e-conservationthe online magazine No. 12, December 2009

http://e-conservationline.com/

edit

oria

l

Sustainability in Conservation-Restoration

e-conservation

By the time this editorial is published the Copenhagen Climate Conference 2009 will be going on.

This is the perfect opportunity to reflect upon the relationship between conservation-restoration

and the rest of the world in general, and more precisely, its sustainability.

Nowadays sustainability as a word has become almost a cliché, however its concept should be

reconsidered. The term sustainability is most commonly used when referring to environment but it

is quite rarely used in conservation issues. However, our activity does affect other areas, having a

particularly direct impact on three main sectors which are all interconnected: works of art,

environment and society.

Obviously the correct intervention on works of art is the main focal point of we professionals, but

there are some factors that have not yet been assessed well enough, such as the real consequences of

repetitive interventions on the same artwork. The environment involves not only the short-term

consequences of our decisions but more so the long-term consequences which are, if not dis-

regarded, often ignored. We are becoming evermore aware of our carbon footprint and indeed carbon

is mainly responsible for climate change. We tend to forget that there are many processes that could

be more eco-friendly than most of our usual professional practices. And finally, society because it

involves a wide set of factors such as cultural tourism or the socio-economical impact of conservation.

The technological revolution that our society is going through has had a positive influence on our

methodologies and even some of our techniques. However conservation practice in workshops has

not changed that much in past few decades. In fact, new equipment and materials may be available

to us but the practical work is still performed in the same basic ways.

Being aware of the sustainability factor could even be understood as a measure of preventive

conservation. The best practical methods are already dictating principles that reduce and minimise

consumption; for example, the use of ‘cold’ lights in exhibitions is art and environment-friendly.

However, best practices are not always the priority concerns that we may take into our workshops.

For example, what exactly do we do with the remains of the solvents? Do we all store and then

deliver them to a specialised residue company? Unfortunately, I’m afraid not.

In the case of solvents, very few are innocuous for ourselves or the environment, they are

dangerous and extremely toxic, even cancerous. Still, they are vital for conservation procedures

such as consolidation or cleaning. From this point of view, the use of gels was a major

breakthrough as it helps to significantly reduce the actual amount of solvents that are later

released into the environment or manipulated by the technician. The use of laser technology is

non-toxic and is already a common practice in stone-based materials but there is still much

research to be done about its use on organic materials. But are there really any ecological

treatments? Is there any research being carried out in this field? Not to my knowledge. The use of

nanomaterials (solvent-free) is advancing in huge steps and its application to conservation should

be better considered, not only because of its impact but also for ethical concerns.

It would be interesting to assess the consequences of our profession on the environment, on

society and even on the economy. The study of these aspects is still at a teething stage. We lack

much information which may be required to make decisions and to take on responsibility for more

conscientious practices.

Although this subject is normally not discussed on the international sphere, there will be a

conference in May 2010 in Barcelona organized by Grup Tècnic precisely about these issues that

promises to be extremely interesting. A ‘must go’ in my opinion.

Rui Bordalo

Editor in Chief

www.prorestauro.com

NEWS & VIEWS 6

ARTICLES

69

ARP PROCEEDINGS

47

Let’s Pin the ‘Long Tail’ on the Conservation Donkey

By Daniel Cull

REVIEWS

I Symposium on Conservation-Restoration of Golden Woodcarving

and Sculpture. Preserving the past, Securing the Future

November 26-27, 2009, Porto, Portugal

Review by Rui Bordalo

COST Training School: WoodCultHer

Wood destroying insects, fungi and moulds decay on wooden

cultural heritage objects and constructions

March 16-20, 2009, Hamburg, Germany

Review by Oana Chachula

The 3rd Conservation-Restoration Workshop for the Artistic

Components of Historic Monuments

October 14-16, 2009, Bucharest, Romania

Review by Anca Dinã

UPCOMING EVENTS & CALL FOR PAPERS

January - February 2009

Conservation in Action: Welcome to the “CSI Lab”

by Virginie Ternisien

Examination of Some Inorganic Pigments and Plaster Layers

from Excavations at Saqqara area, Egypt

Optical Microscopy and SEM-EDS Microanalysis

by Hussein Hassan M.H. Mahmoud

Les dilemmes philosophiques de la conservation-restauration

by Pierre Leveau

Detached Mural Paintings in Portugal

The Conservation-Restoration of the Fragments from the Alberto

Sampaio Museum in Guimarães

by Maria Alice de Sousa Cotovio

Mudejar Ceilings. Study, Conservation and Restoration

by Carlos José Abreu da Silva Costa

EVENTS

8

59

INDEX

23

18

8

25

38

13

PROJECTS

e-conservation 5

new

s &

vie

ws

LET’S PIN THE ‘LONG TAIL’ ON THE CONSERVATION DONKEY

Conservators often consider ourselves

natural collaborators, and we do tend to

play well with others, but, what do we

actually mean by collaboration, and

could there be scope for wider collabo-

rative efforts? In many respects col-

laboration entails more than simply

'working together', the hope is that

through bringing different people to-

gether the whole will be greater than

the sum of its parts; creating a result

that could not have been achieved had

the people been working individually

and collated their results. Collaboration

then suggests that in fact 1 + 1 really

does equal 3. Traditionally collaborative

efforts required institutional support,

necessitating considerable costs, prin-

cipally in terms of management and

oversight. However, with the advent of

social media communication costs have

dropped, meaning institutional method-

ologies are no longer the only feasible

collaborative method.

An alternative vision for collaboration is

beginning to develop. This system relies

not on the inevitable 'professional class'

created by institutions but on the mass-

“It was play rather than work which enabled man to evolve his higher faculties - everything we mean by the word ‘culture’.”

By Daniel Cull

(Herbert Read) [1]

amateurization created by social media, systems

that allow users to co-ordinate their own co-opera-

tion. Although unable to direct and control the

collaboration there is a greater degree of flexibility

and access to a wider group of collaborators, be-

cause such online collaborations invariable make

use of the ‘power law’ distribution; also known as

‘The Long Tail’. This law makes use of all possible

contributions, no matter how small, a model that

would be economically untenable for any institution.

As these new systems fight for space with existing

institutionalized approaches we are entering a pe-

riod of chaos, that may be as far reaching as that

instigated by the printing press. The lack of scribes

in contemporary society suggests that we can pre-

dict the outcome of this period of change and if

“we can see it coming, we might as well get good

at it” [2]. How our institutions reconfigure them-

selves to the changing media landscape will de-

termine their ability to survive and remain useful

for our profession and for society as a whole.

For contemporary conservators, influenced by an

ongoing “revolution of common sense” [3], it is

Photo by twopinkpossums. Some rights reserved.

e-conservation

incumbent upon us as a profession to consider

models of collaboration that allows everyone -

public and professional - to play a part, in their

own way, for such methods might assist us in un-

derstanding the values and significance material

culture plays for different people. Furthermore,

if “conservators provide a paradigm not just for

fixing things when they are broken, but for a wider

social ethos of care, where we individually and

collectively take responsibility and action” [4],

the development of a public conservation dis-

course could be considered a social duty. As a

profession then social media might allow us to

hold a far reaching discussion that many recog-

nize as necessary but have not yet been able to

develop into a reality. So, while the world is spin-

ning us around and confusing us in terms of which

direction to take, let’s remember that culture

should be fun, there should be an element of play

and experimentation within our approaches, cul-

ture should be joyous and lived not stuffy and dull,

let’s think in terms of a children’s party games and

together find a way to pin the long tail of collabo-

ration on the conservation donkey [5].

Notes

[1] H. Read, Anarchy & Order; Poetry & Anarchism,

1938

[2] C. Shirky, Institutions Vs. Collaboration, TED:

Ideas Worth Spreading, 2005;

available at URL

[3] S. Muñoz-Viñas, Contemporary Theory of

Conservation, Elsevier Butterworth-

Heinemann, London, 2005

[4] J. Holden and S. Jones, It’s A Material World:

Caring for the public realm, Demos, London,

2008; available at URL [pdf]

[5] ‘Pin the tail on the Donkey’ is a children’s

game, see URL

DANIEL CULLConservatorThe Musical Instrument Museum

Daniel Cull is a Conservator, Wikipedian, Social Networker, and Blogger from the West Country of the

British Isles. Trained at the Institute of Archaeology, University College London, where he received a

BSc in Archaeology, MA in Principles of Conservation, and an MSc in Conservation for Archaeology

and Museums. He was later awarded an Andrew W. Mellon Fellowship at the National Museum of the

American Indian/Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC. He currently works as an ethnographic

musical instrument conservator at the Musical Instrument Museum, in Arizona.

Website: http://dancull.wordpress.com

Contact: daniel.cull@themim.org

VIEWS

e-conservation 7

Review by Rui Bordalo

The Portucalense University (UPT) organised last

26 and 27 of November the I Symposium on Con-

servation-Restoration of Golden Woodcarving and

Sculpture (I Simpósio Conservação e Restauro da

Talha e Escultura – Preservar o passado, garantir o

futuro). The conference took place at the university

auditorium in Porto, Portugal.

UPT is a private higher education institution, cre-

ated in 1986, that offers a Bachelor in Conservation

and Restoration within the Education Sciences and

Heritage Department. It was through this Bachelor

that the symposium was organised.

The event meant to bring together several spe-

cialists, both from academy and companies, to

discuss the latest technologies, methodologies

and interventions on golden woodcarving and

sculpture, with an emphasis on recent projects

from the north of Portugal. One of the interesting

aspects of this symposium is that several students

helped to organize it, among which some even

presented communications. This is due to the fact

that some students are professionals already work-

ing in the field, and with many years of experience,

with several backgrounds and trainings. The pre-

sent degree they are now undertaking is an effort

to obtain a certified training within the latest

education model, the Bologna process.

The morning session was started by Dr. José Tedim,

art historian and professor at UPT, with an inter-

esting and personal insight into the several work-

shops of religious sculptures that existed in Porto

during the XIX and early XX centuries. There were

several important workshops at that time that cre-

ated many of the sculptures that are still in churches

from Porto and the north region of Portugal. It

was explained how these workshops evolved, how

the locations of these artistic centres changed in

time between the margins of the Douro river and

their relationship with other well-known centre

of religious imaginary, in Braga. A curious mention

was that Dr. Tedim shares several personal memo-

ries of this subject, as his family was run one of

the major workshops at that time.

November 26-27, 2009 Porto, Portugal

Organiser: Portucalense University

http://www.uportu.pt/

I SYMPOSIUM ON CONSERVATION-RESTORATION OF GOLDEN WOODCARVING AND SCULPTURE

REVIEWS

Preserving the past, Securing the Future

8 e-conservation

Mr. António Pereira, conservator-restorer of sculp-

ture and student at UPT, presented the practical

case of wood treatment of the altar and sculpture

of the Holy Spirit of Moreira do Lima chapel. The

wood was particularly weakened by an attack of

wood boring insects. This attack was serious as

several structural timbers became instable jeop-

ardising the entire altar. Among other operations,

the intervention included the disassembly of the

structure and the disinfestations and the stabili-

sation of the support. Although the ethical criteria

were always kept in mind, including that of the

minimum intervention, there were some elements

that had to be replaced to ensure the structural

integrity. At the end, some relevant issues con-

cerning the future maintenance of the altar were

discussed.

The afternoon session was started by arch. José

Falcão, director of the Department of Historic and

Artistic Heritage from the Diocese of Beja, on the

inventory project that the diocese undertook. Beja

is located in the south of Portugal and it is the

religious centre of the region of Alentejo, which

is perhaps as large as it is rich in heritage. The

size of the region and the elderly population are

among the factors that allowed an increase in theft

of cultural heritage. In 1985, the Department of

Historic and Artistic Heritage was created and with

it the mission of making an inventory of religious

heritage. This was an important step as it was the

first diocese to implement such a project leading

the path to all the others. Among other factors,

the inventory has allowed to (re)discover works of

art, to bring the population closer to their heritage

and even to promote conservation and restoration

interventions.

The next talk was given by Graça Lobo, conservator

and student at UPT, who prepared a communica-

tion based on her latest interventions on golden

woodcarving. I never stop being surprised by some

study cases such as this, where a chapel altar that

was disassembled by some mysterious reason was

scattered across several houses and barns. The

contact with the population in this case was very

important as it succeeded to bring many pieces

of the altar together, some of which appeared

anonymously. Although the altar was in poor

conservation state, it was possible to assembly

most of it.

The afternoon session continued with an interven-

tion by Fernando Ribeiro, from the Center of Con-

servation and Restoration in Viseu, who continued

the series of communications focused on wooden

supports. His intervention was somehow radical

as he defended that at the moment there are plenty

REVIEWS

Opening ceremony. From left to right: Dr. Fátima Matos Silva, Dr. Isabel Freitas, Dr. José Tedim, António Pereira and Sofia Faria.

Main entrance of Universidade Portucalense.

e-conservation 9

professionals having a strong theoretical know-

ledge but lacking a good practical experience

that should be given during the university years.

Even more, he went further condemning many

recently trained professionals to “hide under the

principles of conservation, such as the minimum

intervention principle, to minimise the lack of their

practical knowledge”. This was the source of an

interesting but rather short discussion in the debate,

as these topics are difficult to discuss being always

limited to the speaker’s competences.

After a much needed coffee-break, it was my own

turn, as conservator-restorer and professor at

UPT, to speak about the use of laser technology

for the cleaning of polychromies with a focus on

polychromed sculpture and golden woodcarving.

I believe that the majority of conservator-resto-

rers are still not familiarised with this technology

which is still in research stage for its use in poly-

chromy, and so my intervention started with the

explanation of the technique, equipments and the

possible practical uses. However, there are many

technical and physical problems that prevent lasers

from being used for cleaning polychromed sculp-

ture on a standardised basis. Concerning the golden

woodcarving, research has shown that laser clean-

ing is a promising technique although few study

cases are available.

The last presentation of the day was given by Mi-

caela Duarte, conservator-restorer and professor

at UPT, who introduced the audience to an inven-

tory project that is being performed with the Dio-

cese of Braga and the Museum of Alberto Sampaio,

in Guimarães. The undergoing project gathers

several teams that catalogue all the works of art

from the churches in the diocese of Braga and,

whenever possible, prepare a room to serve as

archival room of the catalogued pieces. It was

interesting to see that some churches rediscovered

pieces they didn’t know they have.

The second day of the symposium was started with

a presentation of arch. Raquel Oliveira in place

of Ernesto Oliveira, professional and student at

UPT, who performed an intervention to a series

of paintings from a chapel in Vila do Conde. The

chapel is somehow special as it is located just near

the Atlantic ocean, which favoured a long term ex-

posure to humidity. The intervention was focused

on the 40 panel paintings from the ceiling that

were separated by gilded frames. Although the

treatment of the paintings was without particular

interest, the treatment of the wooden support and

the reassembly of the paintings and frames be-

came the focus of the intervention, which entailed

interesting aspects such as the air circulation near

the ceiling due to the proximity of the ocean.

André Varela Remígio, conservator-restorer of

sculpture, spoke about the intervention he per-

formed on the reliquaries of the sanctuary of the

10 e-conservation

Views of the auditory during the conference.

REVIEWS

Monastery of St. Mary of Alcobaça. 48 busts and

10 arms from different saints were treated during

this intervention. It should be mentioned that this

intervention was published in the issue number

11 of e-conservation.

Adriana Amaral, from the North Regional Delega-

tion of Culture in Porto, presented “Integrated

Heritage”. During the communication, numerous

examples of built heritage, namely churches, re-

tables and sculptures were shown, including their

conservation state before and after the interven-

tion. The danger heritage faces due to lack of

maintenance, among others factors, was under-

lined. Inumerous photos were shown of an incredi-

ble poor conservation state demonstrating that,

unfortunately, people that are responsible for he-

ritage are not always aware of how (or sadly even

why) that same heritage should be conserved.

Dr. Luisa Reis Lima, art historian and professor

at UPT, introduced the audience to the study of

the golden woodcarving of Braga, which was one

of the most prolific centres in the production of

altars. The problematic of past ‘renovations’ on

golden woodcarving that have altered permanently

many of altars with the loss of important artistic,

and historic, information was highlighted.

The afternoon session started with the presenta-

tion of Dr. João Oliveira, coordinator of Criminal

Investigation from the Judiciary Police (PJ), en-

titled “Criminal Prevention on the Culture Domain:

the Judiciary Police Projects”. The investigation

of art theft is, under the Portuguese law, respon-

sibility of the PJ. Police have also a museum dedi-

cated to the works of art that were apprehended

and could not be returned to their owners, in most

of the cases because they were never claimed or

they belong to anonymous owners who do not

complain about the thefts. Thus, the police have

developed some projects focused on preventing

e-conservation 11

thefts rather than just solving them. Two projects

were initiated - Igreja Segura (Safe Church) and

S.O.S. Azulejo (S.O.S. Tiles) - in collaboration with

many partners, as alert and sensitisation campaigns

with the objective to promote information and

safety measures to protect the cultural heritage.

