romano‐ Egyptian textiles", in

R. Janaway and P. Wyeth (eds.), Scientific Ana‐

lysis of Ancient and Historic Textiles: Informing

Preservation, Display and Interpretation, AHRC

Research Center for Textile Conservation and

Textile Studies, First Annual Conference, Arche‐

type, 2005, pp. 51‐57

[6] O. Brigitte, “Fastness to Light and Washing of

Direct Dyes for Cellulosic Textile”, Studies in Con‐

servation 41, 1996, pp. 129‐135

[7] M. Flury‐Lemberg, "Textile conservation and

research: a documentation of the textile depart‐

ment on the occasion of the twentieth anniversary

of the Abegg Foundation", Schriften der Abegg‐

Stiftung Bern, vol. 7, Abegg‐Stiftung Bern, 1988

[8] A. Lister, Guidelines for the Conservation of

Textiles, English Heritage, London, 1996

[9] S. Howard, “An Introduction to the Wet

Cleaning of Carpets”, in A. Tímár‐Balázsy, and D.

Eastop (eds.), International Perspectives on Tex‐

tile Conservation, Papers from the ICOM‐CC Textiles

Working Group Meetings, Amsterdam 13‐14 Octo‐

ber 1994 and Budapest 11‐15 September 1995,

Archetype, 1998

[10] Y. Moes, “Tapestry Cleaning by Aerosol Suc‐

tion”, in A. Tímár‐Balázsy, and D. Eastop (eds.),

International Perspectives on Textile Conservation,

Papers from the ICOM‐CC Textiles Working Group

Meetings, Amsterdam 13‐14 October 1994 and

Budapest 11‐15 September 1995, Archetype, 1998

[11] J. W. Rice, “Drycleaning versus Wetcleaning

for Treating Textile Artifacts”, Bulletin of the

American Group, International Institute for Con‐

servation of Historic and Artistic Works 12(2),

1972, pp. 50‐55

[12] S. Fletcher, and J. Walsh, “The treatment of

three prints by whistler on fine Japanese”,

HARBY E. AHMED

88 e‐conservation

Journal of the American Institute for Conservation

18(5), 1979, pp. 119‐ 126, URL

[13] V. Constance, “The Conservation of Tapestries

for Museum Display”, Studies in Conservation 15(2),

1970, pp. 134‐153

[14] H. Ahmed, Treatment and conservation of

textile with written decoration applied to some

chosen samples from the textile of the Ottoman

Age, MA thesis, Cairo University, Egypt, 2002

[15] F. Greene, “The Cleaning and Mounting of a

Large Wool Tapestry”, Studies in Conservation 2,

1955, pp. 1‐16

HARBY E. AHMEDConservator‐restorerContact: harbyezzelden@yahoo.com

Harby E. Ahmed is a conservator‐restorer spe‐

cialised in textiles. He started his training at the

Conservation and Restoration Institute, in Kina,

Egypt where he obtained a Diploma degree in

1993. He later obtained a Bachelor and Master

degrees in Conservation and Restoration in 1997

and 2002, respectively, at the Cairo University,

Egypt and a PhD on the use of enzymes for con‐

servation of textiles from the Enzyme Biotech‐

no‐logy Department of the School of Chemical

Engineering from the National Technical Uni‐

versity of Athens, Greece in 2010. At the present

he is a lecturer of Textiles Conservation at the

Conservation Department of the Faculty of Ar‐

chaeology, Cairo University. He is the author of a

chapter of the book “History of Natural dyes in

North Africa" and of several specialty articles.

89e‐conservation

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