The next two presentations focused on the inven-

tory effort that the Diocese of Porto is developing.

For a welcomed change, Manuel Amorim, priest

and Director of the Department of Church Cultural

Assets from the Diocese of Porto, was the only

speaker without a PowerPoint presentation, allow-

ing the audience to focus on his words. His talk

focused on the history and the human side of the

project. Upon request of the Bishop of Porto, the

inventory started in 2006. An incipient effort had

been made much earlier although based solely on

a volunteer basis and did not achieve results due

to the lack of human and economic resources. At

the present, the Diocese has 6 technicians that

are cataloguing churches from the periphery to

the centre of Porto. The second speaker, Dr. José

Costa, also from the same Department, presented

some of the technical details of this project, such

as training actions, multimedia applications and

safety among others.

Dr. Carlos Pombo, specialised photographer of

works of art and professor at UPT, made a very

interesting presentation concerning the photo-

graphy of cultural assets and its intricate prob-

lems, including aspects like the analog vs. digital

preventive measures to have in mind during the

photographic session in order to minimise the

possible damage to the works of art. As informa-

tive as illustrative, it was one of the best presen-

tations from the symposium.

Finally, the last presentation was given by arch.

Paula Silva, Director of the Services of Cultural

Assets of the North Regional Direction in Porto,

REVIEWS

12 e-conservation

REVIEWS

who spoke about the intervention case studies

on built heritage that were funded within the QREN

(National Strategic Reference) framework. From

interventions in the historic centre of Porto to

complete rehabilitations of monasteries in the

north of Portugal, a wide and very complete cata-

logue of interventions was shown during the pre-

sentation in order to illustrate the work performed

by the Regional Direction over the past years.

I would like to congratulate the organisers for

their initiative. It was a successful one, with over

150 attendees, showing that the public has a real

interest on this topic. Also, it is always useful to

see diverse reports of interventions on important,

or less notorious woks of art and other projects

that otherwise would be difficult to know about.

During this type of conferences I usually find my-

self thinking that it would be ideal to find a com-

plementary way to keep track of the professional

practice on national level besides conferences, al-

though until then this is really the only way to share

information in our field.

RUI BORDALOConservator-RestorerContact: rmbordalo@e-conservationline.com

Rui Bordalo is conservator-restorer specialised

in easel paintings and the Editor in Chief of

e-conservation magazine. At the moment he

teaches at Universidade Portucalente, in Porto.

He is also member of ARP (Associação Profissio-

nal de Conservadores-Restauradores de Portugal),

and E.C.C.O. (European Confederation of Conser-

vator-Restorers' Organisations) Committee since

2005.

The News section is publishing diverse

information on cultural heritage topics, such

as on-site conservation projects reports,

conferences, lectures, talks or workshops

reviews, but also course reviews and any other

kind of appropriate announcements. If you are

involved in interesting projects and you want

to share your experience with everybody else,

please send us your news or announcements.

For more details, such as deadlines and

publication guidelines, please visit

www.e-conservationline.com

13e-conservation

REVIEWS

During 16-20th March 2009 in Hamburg, Berge-

dorf (Germany) took place an intensive training

workshop focused on the decay of wooden cutural

heritage objects and constructions, as part of the

COST Actions, program COST IE 0601. The participa-

tion was open to young or senior researchers, only

upon invitation. The WoodCultHer action of COST

project is aimed to enhance the interaction be-

tween wood scientists across Europe and to con-

tribute this way towards the development of the

study and conservation-restoration of wooden

cultural heritage objects.

The workshop was organised by Dr. Uwe Noldt, from

Wood Technology and Biology Institute, part of

the Johann Heinrich von Thünen Institute. The

Institute’s research field comprises beside the usual

issues regarding wood structure, its proprieties

and qualities, studies about wooden buildings and

their preservation as well as studies concerning

the wood-environment correlation.

The course gathered together attendants and lec-

turers from all over Europe. Lectures were given

by Dr. Uwe Noldt, Dr. Tobias Huckfeldt, Prof. Dr.

Olaf Schmidt, Dr. Wolfram Scheiding (Germany),

Dr. Ilze Irbe (Latvia), Prof. Dr. Mitko Karadelev

(Macedonia), Dr. Manuel Cesareo Touza Vasquez

(Spain), Dr. Lina Nunes (Portugal) and Dr. Livia

Bucsa (Romania).

The biological degradation of the wooden monu-

ments and objects is both a serious and a sensitive

arising issue, that sometimes can only be solved

by interdisciplinary collaboration. Therefore the

course intended, and succeeded to bring partici-

pants from different fields, such as conservator-

restorers, scientists, biologists specialized in my-

cology or entomology, engineers and PhD students

having as common interest the biology investiga-

tions, the main subject of this course.

Beside the theoretical concepts taught during the

lectures, the program included laboratory work-

shops, visits at the institute’s laboratory, includ-

ing the experimental ones, and at the Bergedorf

farmhouse.

COST TRAINING SCHOOL: WOOD SCIENCE FOR CONSERVATION OF CULTURAL HERITAGE (WOODCULTHER)

Wood destroying insects, fungi and moulds decay on wooden cultural heritage objects and constructions

Review by Oana Chachula

March 16-20, 2009Hamburg, Germany

Organiser: COST

(European Cooperation in Science and Technology)

http://www.cost.esf.org/The Institute of Wood Technology and Wood Biology of Johann Heinrich von Thünen-Institut.

14 e-conservation

REVIEWS

The lectures were divided in two parts. The first

part focused on the study and identification of

wood destroying insects – (most of the lectures

being given by Dr. Uwe Noldt) and in the second

part the interest shifted to fungi and moulds

analysis. An interesting aspect of the presenta-

tions, beside the scientific data, was that the

teachers illustrated their papers with case stud-

ies regarding the biodegradation, investigation

and preventive methods used in their own coun-

tries, this internationality bringing various and

interesting information to the course.

An impressive database concerning the damage

of wood-destroying insects characteristic to dif-

ferent timber species collected from all over the

world was offered as study material for observa-

tions during the laboratory workshops. Moreover

the Institute of Wood Technology and Wood Biology

provided to each participant all the necessary

equipment for the practical program.

Thus, we were able to microscopically identify the

most common xylophagous insects from building

area, such as House longhorn beetle (Hylotrupes

bajulus (L.)), Longhorn beetles (Phymatodes/

Callidium/Pyrrhydium sp.), Furniture beetle (An-

obium punctatum – DeGerr), Death watch beetle

(Xestobium rufovillosum – DeGerr), Dampwood

borer (Hadrobregmus pertinax (L.)), Horntail wasps

(Urocerus/Sirex sp.), Lyctid beetles (Lyctidae sp.)

and wood ants (Lasius/Camponotus sp.). The in-

tegrated pest management, a very important is-

sue beside the identification of the species, was

also included in the discussions.

Furthermore, the course focused on brown-rot fun-

gi identification and damages produced by Serpula

lacrymans, which we were able to identify during

the laboratory workshops. The lecture on brown

Identifying timber dry rot by microscopy methods during Training School (TS).

15e-conservation

REVIEWS

dry rot problematic, given by Tobias Huckfeldt was

one of the most efficient – as an investigation

biologist without an experience in dry rot specie

identification, I found his paper very resourceful.

Besides useful information, the presentation made

use of numerous descriptive images of the fruit

bodies, which may differ on a macroscopic level.

Therefore, the accent was placed on the micro-

scopic identification and on the micromorpho-

logy of species. Other identified dry rot species

were Coniophora puteana, Antrodia vaillantii,

Donkioporia expansa, Asterostroma cervicolor,

Phellinus contiguus, Diplomitoporus lindbladii,

Paxillus panuoides, Coprinus spp., Peziza repanda

and Gloeophyllum abietinum.

Prof. dr. Olaf Schmidt presented general facts on

wood-damaging fungi and bacteria, molecular

methods for identification of wood-decay caused

by fungi, and techniques, results and valuation.

Dr. Wolfram Scheiding discussed the problematic

of the moulds attack in wooden churches and on

other wooden art objects, such as organ pipes.

He exposed methods of biologic and physic in-

vestigation of the moulds, with reference on air

and laboratory tests, and on conservation-res-

toration safety measures. He emphasized the im-

portance of long term microclimate control, the

necessity of periodic airborne germ sampling and

comparison between indoor and outdoor species

and the assessment of health by medical experts.

Health safety is an important aspect of our pro-

fession, as some mould species are dangerous

for humans (among which Botrytis cinerea and

Aspergillus fumigates). It was assessed however

that if microbiologists respect the safety work

procedures, the contamination risks are minimum.

As a conclusion to this issue, it should be empha-

sized that the determination of genus or species

Practical identification methods during training school in the laboratory of Institute of Wood Technology and Wood Biology.

16 e-conservation

REVIEWS

might be significant in order to verify the hazardous

species. Both in situ and laboratory investigation

as well as measures deduction require experienced

experts with knowledge and equipment.

From the Romanian side, Dr. Livia Bucsa presented

an ample paper concerning the biodeterioration

of the wall painting from the Romanian wooden

churches. She described the fungal decay in over

300 wooden monuments, churches and buildings

from open air museum.

On this same subject other interesting examples

were given, like monuments from Latvia (Dr. Ilze

Irbe), churches from Macedonia (Prof. Dr. Mitko

Karadelev), wooden organ pipes from Germany

(Wolfram Scheiding) as well as the relation between

different cleaning methods and fungi formation

risk due to airborne germs contamination.

From Portugal, Dr. Lina Nunes gave an interesting

extensive lecture on problems with termites (Re-

ticulitermes) in Portuguese wooden buildings, as

well on facts regarding the biology, distribution,

generic variation and non-traditional approaches

to subterranean termites control in buildings.

At the end of this course we were able to draw

some important conclusions, such as the fact

that brown dry rot (Serpula lacrymans) attack may

be considered one of the most important dangers

in Europe for wooden monuments or other objects

that contain wood in composition.

Among the reasons for the wood decay caused by

fungi are poor maintenance, non-professional re-

pairs or improper building construction. Examples

were given for some decay typologies and their

incidents in different countries. Brown rot decay

type predominated in the Latvian monumental

buildings with 37% (Ilze Irbe and Ingeborga An-

dersone) and in Romanian historic monuments

and open air museums where it has an occurrence

of 38%.

The aim of this course was achieved: participants

coming from different work fields but all involved

in the research of wood’s biological decay gained

knowledge regarding important aspects such as

its occurrence and evolution, the existent species

of biodeterioration agents on wooden construc-

tions and monuments and which are the risks in

different possible cases.

Different types of timber with exit holes of wood destroying insects, Collection of Institute of Wood Technology and Wood Biology.

Larva of a wood destroying insect from pine, 'Ergates spiculatus' (LeConte, USA, Oregon Pine), Collection of Institute of Wood Technology and Wood Biology.

17e-conservation

REVIEWS

Useful links:http://www.cost.esf.org/

http://www.woodcutlher.org/

http://www.vti.bund.de/en/

http://sostermitas.angra.uac.pt/

http://www.termite.com.fr/

http://www.indexfungorum.org/Names/Names.asp

OANA CHACHULA

Biologist

National Research Institute for Conservation

and Restoration (INCCR)

Calea Victoriei, nr.12, S 3, 030026,

Bucharest, Romania

Contact: oana_chachula@yahoo.com

Oana Chachula graduated from the Faculty of

Biology Al. I. Cuza, in Iasi (Romania) in 2002.

She is currently pursuing her PhD in Animal Ta-

xonomy field at Biology Faculty, University of

Bucharest. She has been working at INCCR as a

biologist for 3 years, her current work responsi-

bilities including the biological investigation of

movable objects and historical buildings.

Participants of TS COST 0601 Hamburg 16-20 march 2009.

Work visit at the Bergedorf farmhouse.

Between 14th and 16th of October 2009, the Ministry

of Culture, Cults and Heritage of Romania (MCCPN)

organised the third edition of the “Conservation-

Restoration Workshop for the Artistic Components

of Historic Monuments”. On this occasion, besides

the information presented in the Multimedia Room

of the Ministry, the organisers offered attendees

the possibility to find out in situ the problems that

three monuments from Bucharest and its vicinity

are confronted with. The organisation of this series

of meetings would not have been possible without

the sustained effort of conservator Oana Gorea,

consultant at MCCPN.

The meeting successfully gathered and offered those

present a diverse range of useful information on the

conservation-restoration of cultural heritage. In

this respect, several facets of the field were com-

prised, such as finalised projects or undergoing

conservation works – each with its own aspects and

difficulties (on conservation of mural painting,

stone, wood and stained glass)1, the importance

and advantages of using the laser in conservation

of art works, aspects related to documentation, re-

search and examination of some materials used in

conservation treatments; issues and solutions for

historic monuments heating, a.s.o. It was pointed

out on this occasion – by concrete examples – that

a correct treatment of a monument or a work of art

requires necessary and indispensable information

which can only be acquired by interdisciplinary

cooperation during intervention for the correct

THE 3rd CONSERVATION-RESTORATION WORKSHOP FOR THE ARTISTIC COMPONENTS OF HISTORIC MONUMENTS

Review by Anca Dinã

October 14-16, 2009Bucharest, Romania

Organiser: Ministry of Culture, Cults and

Heritage of Romania (MCCPN)

http://www.cultura.ro

1 Among the presented conservation projects can be mentioned: Elena Murariu - “Interdisciplinary conservation problems at Vioreşti”; Daniel Codrescu - “A worksite of mural painting con-servation at Predeal Monastery, county of Braşov”; Kiss Lo-rand – “Medieval mural painting conservation in two evangelic churches from Sibiu”; Nagy Banjámin – “Degradation causes and preservation interventions – restoration of artistic com-ponents in carved stone at Palace Bánffy, Cluj Napoca”; Ma-rin Coteţiu – “Conservation aspects of a mural painting en-

samble from different ages. Case study: the porch of the Patriarchal Cathedral in Bucharest”; Penyacseck Ştefan – “The conservation of stained glass in the Loupoigne church, Belgium”; Anca Nicolaescu and Dragoş Ene – “Documen-tation and conservation of the mural paintings from Red Maitreya temple, Ladak, India”; Pal Peter – “Stratigraphic researches and conservation of mural paintings in Dârjiu Unitarian Church and Daia Reformed Church, Harghita county”.

18 e-conservation

REVIEWS

identification of degradation sources and of the

presence and the types of biologic agents, for the

identification of previous interventions or of the

quality of materials used.

Another highlighted aspect was the unaltered

conservation of the original, by respecting the

professional principles adopted at international

level, for restricting the aesthetic presentation

level as close as possible to an archaeological

level so that it does not alter or misrepresent the

original image in any way.

In the same time it was insisted upon the correct

use of the terms 'to restore' and 'to remake', 'to

reconstitute' or 'to reconstruct', according to the

different significance that each one has.

Among the presentations that drew attention by

the issues raised and the professionalism of the

approach was that of a project based on the co-

operation between conservators, researchers, bio-

logists and petrographers - Interdisciplinary Re-

searches made at the cave church Corbii de Piatră

(Stone Ravens) from Argeş county (Romania), by

Prof. Ioana Gomoiu, PhD, Prof. Dan Mohanu, PhD,

Prof. Marin Secleman, PhD, Ileana Mohanu, PhD,

Anca Luca, PhD and Sorin Birzoi. The church was

built in the first half of the 14th century in sand-

stone and communicates with the exterior by the

entrance door of the narthex and the two windows

in the nave. Presently, the monument is in the

stage of research prior to the conservation process,

of monitoring the microclimate parameters and

of assessing the conservation state and the degra-

dation causes and sources. The interior a fresco

painting was lost in a large proportion on the

northern wall (towards the interior of the rock)

and is altered by a series of deposits and accumu-

lations of different origins in the rest of the church.

The main degradation factor is humidity , conden-

sation running-off the painting but also at the level

of windows and floor. Among the degradations of

the painting can be recalled fissures and detach-

ments of the support, gaps, efflorescences, organic

and inorganic deposits, colonization processes

due to the biologic activity of photoautotroph or

heterotroph micro-organisms, etc. The church is

a valuable monument by its age, beauty and rarity

where it must be acted by the removal of the de-

gradation sources in order to achieve the preser-

vation of the murals and of the entire ensemble.

Another presentation, this time with the purpose

of a call for awareness, was “Types of degradations

of the panel ceilings in Transylvania”, of conser-

vator Mihaly Ferenc. The panel ceilings, painted on

wooden support in tempera technique, are specific

to protestant and catholic churches in this part

of Romania. According to the data presented by

the author there are only few examples preserved

from the 16th to the 20th century. Mr. Ferenc pre-

Views of the conference from the Multimedia Room of the Ministry.

19e-conservation

REVIEWS

sented the audience with examples for specific

degradations and their causes, as well as a few

conserved works.

The presentation of Mrs. Livia Bucşa, Ph.D., called

attention by focussing on the biological contami-

nation problems of some monuments with wall

painting and the importance of “cooperation be-

tween specialists in the fields of chemistry, biology

and physics with conservators in order to establish

a correct diagnosis and to avoid the confusion be-

tween the nature of deposits and accumulations

existing on the painted area”. To this regard, she

presented two different situations: first, when a

physical-chemical degradation is interpreted and

treated as biological and second, when a biological

degradation is considered a simple deposit of dust

or smoke and treated as such.

On the same note, that of the benefits of interdis-

ciplinary cooperation within conservation projects,

followed the presentations of scientists from INOE,

the National Institute of Research and Develop-

ment for Optoelectronics (Roxana Rădvan, Dragoş

Ene, Laurenţiu Angheluţă, Monica Simileanu and

Cătălin Bălan), regarding the use of non-destructive

methods of analysis and intervention in conser-

vation of works of art, such as LIBS and LIF among

others.

Constructive discussions followed after the pre-

sentations of conservators Katarzyna Górecka and

Prof. Marcin Kozarzewski from Warsaw University,

that outlined the importance of monuments, even

if reconstructed, for the preservation of the natio-

nal identity. The Polish restorers spoke about re-

making and reconstruction of the historic centre

of Warsaw after the destruction during the Second

World War. The authors insisted on two concrete

cases - the Brochow church and the Rosary wooden

church - and spoke about the solutions found for

the conservation of the original elements and the

remaking of the missing ones in order to recover

the unity of the monuments.

In the second part of the event, that is the third

day in the programme, a visit to some monuments

in Bucharest and its surroundings was scheduled

in order to draw attention on some aspects and

concerns related to the undergoing conservation

projects.

The visit started at Mântuleasa Church in Bucha-

rest, a monument in a complex conservation-res-

toration process since October 2007, coordinated

by Simona Pătraşcu, mural painting conservator.

This site has already been presented in the 4th

issue of this magazine, but we shall notify that

even if the work is not finalised, the site was closed

for the time being, out of lack of funds. This is how,

a representative monument for the Brâncovenesc

art, located in the centre of the capital, continues

to deteriorate inevitably.

The next visited monument was the 18th century

church of Saint Nicholas, located in Stoeneşti

village, Giurgiu county. The monument presents

structural degradation, has lost its vaults and

suffered several interventions on architectural

elements and artistic components. The church is

operational - the liturgy can still be conducted -

Participants visiting Mântuleasa Church in Bucharest.

REVIEWS

20 e-conservation

but its original aspect is altered by a temporary

flat ceiling, a roof that modifies the proportions

of the monument and by layers of deposits, accu-

mulations and repaintings that affect the reading

of the mural painting and iconostasis image. It

is clear that the monument needs complex con-

servation-restoration interventions at the level

of all components.

Another monument the group visited was the

Potlogi church (1683), where another situation

is faced. The church was submitted in time to

complex interventions, out of which only a few

had the role of conserving the artistic compo-

nents. This is why the original mural painting is

only preserved in the narthex, and unfortunately

this was also altered irreversibly by repaintings.

At present these were already removed, however

in the past the surface of the painting was thor-

oughly hammered in order to increase the adhesion

of a new layer. Therefore, there are areas where

the representations can hardly be identified.

State of degradation of the mural painting from church in Stoeneşti village.

Mural painting from the church of Saint Nicholas in Stoeneşti village, Giurgiu county.

REVIEWS

21e-conservation

The main challenge for its conservation-restora-

tion is the aesthetic presentation of the gaps of

the support layer. Due to the particularity of this

case, Irina Sava, the conservator who coordinates

the work will establish the aesthetic treatment

methodology together with a commission approved

by the Ministry of Culture, Cults and Heritage of

Romania.

Given the diversity of the presentations and the

interesting issues brought into discussion, the

third “Conservation-Restoration Workshop for

the Artistic Components of Historic Monuments”

has made an important contribution on national

level, growing the awareness of specific problems

in the conservation-restoration practice. This

brief presentation was encouraged by the initiative

of the organisers, which we hope will continue

in 2010.

Image from Potlogi church (1683), where the mural painting was hammered in order to increase the adhesion of a new layer.

Photographic credits:

All photos by Anca Dinã and Dumitru Gorea.

Poster by Oana and Dumitru Gorea.

ANCA DINÃConservatorContact: anca@zappmobile.ro

Anca Dinã is a conservator restorer of mural

paintings. She graduated in Conservation from

The Art University in Bucharest where she also

completed a Master in Visual Arts, with conser-

vation specialisation. She works for the CERECS

ART S.R.L. enterprise, having coordinated several

interventions areas from onsite conservation

projects in Moldavia. She is a collaborator for

e-conservation magazine since 2007.

REVIEWS

22 e-conservation

even

ts

The events in this section are linked to the

original homepage of the organisers or to the

calendar of events at www.conservationevents.com.

Click on "Read more..." to find out more details

about each event.

IIC Annual General Meeting

Date: 28 January 2010 Read more...

Place: London, UK

A new type of event for IIC will be held; Anna So-

mers Cocks, founder and Editorial Director of

the Art Newspaper, will interview Samuel Jones,

of the Demos think-tank and co-author of the

very influential publication "It's a Material

World: Caring for the Public Realm". They will

explore why conservation should matter. Is

there a crisis in Conservation? Is the profession

losing support? What can be done? The event

will focus on how conservation can and should

position itself as an essential element for the

health of all societies, worldwide.

Ancient Peruvian Textiles Workshop: Animal Iconography

Date: 12-22 January 2010 Read more...

Place: Lima, Peru

The workshop will document, conserve and mount

pre-Columbian textiles from the collection of the

Huaca Huallamarca Museum and Huaca Malena

Museum. This course is geared toward museum

professionals and others with museum sensibi-

lities and excellent hand skills who want to learn

about textile conservation and pre-Columbian

cultures while visiting Peru. Past students have

included conservators from all disciplines, archae-

ologists, weavers, historians, and anyone with

an interest in textiles, ranging in age from

college students to retirees.

Janu

ary

2010

Subject Repositories: European collaboration in the international context

The Fine Art of Crime

Date: 27 January 2010 Read more...

Place: London, UK

The theft of a major work of art never fails to make the

headlines reflecting on both the deep sense of loss felt

by owners, curators and the art loving public and the

total disbelief that such a crime could be perpetrated

against an old friend. The finger of suspicion is pointed

at the mystical billionaire collector whose desire to

possess the painting far outruns any sense of morality

or respect of the law. Using case studies and recoveries

"The Fine Art of Crime" will expose the real motives

and trends in cultural property crime, show how art is

used by organised crime and reveal how art can become

the crime itself.

Date: 28-29 January 2010 Read more...

Place: London, UK

This conference will look at the progress made with subject

repositories so far. It will also see the launch of Econo-

mists Online, the key output of an EC-funded subject

repository project managed by the Nereus consortium of

top European economics libraries. Nereus members will

showcase this subject repository in both plenary and

parallel sessions, sharing lessons learned and engaging

delegates in discussions of the main issues such as con-

tent recruitment, search and retrieval services, usage

statistics and datasets.

Among the speakers are Chuck Henry, President of the

Council on Library and Information Resources in the US,

Clifford Lynch, Director of the Coalition for Networked

Information, Cathrine Harboe-Ree, University Librarian at

Monash University who led the Arrow project and is involved

in leading the ANDS project, and Christian Zimmermann,

Economics professor at the University of Connecticut.

e-conservation

Tree Rings, Art, ArchaeologyRoyal Institute for Cultural Heritage, Brussels

Gilded Objects Conservation Special Interest Group

Date: August-September 2010 Read more...

Place: Melbourne, Australia

Deadline for expressions of interest: 30 January 2010

GOCSIG is seeking expressions of interest from its members

regarding a professional development workshop in the

area of traditional gilding techniques as related to picture

frames. The workshop may cover traditional gilding techni-

ques incorporating such aspects as surface preparation

using gesso, bole and size; gesso texturing and re-cutting;

water gilding and oil gilding using gold, silver and schlag

metal leaf; matte and gloss surface finishes; clay mixes and

advanced leafing techniques; toning, aging and sealing.

Date: 10-12, February 2010 Read more...

Place: Bruxelles, Belgium

The subject of this international conference is the contri-

bution of dendrochronology to human sciences, with a

broader outlook thandating of the wood (determination

of the origin of the wood, forest ecology, history of

climate...). It will include lectures not only by dendro-

chronologists but also by users of dendrochronological

data, such as archaeologists, historians, art historians

and restorers.

Multidisciplinary Conservation: a Holistic View for Historic Interiors

Date: 26-27 November Read more...

Place: Rome, Italy

Abstract Submission Deadline: 23 March 2010

The call for paper is intended to those working in inter-

esting cases in castles or historic houses and contributed

together with other conservators from different disciplines

on bigger projects of interdisciplinary research.

AICCM Book, Paper and Photographs Symposium 2010

International Paper Historians Congress

Date: 7-10 October 2010 Read more...

Place: Angouleme, France

Abstract Submission Deadline: December 31, 2009

Session 1: Side-industries and crafts connected to

Papermaking

Session 2: Paper Economy and Trade: national and

international Interactions

Session 3: The Uses of Paper: Gestures, Words, Expertise

Date: 17-19 November 2010 Read more...

Place: Melbourne, Australia

Abstracts submission Deadline: January 15, 2010

Possible ideas may be an innovative treatment that has

been recently carried out on works on paper, books or

photographs; any interesting research that has been

conducted into areas such as artists’ materials, conser-

vation materials, display and storage methods; or perhaps

even share some considered insights and discussion of

issues relevant to the profession.

ICCROM - 14th International Course on Wood Conservation Technology - ICWCT 2010

Date: 24 May - 2 July 2010 Read more...

Place: Oslo, Norway

Applications deadline: 29 January 2010

The Wood course aims is to promote cultural understand-

ing and research in the field of wood conservation, and

to be a valuable resource for the work of the individual

participants in their respective countries.

We are interested in receiving applications from mid-

career professionals with a minimum of three years’

work experience in wood conservation.

2010

Cal

l for

Pap

ers

EVENTS

2010

Cal

ls fo

r Pap

ers

24 e-conservation

proj

ects

CONSERVATION IN ACTION: WELCOME TO THE “CSI LAB”

by Virginie Ternisien

The “CSI Lab” (Conservation Science Investigations) was developed to meet the needs of archaeological

conservation and studies. In May 2008, during the development of “The Meads”, Sittingbourne, Kent,

England, a large early Anglo-Saxon cemetery site in Kent was found. The site was excavated by Canterbury

Archaeological Trust and was found to compose of 227 inhumations, plus 2 cremations with hundereds

of artefacts made from various materials. Conservation treatment was essential to reveal potential

information to better understand this important period in history, when the Kentish kingdom was at its

height. However, professional conservation treatment was estimated to far exceed the archaeological

budget, which was minimal due to the find being unexpected. An innovative low-cost approach was

proposed by Dana Goodburn-Brown, an independent archaeological conservator. The “CSI Lab” is located

in the main shopping centre of Sittingbourne (across from the archaeological exhibition) and is overseen

by conservators, interns and volunteers and is open to the public to come in and look around. I had the

opportunity to participate in this activity for one week as an intern. Through this experience I am able

to introduce you to the “CSI Lab” and share with you my reflections and feelings about the conservation

practice and community partnership.

Introduction

In May 2008 archaeologists from Canterbury Ar-chaeological Trust discovered a large Anglo-Saxon

cemetery at “The Meads”, Sittingbourne, Kent.

In total they excavated 229 graves and found

hundreds of archaeological artefacts made from

various materials including a range of metals,

glass and mineral preserved organics.

As an intern with Dana Goodburn-Brown during

July 2009 I followed the preparation of this ex-

citing project. In September I decided to revisit

for one week, just after the opening of the “CSI

Lab” on September 16th 2009, allowing me to re-

port on the impact it has on the different active

participants (conservators, interns, volunteers and

the general public) and how heritage is brought

to light from archaeological objects and their

conservation treatments.

The creation of the “CSI Lab”

Archaeological Needs

In May 2008 the archaeologists from Canterbury Archaeological Trust excavated 229 graves con-

taining a vast amount of burial goods. Very few

skeletal remains were found in the graves with

the burial goods due to the acidic soil. This site

offers archaeologists the chance to uncover more

of the history of the local area. The site dates to

Figure 1. Iron sword block-lifted on excavations, before treatment.

VIRGINIE TERNISIEN

26 e-conservation

the 6th and 7th centuries, when the Kentish king-

dom was at the height of its power and very influ-

ential - with access to trade goods from the Frankish

near continent, the Baltic and the Eastern Medi-

terranean. The study of these archaeological ob-

jects could possibly reveal information about this

society and its cosmopolitan nature that is not

currently known.

The archaeological objects mainly come to the

laboratory covered in soil and corrosion products

(figures 1 and 2) which hold potential information

such as on the manufacturing processes, decora-

tion, wear, and evidence for organic materials

which may have been associated with the find.

These elements can help the archaeologists to in-

terpret the use of an object and the relationship

between the buried person, the object and the

larger society. Consequently, investigative conser-

vation is essential to fully understand this society.

For the work to be carried out by a professional

conservator alone would require a very large budget,

which is not available in such an unstable economic

climate. In addition to this, the large number of

artefacts found was unexpected and so had not

been budgeted for. One option would be to store

the objects until money was available for their

treatment, however, during this time the objects

would continue to deteriorate potentially leading

to the loss of important information. An answer

had to be found which would allow the objects to

be treated with minimal costs.

An answer to the lack of funding

The idea to bring conservation to the general pub-

lic came from Dana Goodburn-Brown, an inde-

pendent archaeological conservator, director of

AMTec Co-op Ltd and a member of the local com-

munity, in response to the large number of unex-

Figure 2 a, b. Buckle (above) and brooche (right) during treatment.

CONSERVATION IN ACTION: WELCOME TO THE “CSI LAB”

27e-conservation

pected finds which were uncovered during “The

Meads” excavation.

The proposed solution was to build a temporary conservation laboratory which would be open to

the public to look around. In order to treat the

objects with minimal costs volunteers from the

local community were brought in to work on the

objects while under supervision. This project would

allow the general public to see the route an object

takes from excavation to display in a museum.

The term “CSI Lab” refers to the well-known tele-

vision show, Crime Scene Investigation, about de-

tectives working in the CSI bureau. This theme is

used as a comparison to highlight the work done

during the investigative stages of conservation

work. In addition to this, the project aims to bring

conservation to the surrounding community through

watching active conservation and through the in-

volvement of the volunteers.

For this project to succeed it was essential to gen-

erate interest from the local community. In order

to do this, two exhibitions were developed, one

which would tell the public about the excavation

site and background to the historic era and the

other where the public could watch the objects

being treated. It was essential that the two exhi-

bitions be in Sittingbourne to make it more rele-

vant to the public and to teach them about their

heritage since the excavation took place there.

In the end two empty shops were donated by Tes-

cos within the main shopping centre in Sitting-

bourne (figures 3-5).

Figure 3. The CSI Lab on the left and the Archaeological Exhibition on the right in the main shopping centre in Sittingbourne.

VIRGINIE TERNISIEN

28 e-conservation

Support networks

This project has three main support networks:

Canterbury Archaeological Trust (CAT), Sitting-bourne Heritage Museum (SHM) and AMTeC Co-op Ltd.

Canterbury Archaeological Trust is the archaeo-

logical unit who ran the excavation. They gave

their consent for the objects to be displayed and

to allow volunteers, under the supervision of a

professional conservator, to work on the objects.

The Trust acts as overall project manager of CSI:

Sittingbourne.

Sittingbourne Heritage Museum is a local museum

managed by volunteers, that shows and celebrates

the town’s history. The museum organised the

venue and running costs, as well as helped to re-

cruit over 35 local volunteers to help both in the

exhibition space and in the laboratory.

AMTeC (Ancient Materials, Technologies and Con-

servation) is an archaeological conservation co-

operative headed by Dana Goodburn-Brown and

is based in Chatham, near Sittingbourne.

The project also received some funding from Kent

County council and one of the developers, Marston’s

Brewery. Much of the equipment was donated by

the Museum of London, the Institute of Archae-

ology, UCL and various local organisations. The

Barbara Piasecka Johnson Foundation donated

ex-exhibition materials and Rapiscan Systems

Company donated a security X-ray machine to

have on-site.

To be an intern (at the “CSI Lab”) or not to be: volunteers and public

Working Methods

The “CSI Lab” is open to the public Monday to Sat-

urday from 10am to 5:30pm. One grave is worked

on at a time, although as the treatment progresses

there is sometimes an overlap as one grave ends

Figure 4 a,b. Outside and inside the CSI Lab.

Figure 5. Inside the archaeological exhibition: a dedicated educational collection of archaeological objects in the yellow “CAT KITS” boxes can be handled by visitors.

CONSERVATION IN ACTION: WELCOME TO THE “CSI LAB”

29e-conservation

and another is started. The grave plans are hung

around the walls for the visitors to see and for the

volunteers to use to help interpret what they are

seeing on their object.

The volunteers are asked to commit to a regular

time slot and shifts run from 10am to 2pm. The

afternoon session runs from 1:30pm to 5:30pm.

The morning and afternoon sessions overlap to

allow the volunteers to ‘hand over’ their objects

to the next volunteers. During the hand over ses-

sion the volunteers discuss the object they have

been working on, what they have found, where

in the grave it was found and any possible inter-

pretations of the object.

Not all of the volunteers are able to work on ar-

chaeological pieces for a variety of reasons, e.g.

scalpel skills or the persons’ character may not

be suited to the task. If, however, the person is

still motivated there are other essential tasks

which they can undertake including sorting pic-

tures, entering information into the database,

updating the public display and monitoring and

changing the silica gel.

Teaching

The training offered to the volunteers comprises

of two main elements. The first introduces them

to what it is that we are trying to achieve with this

project. Volunteers are shown the grave plans along

with some finds which may or may not have been

treated. They are informed about the various things

which they may encounter during the investigative

cleaning process and how our finds can be inter-

preted within the archaeological record. The pro-

cesses which are involved during the investigative

cleaning process are explained so that the volun-

teers know exactly what is expected of them.

During this first stage of training, objects from

one grave are laid out on a drawing of a body to

give people a visual record of the archaeological

information found within a grave (figure 6). It is

important for the volunteers to look at the objects

as a whole within one grave as their location with-

in the grave and the other objects around it can

help us to know what to look for during the inves-

tigative cleaning process.

Showing volunteers all the finds within one grave

also allows them to see how different the levels

of deterioration can be within this one small area;

volunteers can also see examples of mineral pre-

served organics such as wood, leather, textiles and

the remains of insect activities. However, we insist

that there are no set rules as the preservation de-

pends upon the properties of the soil and the sur-

rounding elements.

During this first session we also introduce volun-

teers to two essential elements required for the

archaeological conservator; the x-radiograph and

Figure 6 and 7. Volunteers during the first stage of training (left) and familiarising themselves with the microscopes and x-rays (right).

VIRGINIE TERNISIEN

30 e-conservation

the binocular microscope which are used at all

times during archaeological investigative clean-

ing. Some of the volunteers do struggle to work

with the microscope; however, with a bit of prac-

tice most are able to master the technique within

a relatively short period of time (figure 7).

In the second part of the training, volunteers are

given practical experience of the conservation

methodology. The object labels are explained with

particular emphasis on the object number - this

being the piece of information used most during

the conservation treatment as it allows us to locate

the object on the grave plan.

After this, volunteers are shown where to find the

x-rays and how to use the table to look up the x-

ray corresponding to their object. They are also

shown how to fill in the conservation record sheet.

It is essential that volunteers fill this in fully and

in detail so the next person to work on the object

will know exactly what has been found on the ob-

ject and where. At this point we also talk about

health and safety within the laboratory space in-

cluding looking at the Control of Substances Haz-

ardous to Health (COSHH) sheets and discussing

the protective equipment that they will need to

use during treatment.

All of the volunteers begin by learning to use the

scalpel under the microscope (figure 8). They are

shown how to hold the scalpel correctly before

giving them a test piece of deaccessioned archae-

ological metal (donated by the Museum of London)

to practice the technique on. At all times the vo-

lunteers are supervised and advice on improving

their technique is offered. They are encouraged

to look for changes in the surface of the objects,

any potential mineral preserved organics or any-

thing else of interest. They are also encouraged

to ask questions on anything which they are un-

sure about. Volunteers are then taken to the air

abrasion machine on an individual basis. Here they

Figure 8. Volunteers practicing the scalpel technique under the microscope.

CONSERVATION IN ACTION: WELCOME TO THE “CSI LAB”

31e-conservation

read the instruction poster and how the machine

works along with the technique for using it is ex-

plained to them (figure 9).

Supervision and advice

All of the volunteers, once trained, start with a

piece requiring scalpel work, this allowing them

to get acquainted with the objects and the differ-

ent surface effects. When they are first given an

object they are closely supervised and encouraged

to ask questions about what they are seeing, al-

lowing conservators to advise them if their tech-

nique has to be adjusted.

This support network is in place at all times, regard-

less of how long the person has been volunteering.

Asking questions and talking to conservators and

other volunteers about their object helps them to

better understand it.

Visitor and volunteer studies

Visitor and volunteer studies of the “CSI Lab” were

carried out by UCL student Natalie Mitchell. This

was done by a series of questionnaires and feed-

back sources. These have allowed for the local com-

munities' attitudes towards conservation to be

understood and their responses to the “CSI Lab”

to be analysed. The visitor studies were completed

by pre-visit and post-visit questionnaires, com-

ment forms and observations. Volunteers have also

played a pivotal role in making the “CSI Lab” a com-

munity project as well as helping to complete the

conservation work. Volunteer studies were com-

pleted by pre-training and post-training surveys,

feedback forms and observations.

Both the visitor and volunteer studies results showed

that there was an overwhelming appreciation for

the accessibility to the conservation work being

done on local finds. Visitor results show that the

open lab environment has allowed them to under-

stand how investigative conservation can be done

and has given them an insight to a profession they

would not usually encounter. The volunteer results

show that they have taken on their conservation

assistant roles in a very professional manner. How-

ever, they also share enough common ground with

visitors that they are able to communicate the con-

servation work both accurately and in an under-

standable way to visitors. Both visitors and volun-

teers expressed hope that the success of the project

will reflect beneficially back into the community.

The results aid in demonstrating how successful

the project has been for those involved and could

be used to contribute to the cementation of the

CSI Lab’s potential long-term establishment. This

will be useful in pursuing future support for the

project, its networking into other communities and

the establishment of other conservation projects

in the future.

Reflections from a Satisfied Conservation Intern

Exchange with the public: a permanent re-evaluation

When presenting conservation to the visitors only

a short period of time is available to explain what

the profession, in this context, entails. In the

majority of cases visitors are very interested in

Figure 9. Volunteers practising using the air abrasion machine.

VIRGINIE TERNISIEN

32 e-conservation

the work which is performed because they have

never been exposed to it before.

When talking with the public it is important to

adapt our speech to ensure each member of the

public leaves feeling well informed instead of con-

fused. With conservation mainly being a field hid-

den behind closed doors in the back rooms of mu-

seums, a lot of the public is not aware that the

profession even exists! In order to explain our roles

to the public we have to break down our working

processes so they can understand why we do some-

thing in a particular way. This can be applied to

something as simple as how to hold your scalpel

during cleaning. For different conservation prac-

tices the scalpel will be used in different ways re-

quiring to be held differently.

Along with talking to the general public we also

have posters of information about the treatment

process, which were pinned to the walls. The posters

allow the public to follow our progress as we com-

plete the graves. In addition to this we have an

airport x-ray scanner, which generates a lot of in-

terest from the public when in use and allows us

to explain further what it is we are seeing beneath

the soil and corrosion products (figure 10).

To increase the public engagement we also have

a “mystery object”, that is an unidentified find

on which we ask the public’s ideas and opinions.

A profession which feels alive

As mentioned above the general public is not really

aware of what we, as conservators, do. The pro-

fession is often confused with craftsmen, artists,

or even archaeologists. Those who are aware of the

profession tend to think of it as a closed profession.

On a personal note, as a conservator I find it frus-

trating that although the majority of objects dis-

played within heritage settings were treated by

conservators, this is not evident to the general

public, feeling almost like the profession would

not exist!

Therefore, it is essential that conservation is taken

out into the wider community to give the general

public a better idea of the whole process involved

with displaying artefacts. There are between 70

and 130 people (including visitors and volunteers)

coming in the “CSI Lab” everyday – just by talking

to them alone we are helping to demystify our work.

A common heritage place

This project has been a large success, in part, due

to the location of the “CSI Lab” to the excavation

site. People from the surrounding areas come to

visit the exhibition and laboratory to help them

better understand the society that lived in this

same area over a thousand years ago.

Through opening our doors to allow the public in

we share the local people’s heritage with them at

a very raw level. It helps to create a direct link be-

tween conservators and the general public through

our work (figure 11). All of the volunteers who are

involved in this project are hugely privileged to

be able to work on these objects and as such they

Figure 10. Airport scanner and posters about conservation pinned to the wall.

CONSERVATION IN ACTION: WELCOME TO THE “CSI LAB”

33e-conservation

take their enthusiasm out into the community

which, in turn, allows us to share conservation

work with yet more people.

Less (time for conservation work) is more

Allowing the general public to come in to observe

our work and ask some questions does mean that

the work may not progress as quickly as if it was

carried on in a studio away from the public. How-

ever, talking to the public and answering their

questions helps us to continually evaluate the

treatment we are undertaking (why is one method

better than another?, etc.). Being in the public

domain and sharing our thoughts and findings

with the public also allows us to reach what should

be our main goal as conservators, that is to help

understand the past and ensure this knowledge

is passed on to others.

Conclusion and future objectives

The “CSI Lab” is an innovative idea brought to

reality by Dana Goodburn-Brown, CAT and SHM

to fill in a lack of resources to undertake con-

servation treatment on objects found at “The

Meads”, Sittingbourne, Kent. It is thanks to the

partnership between the archaeologists, scien-

tists, conservations and members of the commu-

nity that this project works. With the Archaeo-

logical Exhibition and the “CSI Lab” being located

in a shopping centre, the project has allowed

direct accessibility and exchange to occur between

residents and conservation professionals. Based

on the research of the postgraduate dissertation

it is hoped that this concept can be further re-

fined to continue to generate the public’s interest.

It is hoped that it can be extended to other towns

and cities to further promote the conservation

Figure 11. A common heritage brought to life (Dana Goodburn-Brown, the founder of the “CSI Lab”seated at the right).

VIRGINIE TERNISIEN

34 e-conservation

profession and to facilitate the access of the public

to their local heritage.

Besides, we are currently trying to raise funds for

the second half of the site. It is a 'rescue archae-

ology' situation, with different developers for each

half of the site and only one of the developers has

contributed funds, so we hope to continue beyond

the end of January. Visitors have been steadily con-

tributing to our collection box, and the organising

team is preparing grant applications.

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank Dana Goodburn-Brown, my

English supervisor for giving me the agreement

to write this article about the ”CSI Lab”, and for

her support, advice, sharing of experience and

her professional lifestyle, always in good mood.

I would also like to thank the conservation team:

the interns (Marie Le Saux, Courtney Buxey-Brown

and Katrina Redman), the volunteers, the public;

the archaeological team who works in the opposite

shop and all of the supporters from Kent especially

Andrew Richardson, the CAT finds manager and

others. I also thank Dana, Andrew, Katrina and

Natalie for their translation advice.

References

[1] E. Pye, Caring for the past, issues in conser-

vation for archaeology and museums, James

& James, London, 2007, pp. 232

[2] “CSI lab”, www.anglosaxoncsi.wordpress.com

Address: East Street, Sittingbourne, ME10 3HT

Monday-Saturday 10am-5.30pm

until 30 January 2010

[3] CSI lab project, www.kenttv.com

(go to History and then select Early Kent)

[4] Dana Goodburn-Brown,

independent archaeological conservator

email: danagb@msn.com; tel: 07973856311

[5] Nathalie P. Mitchell, postgraduate student,

email: n.p.mitchell@ucl.ac.uk

[6] CAT: www.canterburytrust.co.uk

[7] SHM: www.sittingbourne-museum.co.uk

[8] AMTeC: www.amtec.org.uk

Virginie TernisienContact: Virginie.Ternisien@malix.univ-paris1.fr

I am a postgraduate conservation student involved

in the fourth-year of the program “Master Conser-

vation-restauration des biens-culturels” ( Master

in Conservation of Cultural Properties), at the

Paris 1 Pantheon-Sorbonne University. It is a

5-year program which trains students to be con-

servators in different specialties (painting, sculp-

ture, graphic art, ethnographic objects, archaeo-

logical objects, stained glass and art objects). I

am specializing in archaeological objects with a

preference for metal objects both archaeological

and historical.

As a requirement for graduation, the fifth year

(2010-2011) is devoted to internships in spe-

cialized institutions and the dissertation is based

on it. I am accepted at the British Museum, Metal

Conservation Department (England, 3 months)

and then at the Clemson Conservation Center

(Charlestown, United States, 6 months) and

maybe after within the Karnak excavation site

(Egypt, 3 months). I am looking for funding from

a private foundation or a sponsor to succeed

comfortably in following these quite interesting

internships.

CONSERVATION IN ACTION: WELCOME TO THE “CSI LAB”

35e-conservation

Are you reading this?So is everybody else...

e-conservationline

For advertisingand other information on publicity,

please contact

general@e-conservationline.com

and request a copy of our mediakit.

arti

cles

AREAS OF PUBLISHING

Conservation TreatmentMural Painting

Painting

Stone

Sculpture

Textiles

Paper / Documents

Photography

Metals

Tile / Ceramic / Glass

Furniture

Music instruments

Ethnographic assets

Archeological objects

Conservation ScienceScientific research

Material studies and characterisation

Analytical techniques

Technology development

Biodeterioration

State-of-the-art

Reviews

Preventive ConservationTheoretic principles

Case studies

Documentation in ConservationStandardisation

Documentation methods

Data management

Conservation TheoryEthics

Conservation History

Art History, Iconography,

Iconology, Chemistry, Physics,

Biology, Photography, Cultural

Management, Museology,

Computer Science, Legislation

and Juridical Processes,

Conservation Policies

and any other field applied to

Conservation and Restoration

of works of art.

Find out more: www.e-conservationline.com

e-conservation

EXAMINATION OF SOME INORGANIC PIGMENTS AND PLASTER LAYERS

FROM EXCAVATIONS AT SAQQARA AREA, EGYPT

Optical Microscopy and SEM-EDS Microanalysis

by Hussein Hassan M.H. Mahmoud

Introduction

Saqqara is an immense necropolis located about

30 km south of Cairo. The excavation campaigns

of Cairo University started in 1984, in the south of

the Unas’s pyramid causeway. There, many tombs

dating back to the 19th dynasty were discovered.

Some samples were collected from the painted

plasters of the tomb of Mihew and tomb of hwi nfr.

The stone blocks used in the construction of these

tombs are not of high quality types of limestone,

for this, they have been covered with stucco and

white wash layers and painted with several scenes

and inscriptions (figures 1 and 2). Pigments differ

with respect to their chemical properties due to

the fact that they are comprised of a wide variety

of chemical compounds. The material’s color charac-

teristics, such as hue and purity, rely not only on

color absorption but also depend on the size, shape,

and texture of the pigment particles. There are

also other characteristics related to the shape and

size of pigment particles such as, for example, that

mineral pigments are often sharp and angular and

traditionally have larger particle size [1].

This work aims to establish an analytical database of some painted plasters dating back to the 19th

dynasty (1314-1304 BC) and recently discovered during the excavations of Cairo University at Saqqara

area in Egypt. Appropriate representative samples were carefully chosen and collected from areas that

had no aesthetic value or that were seriously damaged. In order to identify the stratigraphy, pigment

particle size and texture of the paint layers, polished cross-sections of samples were analyzed by optical

microscopy (OM). Scanning electron microscopy equipped with energy dispersive X-ray analysis system

(SEM-EDS) showed the elemental microanalysis of the various materials used in construction of these

paintings. The obtained results revealed the characterization of some inorganic pigments and plaster

layers used in this period of the Egyptian history.

Figure 1. Painted inscriptions. Painted pastes with blue, bluish-green and red pigments filling pinkish and white plasters.

EXAMINATION OF INORGANIC PIGMENTS AND PLASTERS FROM SAQQARA, EGYPT

39e-conservation

The main objective of this work was to perform a

preliminary analytical approach of the painting

materials used for the construction of some painted

plasters belonging to the excavations at Saqqara

area in Egypt. The studies performed in the current

work include application of optical microscopy

(OM) and scanning electron microscopy equipped

with an energy dispersive X-ray spectrometer

(SEM-EDS).

Experimental setup

Methods for investigation and analysis

Sampling

Microscopic samples of blue, green and red-orange

pigments were carefully collected from the wall

paintings. Also, small fragments of coarse and fine

plasters were collected and investigated.

Optical microscopy

Paint analysis usually begins with the visual inves-

tigation of the surface of the object, primarily with

the purpose of locating intact and representative

areas for further analysis. Taking even a tiny sam-

ple for a cross-section means removing and des-

troying a part of the artifact’s original structure.

Thus, samples are best taken from areas with flak-

ing paint, so that still intact paint layer will not

be damaged. The size of the particle should be as

large as necessary but as tiny as possible. Usually,

a particle with a size of 1x2 mm is absolutely suf-

ficient and attention should be given to the sampling

procedure in order to collect all the paint layers

[2]. The morphology of the pigment particle, in-

cluding homogeneity, shape, size, surface charac-

ter, and crystal form, are among the first in the

sequence of observations that should be made in

an investigation and that can help to determine

Figure 2. Painted inscriptions. Figures with red pigments and pink plasters.

HUSSEIN HASSAN M.H. MAHMOUD

40 e-conservation

the source of a pigment, and decipher subtle dif-

ferences between natural and synthetic versions

of a pigment. Optical microscopy can provide in-

formation such as: the sequence of paint layers,

color and texture of those layers and layer thick-

ness [3].

In order to analyze the stratigraphy of the mural

paintings, some samples were embedded in Epoxy

resin (EpoFix), cross-sectioned using variable speed

silicon carbide papers and DP-lubricant blue for

fine and cool polishing, and mounted on glass

slides. The cross-sections were examined with a

Zeiss Stemi DV4 stereomicroscope with a Sony

DSC-S85 camera and under reflected light by a

Leitz orthoplan (binocular polarized) microscope

with a Nikon Cooplix 990 camera.

Scanning electron microscopy (SEM-EDS)

The scanning electron microscope is used to ob-

serve the pigment morphological features more

accurately, and is most effective in the absence of

organic binding media. When working with patinas

and paint layers the backscattered electrons mode

(BSE) usually provides more information concern-

ing the elements distribution, due to the different

atomic numbers of the elements present in the

sample. This mode allowed us to distinguish the

different layers with different elemental composi-

tion. Analyses in BSE on polished sections were

used for elemental semi-quantitative chemical

study of the painting layers. SEM analysis in the

secondary electron mode (SE) on unpolished sec-

tions was used for microscopic observations of

the layer’s microstructure and texture. The EDS

mapping analysis offers a final piece of informa-

tion needed for pigment identification, i.e., the

elemental distribution within the different layers

[4]. The pigment morphology was analysed using

a JEOL JSM-840A scanning electron microscope

and the microanalysis was carried out using an

energy dispersive X-ray spectrometer (EDS) Oxford

ISIS 300. Polished cross-sections were analysed

by BSE for the purpose of pigment identification

in each color layer. The elemental composition was

determined using carbon coated cross-sections.

Results

Blue-green pigments

The analysis of green pigment cross-section shows

turquoise and green hues of coarse large particles

embedded in glass-rich matrix. The thickness of

the paint layer is slightly higher than others. Yel-

lowish-brown spots were noticed scattered within

the green particles (figure 3).

Different bluish-green hues and some particles

with brown color were also observed (figure 4).

BSE analysis of the green pigment shows large

crystals, probably of parawollastonite embedded

in silica-rich amorphous phase (figure 5), and the

EDS microanalysis shows the presence of silicon

(31.12%), copper (5.66%) and calcium (9.34%),

which is consistent with the possibility that a copper

glass-rich bearing compound, such as the synthetic

Egyptian green pigment, was used to produce the

color. In the manufacture of Green Frit, a higher

Figure 3. A close-up optical micrograph of green paint layer. Particles of green pigment are surrounded with yellowish-brown grains.

EXAMINATION OF INORGANIC PIGMENTS AND PLASTERS FROM SAQQARA, EGYPT

41e-conservation

lime-to-copper ratio than for Egyptian Blue is re-

quired in order to stabilize the copper-bearing

wollastonite as a liquidus phase. By comparison

with Egyptian Blue, the chromatic phase in the

Green Frit is wollastonite [(CaCu)SiO3] [5].

Egyptian green is a heterogeneous material like

Egyptian blue and has a characteristic turquoise

hue. Egyptian green is characterized by the pres-

ence of parawollastonite (CaSiO3) crystals, with a

particle size less than 10 µm, and residual silica

(quartz and/or tridymite or cristobalite), embedded

in an amorphous, silica-rich glass phase. The copper

ions in the octahedral environment of a silica-rich

glass result in a turquoise color, which is affected

when the temperature and the CuO concentration

increase, but is not related to the flux concentra-

tion [6]. Also the Cu2+ ion is in an octahedral envi-

ronment in the amorphous silica-rich matrix, which

induces the green hue [6]. EDS microanalysis of

yellowish spots mixed with the green crystals shows

that the peak of iron is present which is consistent

with the possibility that the ancient artist used on

purpose a mixture of blue pigment (Egyptian blue)

and yellowish-brown pigment (iron oxides based)

to produce green hues, or that he mixed the Egyp-

tian green with the yellow pigment to get special

hues. Moreover, the mineralogical characterization

to identify the crystalline phases in the samples

is now in progress in order to obtain further infor-

mation about the main components.

Egyptian blue pigment appeared in Egypt during

the 4th dynasty in the 3rd millennium BC. The use

of the pigment spread from Egypt and the Near

East to Minoan Crete and the Greek world, and

then to the Roman world [7]. This pigment con-

sists of cuprorivaite, calcium copper tetra silicate

(CaCuSi4O10), blue tabular crystal about 15 µm to

30 µm in length, residual silica (quartz and/or tri-

dymite) and an amorphous silica-rich phase. It was

manufactured by mixing calcium salt (carbonate,

sulphate or hydroxide), a copper compound (copper

oxide or malachite), silica and alkali flux (sources

of alkali could have been either natron from areas

such as Wadi Natroun and El-Kab, or soda-rich plant

ashes) [8]. This mixture was heated to a tempera-

ture between 850 and 1000° C to produce a colored

glass or frit and later ground to powder for use.

Red-orange pigment

Ochres form a very wide class of natural inorganic

pigments thanks to their extensive color range

that can vary from deep red or brownish to orange

and finally to bright yellow. Red ochre was used

in Egypt from the 5th dynasty till the Roman times.

There are three main factors that influence the

Figure 4. Optical micrograph shows cross-section in bluish-green pigment and some particles with brown color are also noticed.

Figure 5. BSE micrograph of plaster layer and green pigment.

HUSSEIN HASSAN M.H. MAHMOUD

42 e-conservation

color of ochres. Firstly, is the nature of the iron

oxide chromophore. It is likely that the darker red

ochre contains predominantly hematite, Fe2O3,

while the paler yellow ochre is richer in the hydrated

iron oxide, goethite, Fe2O3•H2O or FeOOH. Secondly,

is the presence of other minerals, e.g. clay minerals

or other metal oxides. Thirdly, is the particle size

distribution within the material [9]. Hematite par-

ticles of about 1 µm have a distinct violet tint dif-

fering from the bright red colour of hematite with

sub-micrometer particles, e.g. pedogenic [10].

The optical investigation of the painting layer with

red-orange pigment shows that the pigment was

applied over an unprepared underlying plaster layer

rich in voids and gypsum and quartz particles as

we can see that the painting layer shows irregular

line with different thicknesses (figure 6). BSE in-

vestigation of red pigment shows massive granu-

lar aggregate particles (figure 7) while EDS micro-

analysis shows that the peak of iron (19.05%) is

present, indicating the existence of hematite (Fe2O3)

as the possible material producing the red color.

Other elements of sulfur and calcium refer to the

presence of calcium sulphates, as well as aluminum

and silicon indicate possible existence of alumino-

silicate material. The observation at high magnifi-

cations showed a difference in size between parti-

cles with gypsum (CaSO4•2H2O) and calcite (CaCO3)

as the particles with gypsum are larger while the

calcite ones are much smaller. The presence of ti-

tanium in the studied samples could be a result of

the presence of ilmenite (FeTiO3) which is found

in the Egyptian sand or possibly forming inter-

growths with hematite [11].

Plaster layers

From the optical analysis (figure 8) we can distin-

guish two main layers of the plaster used to over-

come faults in the poor stones and to produce flat

and smoothed surface for painting. The bottom

coarse layer is known as arriccio and consists mainly

of quartz grains, calcite and calcium sulphates,

while the fine coat known as intonaco is mainly

based on gypsum with variable amount of calcite

(limestone powder). BSE analysis shows clearly the

two layers of plaster (figure 9): the thick layer of

coarse plaster and the irregular fine white wash.

EDS microanalysis of the coarse plaster revealed

high quantity of silicon associated with quartz, and

calcium and sulfur associated with calcium sulph-

ates (gypsum/anhydrite). The EDS microanalysis

of white wash identified sulfur, calcium and mag-

nesium as the major ions present, most probably

due to the existence of calcium sulphates, calcite

and some dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2). Remains of pink-

colored plaster were noticed as paste filling the

Figure 6. Optical micrograph shows cross-section of red paint layer. Figure 7. BSE micrograph of plaster layer and red ochre pigment.

EXAMINATION OF INORGANIC PIGMENTS AND PLASTERS FROM SAQQARA, EGYPT

43e-conservation

HUSSEIN HASSAN M.H. MAHMOUD

44 e-conservation

sunken areas in the walls, probably used to over-

come imperfections in the wall. The EDS micro-

analysis of the pink plaster revealed that iron is

present, thereby indicating the presence of iron

oxides. A high quantity of calcium, most probably

from calcium carbonates, was also detected. In

addition, EDS microanalysis showed the presence

of large amounts of aluminium, silicon and potassi-

um suggesting the presence of clay minerals.

Table 1 illustrates the major ions present in the

samples analysed by EDS microanalysis and the

expected coloring material.

Conclusions

The preliminary examination of pigments was

performed indicating extensive usage of pigments

commonly used in ancient Egyptian wall paintings.

The pigments identified by optical observations,

element analyses and morphological study had

shown that:

1. The EDS detection of iron in yellowish-brown

spots in green pigment samples indicates that the

green-turquoise pigment was probably produced

using Egyptian green and yellowish-brown pigment

based on iron oxides, or the color was probably

Sample EDS microanalysis Stratigraphy Coloring material

Blue-green pigments

Si, Ca, Cu, Fe, Ti 50-90 µm Egyptian green + yellowish-brown pigment of iron oxides (to produce special hues?) or Egyptian blue + yellowish-brown of iron oxides (to produce green color?)

Red pigment Ca, Fe, Si, Ti, Al 30-60 µm Red ochre (hematite)

Coarse plaster Si, S, Ca 30-60 mm Quartz, calcite and calcium sulphates (gypsum/anhydrite)

Fine plaster

S, Ca, Mg 300 µm-10 mm Calcite/dolomite and calcium sulphates (gypsum/anhydrite)

Pink plaster Ca, Fe, S, Al, Si 20-40 mm Iron oxide+ calcium carbonates and sulphates + clay minerals

Table 1. EDS results, stratigraphy and the possible coloring material of the studied samples.

Figure 8. Optical micrograph shows cross-section of plaster layers. The thin white wash layer lies on a thick coarse plaster.

Figure 9. BSE micrograph of plaster layers.

EXAMINATION OF INORGANIC PIGMENTS AND PLASTERS FROM SAQQARA, EGYPT

45e-conservation

obtained by mixing Egyptian blue with yellowish-

brown pigment based on iron oxides.

2. The results concerning the red pigment are in

accordance with previous findings by Mahmoud

et al. [12] in their studies of samples from painted

limestone blocks from the same excavations, the

pigment being mainly obtained from iron oxides

(hematite, Fe2O3). The presence of aluminium and

silicon detected by EDS analysis suggests the exist-

ence of aluminosilicate materials (clay minerals,

etc.) normally found in ochre pigments.

3. Two layers of plaster were noticed: the coarse

one with higher thickness, consisting mainly of

quartz, calcite and gypsum; and the fine white wash

thin irregular layer consisting mainly of gypsum

and limestone powder. A pink paste was also ob-

served covering some areas in the walls; iron oxides,

calcite and gypsum in addition to clay minerals were

used to produce this kind of plaster. Further inves-

tigation of additional samples is now in progress

using different analytical methods (µ-XRF, XRD and

µ-Raman spectroscopy) in order to provide a more

detailed image of the chromatic palette and the

composition of these murals. The results will be

used in the conservation-restoration intervention

of these paintings.

Acknowledgments

The chief of Cairo University excavations at Saqqara

area is kindly acknowledged for the permission to

collect the studied samples.

References

[1] R. J. Gettens and G. L. Stout, Painting Materials: A Short Encyclopedia, Dover Publications, New York, 1966, pp. 131-143

[2] W. Ullrich, "Cross-section Analysis of Paint layers - Materials, Methodology and Examples", Journal of Cultural Property Conservation 4, 2008, pp. 49–56

[3] C. L. Silva, A Technical Study of the Mural Paintings on the Interior Dome of the Capilla De La Virgen Del Rosario, Iglesia San José, San Juan, Puerto Rico, MSc. thesis, University of Pennsylvania, USA, 2006

[4] A. S. Škapin, P. Ropret and P. Bukovec, "Determina- tion of pigments in colour layers on walls of some selected historical buildings using optical and scanning electron microscopy", Materials Charac- terization 58, 2007, pp. 1138–1147

[5] A. El Goresy, "Polychromatic Wall Painting Deco- rations in Monuments of Pharaonic Egypt: Compo- sitions, Chronology and Painting Technique", in The Wall Paintings of Thera: Proceedings of the First International Symposium, Volume I, S. Sherratt (Ed.), Thera (Hellas, Greece), 30 August - 4 Sep- tember, 1997, pp. 49-70

[6] S. Pagés-Camagna and S. Colinart, "The Egyptian Green pigment: Its Manufacturing process and links to Egyptian blue", Archaeometry 45:4, 2003, pp. 637–658

[7] L. Mirtit, A. Appolonia, R. Casoli, P. Ferrari, E. A. Lurenti, C. Amisano and G. Chiari, "Spectrochemical and Structural Studies on a Roman Sample of Egyptian blue", Spectrochimica Acta 51A: 3, 1995, pp. 437-446 [8] G. H. Hatton, A. J. Shortland and M. S. Tite, "The production technology of Egyptian blue and green frits from second millennium BC Egypt and Mesopotamia", Journal of Archaeological Science 35: 6, 2008, pp. 1591–1604

[9] J. L. Mortimore, L-J. R. Marshall, M.J. Almond, P. Hollins, W. Matthews, "Analysis of red and yellow ochre samples from Clearwell Caves and Çatalhöyük by vibrational spectroscopy and other techniques", Spectrochimica Acta Part A 60, 2004, pp. 1179–1188

[10] D. Hradil, T. Grygar, J. Hradilova, P. Bezdička, "Clay and iron oxide pigments in the history of painting", Applied Clay Science 22, 2003, pp. 223–236

[11] M. Berry, "A study of pigments from a Roman Egyptian shrine", AICCM Bulletin, December 1999, pp. 1-9

HUSSEIN HASSAN M.H. MAHMOUDConservatorContact: marai79@hotmail.com

Hussein Hassan Mahmoud is a conservator of mural

paintings. He is currently Assistant lecturer at the

Conservation Department of the Faculty of Archaeo-

logy at the Cairo University, Egypt.

Mr. Mahmoud has a Bachelor’s degree in Conser-

vation and Restoration of Monuments and Works

of Art from the Cairo University and a Master’s

degree in Conservation of Mural Paintings from

the same university. At the moment he is working

on his PhD thesis focusing on the degradation of

ancient Egyptian pigments in mural paintings.

In 2001 he participated in the conservation-

restoration project of the decorated wooden

ceilings of El-Ghuri mosque, Old Cairo. In 2002-

2004 he also participated in the conservation-

restoration project of the ancient mural paintings

of two Pharaonic tombs (TT277, 278), Western

Thebes, Upper Egypt, in collaboration with the

Higher Supreme of Antiquities in Egypt.

His main interests are the application of nano-

technology in conservation and the application

of modern analytical techniques, namely micro-

Raman and micro-FTIR spectroscopy, micro-XRF

and SEM-EDS microanalysis, in the characterisation

and diagnosis of mural paintings and objects of

cultural heritage.

[12] H. H. M. Mahmoud, M.F. Ali, N. Kantiranis, A. N.

Anthemidis, J. A. Stratis, "Identification of some

ancient Egyptian pigments in painted limestone

block from Cairo University excavations at Saqqara

area", The first conference of faculty of Archaeology,

Cairo University (Giza through ages), Cairo, Egypt,

March 3-6, 2008

CALL FOR SUBMISSIONS

e-conservation magazine is open to submission

of articles on a wide range of relevant topics

for the cultural heritage sector.

Next deadlines for article submission are:

for Issue 13, February 2010 – submissions

due 1st January 2010

for Issue 14, April 2010 – submissions due

1st March 2010

Nevertheless, you can always submit your

manuscript when it is ready. Between the

receival of the manuscript until the final

publication may pass up to 3 months

according with:

- the number of the manuscripts on hold,

submitted earlier by other authors

- the release date of the upcoming issue

- the pre-allocated space in the magazine

to each section

Please check our publication guidelines

for more information.

46 e-conservation

HUSSEIN HASSAN M.H. MAHMOUD

LES DILEMMES PHILOSOPHIQUES DE LA CONSERVATION-RESTAURATION

by Pierre Leveau

RÉSUMÉ

L’auteur formule un des dilemmes actuels

de la conservation-restauration, qui oblige

la discipline à choisir entre l’unification

de ses théories et l’extension de son

territoire. Il montre comment l’hypothèse

constructionnaliste résout cette difficulté.

Le passage des valeurs, aux règles, puis

aux normes, place la discipline au seuil

de son histoire et met en question son

intégrité.

ABSTRACT

The author formulates one aspect of the

current dilemmas of conservation-resto-

ration which requires the discipline to

choose between the unification of its theo-

ries or the extension of its territory. He then

shows how the constructionnist hypothesis

solve this problem. The shift from values

to rules and from rules to standards

establish the discipline on the threshold

of its history and questions its integrity.

Un nouveau dilemme pour la conservation-restauration

La conservation-restauration a été confrontée à

de nombreux dilemmes au cours de son histoire.

Qu’en est-il aujourd’hui? Sur le plan internatio-

nal, la XVe Conférence triennale de l’ICOM-CC (In-

ternational Council of Museums - Committee for

Conservation) est parvenue à unifier sa termino-

logie en adoptant une définition unique de la dis-

cipline en septembre 2008 [1]. Au niveau européen,

l’E.C.C.O. (Confédération Européenne des Organi-

sations de Conservateurs-Restaurateurs) veut

opérer un prolongement sectoriel de la convention-

cadre sur la valeur sociale du patrimoine culturel

signé à Faro en octobre 2005 [2]. La discipline

tente ainsi d’unifier sa théorie tout en l’étendant

à d’autres objets.

Il faut s’en féliciter. Mais on peut aussi se demander

si ce double mouvement d’unification et d’exten-

sion ne la place pas devant un nouveau dilemme,

que l’on peut formuler ainsi: ou bien la conserva-

tion-restauration unifie globalement son champ,

mais perd sa cohérence locale; ou bien elle con-

serve cette dernière, mais en renonçant à son unité

globale. Aucune hypothèse n’est évidemment

satisfaisante: si la théorie perd sa cohérence, elle

n’est plus fiable et ne garantit plus l’intégrité de

ses objets; si elle renonce à s’étendre, elle ne

couvrira pas tous les secteurs du patrimoine, et

ne les conservera donc pas mieux. L’alternative est

donc bien un dilemme, au sens où les deux hypo-

thèses mènent à la même conclusion. Il place la

conservation-restauration dans une impasse, en

lui demandant de choisir entre l’intégrité des ob-

jets et l’unification du territoire. Si elle ne peut

conserver les éléments qu’en renonçant au tout,

elle ne peut, à l’inverse, constituer ce dernier qu’au

détriment de premiers, ce qui n’a pas de sens.

On attribue au sophiste Protagoras l’invention de

ce type d’argument capiteux, n’offrant de choix

qu’en apparence [3]. Au disciple qui le menaçait

d’un procès s’il ne lui remboursait pas son salaire

d’enseignant, car l’art de plaider qu’il lui avait

appris ne le faisait jamais gagner, le savant répondit

qu’une victoire au tribunal lui donnerait tort en

lui donnant raison, et qu’il ne lui devait donc rien.

Il s’agit de savoir si le dilemme que l’on vient de

formuler est aussi un sophisme. Si ce n’est pas le

cas, il faut se demander comment échapper à sa

conclusion fatale, puisque la conservation-res-

tauration devra sans doute s’engager dans la voie

ouverte par l’ICOM-CC et l’E.C.C.O. pour continuer

à se développer.

Qu’est-ce à dire? Comment la conservation-res-

tauration peut-elle simultanément étendre et

unifier son champ pour préserver l’intégralité

et l’authenticité de ses objets?

Le pluralisme

Le monde de la conservation-restauration est

pluraliste, par son axiologie, son ontologique, son

organisation scientifique et administrative.

C’est ce qui le rend si propice aux antinomies

et aux dilemmes de toutes sortes.

Son axiologie est essentiellement plurielle. Elle

doit multiplier les valeurs pour s’ouvrir à toutes

les cultures: le projet de l’E.C.C.O. précédemment

cité en évoque six [4], différentes de celles qui

figuraient déjà dans ses règles professionnelles

en 1993 [5], elles-mêmes issues des travaux menés

à l’ICOM-CC et l’ICCROM (International Centre for

the Study of the Conservation and Restoration

of Cultural Property) vingt ans auparavant [6],

et de la Charte fondatrice adoptée par l’ICOMOS

(International Council on Monuments and Sites)

en 1965 [7]. L’UNESCO (United Nations Educational,

Scientific and Cultural Organization) a permis

l’émancipation culturelle des pays émergents et

aucune organisation ne peut aujourd’hui prétendre

PIERRE LEVEAU

48 e-conservation

être la gardienne des valeurs de «la civilisation»

[8], comme la Société des Nations le fit en 1932,

avant la décolonisation [9]. Les chartes actuelles

parlent moins de valeur que de signification. Elles

évitent ainsi l’écueil du relativisme en passant de

l’axiologie à la sémiologique.

Le monde qu’elles régulent est aussi pluraliste

par son ontologie. Le principe de la diversité cul-

turelle ne suffit pas à expliquer la multiplication

des valeurs patrimoniales. Elle est ontologiquement

fondée. Les problèmes de conservation-restaura-

tion ne sont pas les mêmes dans tous les secteurs.

Il existe des différences de natures irréductibles

entre les objets patrimonialisés: ce ne sont pas

tous des artéfacts, puisqu’il existe un patrimoine

naturel; ils n’existent pas tous sur le même mode,

car certains biens sont reproductibles et d’autres

non; ils fonctionnent différemment, la contem-

plation suffisant dans certains cas, mais pas dans

tous. La prolifération des sens et des valeurs est

une conséquence de cette diversité.

Le monde qu’ils forment est enfin pluraliste pas

son organisation sociale et technique. Son pluralisme

ontologique légitime une multiplicité d’approches

scientifiques et des directions administratives. La

conservation-restauration du patrimoine mobilise

autant de savoir sur un objet qu’il a d’éléments

constitutifs et de valeurs véhiculées. On ne con-

serve pas de la même façon les monuments et les

archives, les tableaux et les livres, le matériel archéo-

logique et le patrimoine industriel. Ces différences

justifient existence de spécialités et de services

autonomes, tenant compte de la nature particulière

des objets dans chaque secteur.

Ce pluralisme axiologique, ontologique, scienti-

fique et administratif n’exclut cependant pas le

monisme. Les moyens mis en œuvre sont différents,

mais la fin reste la même. La diversité des techniques,

des services, des êtres et des valeurs n’empêche

pas l’unification de la discipline. Elle accepte une

même déontologie dans tous les secteurs et tâche

aujourd’hui de normaliser ses procédures. Si le

pluralisme des moyens ne s’oppose donc pas au

monisme des fins, la question de la nature de cette

unité n’en est pas moins problématique.

Est-elle nominale ou réelle? Existe-t-il différents

mondes de la conservation-restauration, ou n’en

font-ils qu’un?

Le différend des valeurs

La thèse défendue par Aloïs Riegl dans son ouvrage

de 1903 est un plaidoyer en faveur du pluralisme.

Il explique pourquoi des choix opposés sur les monu-

ments peuvent être également légitimes, sans que

l’on puisse trancher leurs différends [10].

Il existe selon lui six valeurs, ou critère de juge-

ment, permettant de se prononcer sur l’avenir

d’un édifice. Il les répartit en deux groupes. Les

premières sont liées au passé et au témoignage

que livre l’objet: ce sont l’ancienneté, l’histoire

et l’intention, qui forment le groupe des valeurs

de remémoration. Les secondes dépendent du pré-

sent et de son intégrité: ce sont l’usage, la nou-

veauté et l’art, qui forment le groupe des valeurs

de contemporanéité. Le problème est que ces va-

leurs légitiment des choix incompatibles sur l’avenir

des monuments. L’impératif de conservation liée

à l’historicité de l’objet s’oppose, par exemple, à

celui de restauration, qui se réfère à l’intention de

l’auteur, aussi bien qu’à la nouveauté ou à l’an-

cienneté, mutuellement inconciliable.

Aucun groupe de valeur ne forme un système co-

hérent, si bien que l’axiologie du patrimoine res-

semble plus à un champ de bataille qu’à un univers

harmonieux. À chaque raison s’en oppose une

autre de force égale, dans une logique du conflit

généralisé, où le triomphe l’une valeur sur d’autres

LES DILEMMES PHILOSOPHIQUES DE LA CONSERVATION-RESTAURATION

49e-conservation

dépend de sa capacité à tisser des alliances pour

faire pencher la balance de son côté. L’axiologie

de Riegl fournit ainsi aux spécialistes du patrimoine

la matrice qui leur a servi à formuler la plupart des

dilemmes de la discipline, devenus depuis des

lieux communs. La stricte conservation semble

exclure l’exposition, aussi bien que la restaura-

tion, qui paraît s’opposer à la recherche, etc. Si

l’on ne peut tout conserver, il faut accepter de sacri-

fier pour préserver, et l’on ne peut trancher les

dilemmes qui se présenteront sans avoir aupara-

vant réglé la question du choix des valeurs patri-

moniales.

Sont-elles toutes légitimes, comme l’affirme Riegl?

Comment faire des sacrifices sans susciter de con-

flits, lorsqu’il n’existe pas de règles communes,

mais seulement de coalitions précaires?

Le propre du dilemme est, selon Jean-François

Lyotard, de faire des victimes et de créer des dif-

férends [11]. C’est toujours un problème, c’est-

à-dire une disjonction de deux propositions con-

traires, ou contradictoires, impliquant un choix

entre des possibles après délibération. Mais à la

différence d’une simple alternative, où l’on peut

justifier sa décision à l’aide d’une règle admise

par tous, le dilemme laisse le sujet seul face à lui-

même, en le privant de référant extérieur. C’est

ce qui arriva au disciple de Protagoras, après que

celui-ci lui ait montré qu’il aurait tort de se rendre

au tribunal pour y plaider sa cause. Ce fut aussi

le lot de Rodrigue, forcé de venger son père pour

mériter l’amour de celle qu’il perdait ainsi [12].

C’est encore celui des restaurateurs, des conser-

vateurs, des scientifiques et du public inquiet de

l’avenir du patrimoine.

Les uns s’estiment souvent lésés par le choix des

autres et tous s’accusent mutuellement, sans pou-

voir saisir un juge, ni porter plainte au tribunal.

C’est pourquoi leurs dilemmes ne font pas d’eux

des plaignants, mais des victimes. Ils ont en effet

subi un dommage. Mais une victime ne devient un

« plaignant », poursuit J.-F. Lyotard, que s’il existe

un idiome permettant de demander réparation et

un tribunal autorisé à en juger. Si ces deux con-

ditions ne sont pas réunies, elle reste ce qu’elle

est: une simple «victime», incapable de porter

plainte. C’est pourquoi les dilemmes en la matière

de conservation-restauration créent plus de dif-

férends que de litiges: il y a bien des conflits dans

ce monde; Riegl en a montré les ressorts. Mais ce

sont des «différends», c’est-à-dire des conflits

que l’on ne peut régler, faute d’idiomes pour les

formuler et de tribunal pour les juger, tant qu’il

n’existe pas de juge autorisé à les trancher à l’aide

d’une règle admise par tous.

Comment régler ces différends et rétablir la paix?

Comment les spécialistes justifieront-ils leurs choix

et plaideront-ils leur cause, s’ils sont juges et

partis?

La nature des règles

On a pu croire au début du XXe siècle que les sci-

ences expérimentales allaient résoudre les dilemmes

de la restauration et mettre fin aux conflits [13].

Mais l’idée dut être abandonnée après avoir sus-

cité de nouveaux différends.

En 1927, l’historien d’art français Andrée Blum

publia dans la revue de l’Office International des

Musées un article sur l’application des méthodes

scientifiques à l’étude des œuvres d’art [14]. Il y

notait que les résultats des analyses des laboratoires

devaient êtres interprétés par les spécialistes de

la conservation et de la restauration pour êtres

utilisés. Ces données ne pouvaient donc pas tran-

cher leurs conflits, puisqu’elles en devenaient

parties prenantes au lieu de fournir une règle ob-

jective et impartiale. La persistance des différends

conduisit l’OIM (Office International des Musées)

PIERRE LEVEAU

50 e-conservation

LES DILEMMES PHILOSOPHIQUES DE LA CONSERVATION-RESTAURATION

à organiser une première conférence internatio-

nale sur le sujet à Rome en 1930, immédiatement

suivi d’une seconde à Athènes [15], qui conduit

la Société des Nations à recommander en 1932

l’adoption du principe de coopération intellec-

tuelle dans ce domaine [16].

Les théories modernes de la conservation-restau-

ration et l’idée d’interdisciplinarité sont nées à

cette époque. La communauté internationale com-

mença à se donner des règles, à l’initiative de

Harold J. Plenderleith qui coordonna à partir de

1934 l’édition du premier manuel de conservation

et de restauration des peintures [17]. Au lendemain

de la Seconde Guerre mondiale, après que l’ONU

(United Nations Organization) ait succédé à la SDN

(Société des Nations) et l’UNESCO à la CICI (Com-

mission Internationale de Coopération Intellec-

tuelle), deux voies permirent à la communauté

internationale de poursuivre le travail entamé et

de constituer enfin le tribunal, dont la «querelle

des vernis» avait montré la nécessité en 1946 [18].

Les noms de Cesare Brandi et Paul Coremans res-

tent attachés aux instituts et aux courants de pensée

qui sont parvenus à régler les différends dans le

secteur des musées.

Comment les belligérants ont-ils forgé les règles

qui ont permis de trancher leurs dilemmes? Quelle

voie ont-ils suivie? Sont-elles encore les nôtres?

Leur accord de principe ne cache-t-il pas un dif-

férend philosophique?

Le directeur de l’ICR (Istituto Centrale per il Res-

tauro) et celui de l’IRPA (Institut royal du Patri-

moine artistique) ont travaillé ensemble et sont

finalement arrivés à des conclusions semblables

par des voies différentes. Le premier a déduit les

principes de la discipline de l’étude phénoméno-

logique de son objet, tandis que le second les a

abstraits du fonctionnement des commissions

spécialisées. En procédant ainsi, l’un a soumis la

pratique à des principes transcendants, tandis que

l’autre en a induit les règles immanentes. Alors que

Brandi a mis en évidence une axiomatique par une

analyse eidétique des œuvres, Coremans l’a con-

struite en accordant les esprits par le dialogue. L’un

s’est engagé sur la voie de la subjectivité, l’autre

sur celle de l’intersubjectivité.

Alors que le premier a voulu fonder sa théorie sur

la nature même des choses, en faisant résider la

vérité dans l’accord de la pensée avec l’objet, le

second l’a fait reposer sur des conventions hu-

maines, et a fait de l’accord des sujets le critère

du vrai. Ils sont ainsi parvenus à donner à la resta-

uration le fondement rationnel qui lui manquait

pour devenir une véritable discipline. Mais leur

accord final ne doit pas faire oublier leur désac-

cord méthodologique, qui place les spécialistes

devant un dilemme philosophique. Les principes

de la discipline peuvent être objectivement fondés,

ou n’être que des conventions humaines. Ils don-

nent dans les deux cas des règles communes aux

spécialistes, leur permettant de trancher leurs

différends.

Sur quel point ont-ils donc scellé leur accord? Que

ne met-on plus en question dans ce monde, en

dépit de la multiplicité de ses approches et de la

diversité de ses objets?

Le réalisme

Le monde de la conservation-restauration est es-

sentiellement réaliste. Il s’oppose par principe au

réductionnisme, à l’idéalisme, au matérialisme et

à l’esprit de système. Brandi défend cette position

philosophique dans le premier axiome de sa théorie

[19].

Le réalisme affirme en effet que seuls les particu-

liers existent : le réel est fait d’individus concrets,

composés d’une forme et d’une matière. Il s’oppose

51e-conservation

en ce sens à l’idéalisme, qui admet l’existence de

formes séparées: les idées subsisteraient en elles-

mêmes, indépendamment de nous et sans support.

Le dilemme du réalisme et de l’idéalisme est aussi

vieux que la philosophie. Mais la majorité des théo-

riciens de la conservation-restauration a aujourd’hui

rejoint le premier de ces courants. Ils considèrent

que la matière des œuvres est le principal objet

à la discipline, et non l’idée, identifiée à l’inten-

tion de l’auteur ou aux interprétations qu’on en

donne. Cela ne signifie pas que sa signification

lui soit étrangère, ce qui la réduirait à un simple

travail manuel.

Au contraire: toute mesure de conservation-res-

tauration suppose que l’on ait d’abord saisi le con-

tenu intelligible de l’œuvre. Le réalisme affirme

simplement que celui-ci est inséparable de la matière

de l’objet: il y «subsiste», selon le mot de Brandi,

sans s’y réduire comme le veut le matérialisme, ni

en différer réellement, comme le pense d’idéalisme.

Le réalisme refuse de séparer le sensible de l’intel-

ligible, et affirme l’immanence de la forme à la

matière, tandis que le matérialisme et l’idéalisme

tiennent chacun de ces éléments pour une substance

et l’autre pour un accident. Pour un réaliste, l’œuvre

n’est donc pas l’objet matériel ; mais elle n’existe

pas non plus indépendamment de lui. Il faut l’y

saisir et l’on ne doit conserver ce dernier que parce

qu’elle y subsiste. Le réalisme déjoue ainsi l’oppo-

sition du matérialisme et de l’idéalisme. Loin de

dévaloriser la conservation-restauration en lui

donnant la matière pour objet, il lui donne pour

mission de garantir l’intégrité et l’authenticité

des œuvres, contre le réductionnisme et l’esprit

de système.

Les spécialistes des formations [20] et, plus récem-

ment, Jean-Michel Leniaud [21] et Roger Pouivet

[22], ont rappelé que ces abus théoriques mena-

cent de dévoyer la pratique. La question est main-

tenant de savoir si le réalisme et le pluralisme per-

mettent simultanément d’unifier et d’étendre la

théorie, ou sont incompatibles.

Comment les règles seraient-elles les mêmes dans

toutes les régions du monde, si l’on en admet la

pluralité, en y condamnant l’abstraction? Son unité

serait-elle nominale?

Le problème de l’intégration

L’un des dilemmes théoriques de la conservation-

restauration porte aujourd’hui sur les modalités

de son unification. Toutes les disciplines y sont

confrontées au cours de leur histoire, qui ne com-

mence vraiment qu’après qu’elles l’aient résolu.

C’est ainsi que Descartes a développé l’idée d’une

«mathématique universelle» opposée à la division

du savoir, en illustrant son propos par une image

simple: la science ne varie pas plus en fonction

des objets, que la lumière du soleil ne change avec

ce qu’elle éclaire; elle reste partout la même. La

recommandation européenne sur la conservation-

restauration demande de la même façon que les

exigences de la discipline soient intégrées à la

planification des projets sur le patrimoine culturel.

Le concept de «conservation intégrée» sur lequel

il s’appuie implique une extension de la théorie à

tous les secteurs du patrimoine. Le dilemme qu’il

crée consiste à savoir si cette intégration, qui va

dans le sens de la protection des objets, ne met pas

en péril son unité. Si Rodrigue n’a pu conquérir

Chimène qu’en la perdant, le paradoxe serait d’ac-

cepter la désintégration de la discipline, en espé-

rant que l’administration puisse ainsi l’intégrer à

ses propres projets. Marie Berducou a déjà montré

que la théorie de Brandi ne pouvait pas s’étendre

à tous les biens culturels. Conçue pour les œuvres

d’art, dont l’essence est singulière et le fonction-

nement esthétique, elle ne s’applique pas au sec-

teur du patrimoine industriel [23]. L’idée d’étendre

la théorie d’une région particulière à la totalité

PIERRE LEVEAU

52 e-conservation

aussi. Cette performance caractérise les textes

officiels et le tournant linguistique qu’imposent

leurs déclarations d’intention constitue ici un début

de solution.

Salvador Muñoz-Viñas a récemment montré que les

théories de la conservation-restauration pouvaient

s’engager sur cette voie [25]. Supposons avec lui

qu’un avion Mustang de l’armée américaine ait été

patrimonialisé. Avant, on le réparait. Maintenant,

on le «restaure». Mais on peut se demander s’il est

premièrement utile de donner des noms différents

à des opérations semblables faites sur des objets

identiques, et s’il est deuxièmement juste de les

confier à des professionnels n’ayant pas la même

formation. Le passage de la réparation à la res-

tauration est le signe d’une appropriation, qui a

pour effet de fermer le marché. Ce n’est donc pas

un simple jeu de mots, mais aussi une prise de

pouvoir. L’intérêt de la réponse de Muñoz-Viñas

est de les légitimer, en montrant que la patrimo-

nialisation ne change pas la forme ou la matière

des biens culturels, mais leur fonction.

Le Mustang est maintenant un symbole. Il repré-

sente à lui seul l’ensemble de sa catégorie et, à

travers elle, un épisode de l’histoire américaine.

Il n’a plus une fonction motrice, mais symbolique.

Il acquiert avec cette nouvelle identité l’indivi-

dualité qui lui manquait comme produit technique.

Muñoz-Viñas fait de la métonymie la nouvelle règle

de fonctionnement de l’objet: comme la partie dé-

signe le tout dans cette figure du discours, l’avion

renvoie à l’héroïsme du peuple américain dans le

musée. Sa reconnaissance par une conscience le

fait fonctionner : elle lui donne une identité séman-

tique et une essence individuelle comparable à

celle des œuvres d’art ou des monuments. Si le

Mustang patrimonialisé est donc un trope, on a à

la fois tort et raison de voir dans le langage de la

conservation-restauration une simple manipula-

tion rhétorique. Le patrimoine institue, autant

du champ de la conservation-restauration semble

vouée à l’échec.

Faut-il donc choisir entre unité et extension?

Comment intégrer les principes de la discipline aux

projets patrimoniaux sans en réviser les fonde-

ments? Le pluralisme et le réalisme auxquels elle

est attachée condamnent-ils d’avance cette idée?

L’analyse que Nelson Goodman fait de la notion

d’authenticité ne plaide pas non plus en faveur de

l’unité réelle de la théorie. L’étude des procédures

d’authentification le conduit à diviser les arts en

deux catégories [24]. Lorsque la reproduction d’une

œuvre ne fait pas de la copie un faux, comme c’est

le cas en musique ou en littérature, l’art est dit

«allographe» et le critère d’identification est no-

tationnel; l’œuvre est authentique si elle est ex-

écutée conformément aux indications de l’auteur.

À l’inverse, lorsque sa copie n’est pas tenue pour

authentique, comme en peinture ou en sculpture,

l’art est dit «autographe» et son critère d’identi-

fication ne peut être qu’historique ; on est sûr

de son authenticité si l’on peut établir que c’est

bien elle que l’auteur a produite. Cette distinction

qui repose sur deux procédures d’authentification

sépare les biens culturels en deux groupes. Si la

théorie classique de la conservation-restauration

ne s’applique qu’aux arts autographiques et ne

couvre pas tout le champ des biens culturels, on

ne voit donc pas comment elle pourrait constituer

le «cadre paneuropéen» permettant d’intégrer la

discipline à la planification de tous les projets

patrimoniaux.

La recommandation européenne n’aurait-elle pas

encore les moyens de ses ambitions? Quelle solu-

tion proposer au dilemme qu’elle contient?

Le problème de l’intégrité

Les philosophes du langage nous ont appris que

celui-ci ne décrit pas seulement la réalité. Il la fait

LES DILEMMES PHILOSOPHIQUES DE LA CONSERVATION-RESTAURATION

53e-conservation

54 e-conservation

que le discours, un ordre symbolique.

Mais qu’est-ce qui légitime finalement son insti-

tution? La patrimonialisation garantit l’authenti-

cité des objets, si elle change leur fonction? Ne

change-t-elle pas aussi leur identité?

David Hume a donné une réponse originale à cette

question dans son analyse de l’identité personnelle

[26]. Un bateau réparé, dont toutes les pièces se-

raient changées, conserve selon lui son identité.

Un navire est un moyen en vue d’une fin donnée

et celle-ci explique non seulement le choix des

matériaux, mais aussi la forme de l’objet. C’est

elle qui lui donne son identité spécifique et son

unité. C’est pourquoi un bateau rénové reste nu-

mériquement identique, conclut Hume, tant qu’il

ne change pas de fonction. Mais le philosophe va

plus loin en examinant le cas d’une église sauvée de

la ruine par ses fidèles. Même s’ils en changeaient

le plan et les matériaux, elle resterait la même

pour eux, nous dit-il, tant qu’ils continueraient

d’y pratiquer leur culte.

La croyance en l’identité ne s’explique pas seule-

ment par la finalité, poursuit-il: elle s’explique

aussi par la coutume et la fréquence. C’est parce

que les fidèles n’ont pas changé d’habitude qu’ils

pensent que l’église est la même, bien qu’elle ait

entièrement changé. L’accoutumance est donc le

principe subjectif de notre croyance en l’identité

des êtres, conclu Hume, ceci valant aussi pour chac-

un de nous. Nous ne restons pas identiques à nous-

mêmes au cours du temps: nous nous construisons

sans cesse, comme les fidèles rebaptisent l’église,

et nos perceptions actuelles recomposent régulière-

ment notre être en s’ajoutant aux anciennes. Si

nous croyons être les mêmes, c’est parce que la

transition coutumière que nous faisons entre nos

idées nous donne le sentiment de la continuité de

notre vie psychique. Mais pour l’individu comme

pour l’Église, c’est une foi fondée sur l’habitude.

C’est une croyance subjective sans fondement ob-

jectif, conclu Hume. C’est une construction sociale.

Comment garantir l’intégrité et l’authenticité d’ob-

jets, s’ils n’ont pas réellement d’identité, ni de

fonction prédéterminée? Comment rester réaliste

dans ces conditions?

Le nominalisme

Le nominalisme peut apporter un début de solu-

tion à ce dilemme philosophique. Il affirme que

les universaux n’existent ni dans le réel, ni dans

la pensée, mais dans le langage. Celui-ci décrirait

moins la réalité qu’il ne l’achève, en donnant au

monde son unité.

Voyons donc si la conservation-restauration peut

s’y convertir, pour étendre et unifier son champ

sans renoncer au pluralisme et au réalisme qui la

caractérise. L’exemple du Mustang donné par

Muñoz-Viñas montre que la patrimonialisation

s’accommode parfaitement d’un changement de

fonction de l’objet, et l’implique même: on dit que

l’avion est authentique, bien que son fonction-

nement n’est plus mécanique, mais symbolique.

L’exemple de l’église donnée par Hume ajoute à

cela que la reconnaissance patrimoniale peut s’ac-

compagner d’une transformation complète de l’ob-

jet, c’est-à-dire d’une perte d’intégrité: le bâtiment

conserve son identité pour les fidèles, qui l’ont

entièrement reconstruit en continuant d’y célébrer

l’office. Ces deux formes de patrimonialisations

peuvent évidemment entrer en conflit. Mais ce n’est

pas le sujet. La question est de savoir si ces objets

appartiennent réellement à un même genre, ap-

pelé patrimoine, et ce qui en fait l’unité.

Reprenons donc. Le patrimoine est selon Hume

une construction sociale, reposant sur le consente-

ment populaire. Sa reconnaissance est pour Muñoz-

Viñas une opération symbolique, renvoyant méto-

nymiquement à l’histoire d’un peuple. Chaque

analyse apporte un élément de réponse. On peut

PIERRE LEVEAU

55e-conservation

en effet tenir le patrimoine culturel pour une con-

struction sociale fondée sur une reconnaissance

symbolique. Cette hypothèse est constructionna-

liste et nominaliste. L’unité du genre qu’elle pro-

pose est simultanément nominale et réelle. Elle

est nominale, car les objets qu’il contient présente

des différences essentielles: le patrimoine artis-

tique n’est évidemment pas industriel, ni le maté-

riel, immatériel, ou le naturel, culturel. Mais elle

est aussi réelle, car les objets qu’il réunit forment

un monde particulier, en recevant des règles de

fonctionnement spécifiques: la reconnaissance

symbolique qu’on y opère dans tous les secteurs

crée finalement un genre unique. Il se peut donc

que, entre le mot et la chose, le patrimoine soit une

forme symbolique, un emblème en même temps

qu’un jeu de langage, une construction logique et

sociale. L’idée n’est pas nouvelle. Mais on oublie

parfois que c’est une découverte philosophique,

dont il serait intéressant de se souvenir pour saisir

l’enjeu du dilemme qui nous occupe.

En quel sens le patrimoine est-il une construction

sociale? Au sens banal du terme, qui en fait le

produit de nos choix? Ou philosophique, qui le

tient pour une forme symbolique?

L’institution des normes

La conservation-restauration tâche aujourd’hui

de normaliser sa terminologie, ses méthodes et

ses matériaux [27]. Les normes qu’elle se donne

instituent un monde où les dilemmes ne devraient

théoriquement plus susciter de différends.

Pierre Livet a récemment rappelé que la fonction

d’une norme est de trancher les conflits opposant

les valeurs et les règles [28]. Elles les supposent,

mais ne se situent pas au même niveau que les

termes dont elles arbitrent les différends. Une

valeur n’est pas une norme: les premières sont

des critères d’appréciation, d’évaluation, alors

que les seconds des impératifs d’action, des pre-

scriptions. Tandis que les valeurs impliquent des

obligations morales, contraignant le sujet à agir

conformément à ses choix, les normes créent des

obligations sociales qui le contraignent à se con-

former à ceux de la collectivité. Les valeurs justi-

fient les normes, qui les instituent en retour. Mais

c’est le conflit des règles qui les rend nécessaires.

Celles-ci définissent en effet des usages, qui ne

sont pas tous compatibles, ce qui est à l’origine de

multiples conflits. Le différend des usages impose

des choix entre des possibilités, que l’invocation

d’une valeur ne suffit pas à départager. C’est pour-

quoi une norme n’est pas une simple règle, rappelle

Pierre Livet. Sa fonction est de trancher les conflits

sur l’usage des secondes. Elle règle le différend

des règles.

La normalisation de la conservation-restauration

suffira-t-elle à résoudre tous les dilemmes? Ou les

empêche-t-elle seulement de se formuler, en don-

nant au langage un nouveau lexique et d’autres

règles de fonctionnement?

Elle permet déjà de résoudre celui de l’intégration

précédemment formulé. En engageant la conser-

vation-restauration sur la voie de la normalisation,

le Conseil de l’Europe donne en effet à la discipline

le moyen de réaliser les objectifs de la Convention

de Faro. Elle l’oblige à s’unifier, en adoptant une

terminologie commune, et à couvrir tous les sec-

teurs du patrimoine de façon homogène. Elle ne

lui demande pas de réviser ses fondements théo-

riques, et ne lui demande aucune réflexion philoso-

phique. Mais elle l’engage à son insu sur la voie

du constructionnalisme. En uniformisant les juge-

ments des spécialistes, les choix des praticiens,

et les formations qui leurs sont proposées, elles

font du patrimoine une construction sociale. Les

normes les conduiront à trancher partout de la même

façon les dilemmes auxquels ils seront confrontés

et choisir les mêmes matériaux. Mais la fin des

LES DILEMMES PHILOSOPHIQUES DE LA CONSERVATION-RESTAURATION

conflits garantira moins alors l’identité des objets,

c’est-à-dire l’authenticité, que celle des traite-

ments, c’est-à-dire l’uniformité. De là à imaginer

un nouveau dilemme, il n’y a qu’un pas, que l’on

ne franchira pas. Disons simplement que la nor-

malisation n’est pas un choix, mais une fatalité.

Elle fait de la conservation-restauration une con-

struction sociale et la dispense d’une réflexion

philosophique approfondie. Faut-il le regretter?

C’est le dernier dilemme «philosophique» de la

discipline. Elle peut faire l’économie de la philo-

sophie, en choisissant de se dissoudre dans les

sciences sociales, ou y revenir pour accorder sa

théorie à son orientation sociale et retrouver sa

cohérence passée.

Conclusion

Le temps résout tous les dilemmes, promet Cor-

neille à la fin du Cid. Mais les spécialistes de la

conservation-restauration savent qu’il en pose

aussi et l’avenir dira comment ils ont résolu les

leurs. En ce début de XXIe siècle, la discipline in-

stitue des normes pour constituer son paradigme.

Après avoir définie ses valeurs au cours du XIXe

et s’être donné des règles XXe, elle est sur seuil de

son histoire, elle en cours d’institutionnalisation.

On a vu les dilemmes philosophiques qu’elle a dû

résoudre pour y arriver: celui du pluralisme et du

monisme, de l’accord et du différend, de la nature

et de la convention, du matérialisme et de l’idéal-

isme, du réalisme et du nominalisme, de la méta-

physique et du constructionnalisme, qui s’avère

être social ou philosophique. Ce dernier dilemme est

aussi celui de son unification et de son extension.

La normalisation de la discipline commence à ré-

soudre et lui réserve une issue fatale. Elle fait émer-

ger un nouveau monde en le tranchant, où il faut

espérer que les théories puissent s’unifier sans

uniformiser leurs objets.

Bibliographie

[1] I.C.O.M.-C.C., ”Terminologie de la conservation- restauration du patrimoine culturel matériel”, Résolution soumise à l’approbation des membres de l’ICOM-CC à l’occasion de la XVe Conférence Triennale, New Delhi, 22-26 Septembre 2008

[2] Conseil de l’Europe, ”Convention-cadre du Conseil de l’Europe sur la valeur du patrimoine culturel pour la société”, Faro, 27 Octobre 2005, - Série des Traités du Conseil de l’Europe no.199

[3] D. Laërce, Vie et opinion des philosophes illustres, IX, 56, Garnier-Flammarion, Paris, 1965, T.II, p. 187

[4] E.C.C.O., Rapport introductif au projet de Re- commandation européenne pour la conserva- tion-restauration des biens culturels, §3, p.7

[5] E.C.C.O., ”Règles professionnelles d’E.C.C.O., I: La profession”, dans Etude des responsabi- lités légales et professionnelles des conser- vateurs au regard des autres acteurs de la sauvegarde et de la conservation du patri- moine culturel, annexe, p. 316

[6] I.C.O.M.-C.C., Le conservateur-restaurateur: une définition de la profession, Réunion tri- ennale de l’ICOM-CC, Copenhague, septembre 1984, Avant-propos et §2-3

[7] I.C.O.M.O.S., Charte Internationale sur la Conservation et la Restauration des Monuments et des Sites, IIe Congrès international des ar- chitectes et des techniciens des monuments historiques, Venise 1964, Art. 1, 3, 5-7, 9 et 11

[8] U.N.E.S.C.O., Conférence de Nara sur l’Authen- ticité, Edité par Knut Einar Larsen, Nara, 1994 [9] C.I.C.I., ”Résolution adoptée par la Commission

PIERRE LEVEAU

56 e-conservation

PIERRE LEVEAUPhilosopheContact: leveau.p@wanadoo.fr

Pierre Leveau poursuit actuellement un doctorat

à l’École Pratique des Hautes Etudes, sous la direc-

tion de Jean-Michel Leniaud («La conservation-

restauration en France: histoire de l’émergence

d’une discipline», EPHE-HTD). Il est par ailleurs

professeur de philosophie et enseigne dans le

secondaire.

Internationale de Coopération Intellectuelle le 23 juillet 1932”, La Conférence d’Athènes, Ed. L’imprimeur, texte établi par F. Choay, 2002, p.115

[10] A. Riegl, Le culte moderne des monuments, Paris, Ed. Seuil,1984

[11] J.-F Lyotard, Le différend, Paris, Ed. Minuit, 1983, p.18-25

[12] P. Corneille, Le Cid, Acte I, Scène VI, 291-350 et Acte III, Scène IV, 869-904

[13] J.-P. Mohen, Les sciences du patrimoine, Paris, Ed. Odile Jacob, 1999, p. 97-124

[14] A. Blum, ”Quelques méthodes d’examen sci- entifique des tableaux et objets d’art”, Mou- seion,1927, n°7, p.14-26

[15] S. D. N., ”Recommandation de l’assemblée de la Société des Nations adoptées le 10 octobre 1932”, La Conférence d’Athènes, Ed. de L’im primeur, texte établi par F. Choay, 2002, p.117

[16] P. Leveau, ”Problèmes historiographiques de la C.R.B.C.”, Conservation-Restauration des Biens Culturels, 2008, n°26, p.3-18

[17] H.-J. Plenderleith, ”A history of conservation”, Studies in Conservation 43, n°3, 1998, p. 129-143

[18] U.N.E.S.C.O., Le traitement des peintures, Paris, Ed. UNESCO, 1951

[19] C. Brandi, Théorie de la restauration, Paris, Ed. du patrimoine, 2000, p. 31

[20] E.C.C.O., ”Règles professionnelles d’E.C.C.O., III:

La formation” dans Etude des responsabilités lé-

gales et professionnelles des conservateurs au

regard des autres acteurs de la sauvegarde et de la conservation du patrimoine culturel, p.321-322

[21] J-M. Leniaud, Viollet-le-Duc ou les délires du système, Paris, Ed. Mengès, 1994

[22] R. Pouivet, Qu’est-ce qu’une œuvre d’art?, Paris, Ed. Vrin, 2007

[23] M. Berducou, «Brandi, l’œuvre d’art, et…” tout le reste”», Cesare Brandi, sa pensée et l’évolution des pratiques de la restauration, Actes du colloque tenu Bruxelles (25 octobre 2007) sous la direction de Nicole Gesché- Koning et Catheline Périer-D’Ieteren, ULB, 2008, Cahier d’étude X

[24] N. Goodman, Langages de l’art, Nîmes, Ed. J. Chambon, 1990

[25] S. Muñoz-Viñas, Contemporary Theory of Con- servation, Amsterdam, Ed. Elsevier, 2005, p. 27-29

[26] D. HUME, Traité de la nature humaine, I, IV, VII, Paris, Ed. Aubier, p. 350

[27] D. Aguilella-Cueco, ”CEN TC. 346 – Normali- sation de la conservation-restauration des biens culturels: premier bilan”, Journal de la FFC-R, novembre 2008, n°16, p.15-19.

[28] P. Livet, Les normes, Paris, Ed. Armand Colin, 2006

LES DILEMMES PHILOSOPHIQUES DE LA CONSERVATION-RESTAURATION

57e-conservation

SECOND ARP SEMINARThe Practice of Theory – Treatments of Conservation-Restoration

arp

proc

eedi

ngs

This issue contains the second part of a temporary section dedicated to the publication

of the proceedings of the Second ARP Seminar, organised by the Professional Association

of Conservator-Restorers of Portugal.

The Second ARP Seminar, The Practice of Theory – Treatments of Conservation-Restoration

was held in the auditorium of the National Museum of Ancient Art (MNAA) in Lisbon on May

29-30, 2009. The proceedings will be published in Portuguese by the association and

the English version of the articles presented at the meeting will be published in the next

issues of e-conservation magazine.

The series of articles in this issue is dedicated to the Conservation of Paintings.

Professional Association of Conservator-Restorers of Portugal http://www.arp.org.pt/

DETACHED MURAL PAINTINGS IN PORTUGAL

The fact that mural painting is inevitably linked to the architecture is changing in the moment paintings

are detached and placed in a museum. The objective of the present intervention was the stabilisation and

uniformizing of the detached paintings, taking into account the aesthetic feature as an important factor.

The work was performed at the Alberto Sampaio Museum in Guimarães, in the same room where the paintings

were exhibited, aiming to give visitors the opportunity to follow the several stages accomplished by the

conservators during the conservation treatment.

The Conservation-Restoration of the Fragments from the Alberto Sampaio

Museum in Guimarães

by Maria Alice de Sousa Cotovio

Introduction

This paper is focused on the conservation-resto-

ration intervention performed on six mural paint-

ings from several churches from northern Portugal.

The paintings are part of a set detached by the

General Direction of National Buildings and Monu-

ments (Direcção-Geral dos Edifícios e Monumentos

Nacionais, DGEMN) in the 1930’s and 1940’s. These

detachments were the result of a particular philo-

sophy of that time, with different concepts than

those that are theorized and put in practice nowa-

days.

The main reasons for the DGEMN intervention were

the discovery of the existence of underlying paint-

ings, the poor conservation state and the intention

to “recover the original aspect of the building”.

“From 1914 to 1918 the mural paintings from S. Mar-

tinho de Mouros, Barcos and Outeiro Seco were ac-

knowledged and studied by Dr. Vergílio Correia [...]

although they were all in regrettable conservation

state, ruined and covered by lime or repainted”1.

“The General Direction of National Buildings and

Monuments has proceeded in the matter of frescos,

guided by the same criteria as for other works. If,

in advantage to the monument and paintings, the

mural decoration can be conserved in-loco […], the

better; but if their maintenance involves any risk of

damage to the work or special conditions require

the intervention of the specialist, do not hesitate

to remove them (...)”2.

At the same time the mural paintings in Spain,

and especially in Catalonia, also suffered major

alterations, being removed from their original

location, transferred to new supports and placed

again in churches or museums. This task was en-

trusted to Cecconi Principe, an Italian artist with

renowned experience.

It was in Spain that DGEMN contacted this artist

to work in Portugal. According to reports of the

Painting Division of the Institute José de Figuei-

redo (IJF), he performed the detachment of the

Martyrdom of St. Sebastian and the Sacred Family,

both from the Church of St. Salvador in Bravães.

The other detachments were performed by José

Ferreira da Costa and António Ferreira da Costa

by the same method of Cecconi Principe (trans-

fer to canvas).

Some of the paintings were treated by Abel Moura

who transferred them to a support of Masonite3

and later by Teresa S. Cabral who transferred them

a support of glass fibber, honeycomb cardboard

and Araldite.

Finally in 2004 a room was inaugurated at the Mu-

seum Alberto Sampaio in Guimarães to accommo-

date 8 of the detached mural paintings. This was

the first time in Portugal that a space for mural

paintings was especially created in a museum.

This event helped to resolve several problems:

- The nomadism that these paintings have

1 In Frescos, Boletim da Direcção-Geral dos Edifícios e Monu-mentos Nacionais, nº 10, Dezembro, 1937, pp. 14 -15. Original text: “De 1914 a 1918 foram reconhecidas e estudadas pelo Dr. Vergílio Correia, as pinturas murais de S. Martinho de Mouros, Barcos e Outeiro Seco [...] mas todas em lamentável estado de conservação, arruinadas e cobertas de cal ou re-pintadas”.

2 Op. Cit., pp. 23. Original text: “[...] a Direcção-Geral dos Edifícios e Monumentos Nacionais tem procedido, no assunto dos frescos, com critério idêntico àquele que a norteia nos restantes trabalhos. Se se pode, com vantagem para o monu-mento e para as próprias pinturas, conservar in-loco a deco-ração parietal, ainda que esta seja posterior, tanto melhor; mas se a manutenção envolve risco de dano para a obra, ou circunstâncias especiais indicam a intervenção do especialista, não se hesita em remove-las [...]”.

3 This material was presented in the ICOM International Restoration Meeting that took place in Lisbon in 1951.

MARIA ALICE DE SOUSA COTOVIO

60 e-conservation

suffered for several years;

- The material instability of the fragments;

- The placement of the works near their original

geographic location.

However, the concept of mural painting is natur-

ally associated with its architectural support which

is radically altered in the moment that the paint-

ings are detached and placed in a museum space.

Thus, the main objectives of the intervention on

these fragments were their stabilisation and aes-

thetic uniformizing. In our opinion, these conser-

vation-restoration criteria are the most appro-

priate to follow for this particular type of inter-

vention, being necessarily different from those

applied to the intervention on the paintings in

their original context.

Table I presents the general course of the frag-

ments from their detachment to our interven-

tion in 2008.

Martyrdom of St. Sebastian

Church of St. Saviour in Bravães, Ponte da Barca

The Holy Family

Church of St. Saviour in Bravães, Ponte da Barca

Christ the Savior

Church of St. Saviour in Bravães, Ponte da Barca

St. Bernard, St. Benedict

Church of the Monas-tery of Fonte Arcada, Póvoa de Lanhoso

Beheading of St. John the Baptist

Convent of St. Francis, Guimarães

Eternal Father

Church of Our Lady of Azinheira, Outeiro Seco, Chaves

1936 - Ceconni Principe - Transfer to a canvas support

1936 - Ceconni Principe - Transfer to a canvas support

1937 - José Ferreira da Costa - hammering of the 2nd layer; transfer of the 1st layer to a support in canvas and asbestos- cement sheets

1942-43 - António Ferreira da Costa - Transfer to a canvas support

1940 - António Ferreira da Costa - Transfer to a canvas support

Intervention

1952 - Abel Moura - Masonite support

c. 1959 - Abel Moura - Masonite support

1954/59 - Abel Moura - Masonite support, fixation

Intervention

1972-73 - Teresa Cabral - Honeycomb support, Araldite and glass fibber

1972-75 - Teresa Cabral - Honeycomb support, Araldite and glass fibber

1977 - Teresa Cabral - Honeycomb support, Araldite and glass fibber

1975 - Teresa Cabral - Honeycomb support, Araldite and glass fibber

1971-74 - Teresa Cabral - Honeycomb support, Araldite and glass fibber

At IJF, without intervention

2008 - Mural da História - Conservation

2008 - Mural da História - Conservation

2008 - Mural da História - Conservation

2008 - Mural da História - Conservation

2008 - Mural da História - Conservation

2008 - Mural da História - Punctual conservation

DETACHED MURAL PAINTINGS IN PORTUGAL

61e-conservation

Intervention

The intervention performed in the 1970’s by IJF

proved to be effective given the present good con-

servation state of the paintings. However, as ex-

pected, they suffered minor natural alterations,

specific to the techniques used. The treatment that

was usually performed some years ago, that of

application of a very rough plaster layer left below

the surface level, was substituted nowadays by the

application of a less rough plaster, at the level of

the colour layer. Among other reasons, we believe

that decreasing the material roughness and le-

velling the layers will enhance the homogeneity

and protection of the ensemble.

62 e-conservation

Figures 1-4. Martyrdom of St. Sebastian. From left to right: Before the detachment; After the detachment; Transfered to the new support; Last intervention.

MARIA ALICE DE SOUSA COTOVIO

63e-conservation

The technical intervention was similar for the 6

paintings: photographic documentation, graphic

documentation, removal of inadequate mortars,

cleaning, removal of repaintings (when the tech-

nique, the aesthetics or the colours were dissonant),

new graphic documentation, fixation, consolida-

tion, application of new mortars and chromatic

reintegration.

The entire intervention was carried on at the mu-

seum, in the same room where the fragments are

exposed. This was made with the aim to give the

visitors the opportunity to follow the intervention.

The intervention took 3 months to complete.

During this time we offered support by talking

to the public and providing orientation to the

visitors, especially schools, by explaining the

modus operandi of the intervention according

to visitor’s age.

Figures 5-8. The Holy Family.Upper right - Before the detachment;Right - After the detachment;Below left - After transfer to a new support;Below right - Last intervention.

DETACHED MURAL PAINTINGS IN PORTUGAL

Figures 9-11. Christ the Saviour. From left to right: After the detachment; Transfered to a new support; Last intervention.

Figures 12-15. St. Bernard and St. Benedict.From left to right: Before the detachment; The reverse of the mural painting; After the transfer on a new support and reattachment of the color layer; Image of the painting in 1961.

MARIA ALICE DE SOUSA COTOVIO

64 e-conservation

Figures 16 and 17. St. Bernard and St. Benedict. Before (left) and after (right) the last intervention.

Figures 18-21. Eternal Father. From left to right: Before and after detachment; Before and after the last intervention.

DETACHED MURAL PAINTINGS IN PORTUGAL

65e-conservation

The beheading of St. John the Baptist is an emble-

matic work which widely studied during the inter-

vention, raised some pertinent issues. The decision

of removing the repaintings was directly determined

by the aesthetics and symbolism of the work. Al-

though it was necessary to remove some altered and

fissured plaster as well, most of it was preserved as re-

moving it would significantly alter its appearance.

It was previously mentioned that the mural paint-

ing concept is inevitably associated with the archi-

tectural support for which they it was conceived.

Thus, the separation of the paintings from the

building causes irreversible transformations in

both the support and the work, this last becoming,

thus, a “museum picture”.

Once a fait accompli, we tried to minimise the prob-

lems that could arise from that decision. For this,

before the intervention we had to be fully aware

of the processes the fragments went through.

Although the paintings were already seriously da-

maged, we tried to minimise the problems due

to the extensive lacunas. Special consideration

was given to the aesthetics without neglecting

the ethics of the intervention. If, on the one hand,

to perform total chromatic reintegration is out

of the question due to the ethical concerns, on

the other hand, lacunas alters the reading of the

image. This duality obliges to search a middle

solution that would respect the authenticity of

the original painting and at the same time

would allow to reintegrate the image just

enough to provide continuity of the reading of

the ensemble.

The plaster should be compatible in particle size

and colour shade with the surrounding painting.

It should be not forgotten that being in a museum,

the connection between the painting and the wall

no longer exists. In order to alleviate this problem,

Figure 22. Beheading of St. John the Baptist. Aspect of the painting before the intervention.

MARIA ALICE DE SOUSA COTOVIO

66 e-conservation

Figure 23 and 24. Beheading of St. John the Baptist. Aspect of the painting during and after the intervention.

DETACHED MURAL PAINTINGS IN PORTUGAL

67e-conservation

MARIA ALICE DE SOUSA COTOVIO

it would be ideal to create an environment close

to that of the original location.

The lightening is a crucial matter. The existence of

windows to provide natural light in churches was

an important factor for the mural paintings, the

light being used to enhance a scene or a specific

image.

When the painting was transferred and moved to

another space, a museum in this case, a similar

illumination to the one from the original location

should be provided.

Among others concerns, a major problem of the

mural paintings from the Alberto Sampaio Museum

is that the paintings were detached from different

locations. Thus, given the available space, it was

not possible to provide the lighting of the common

space to each of the paintings according to their

original context. Also, the exhibit space was de-

signed in such a manner as to give coherence to

the group of paintings in order to avoid the impres-

sion of isolated “objects”, and rather offer examples

of northern mural paintings from Portugal.

Photographic credits

No. 1, 2, 5, 6, 9, 18 and 19 - Boletim da Direcção-

Geral dos Edifícios e Monumentos Nacionais No. 10,

December 1937; No. 12 to 15 - Boletim da Direcção-

Geral dos Edifícios e Monumentos Nacionais No. 106,

December 1961; All others from Mural da História.

Bibliography

[1] Frescos, Boletim da Direcção-Geral dos Edifícios e Monumentos Nacionais, No. 10, Dezembro 1937

[2] Igreja de Bravães Ponte da Barca, Boletim da Direcção-Geral dos Edifícios e Monumentos Nacionais, No. 49, Setembro 1947

[3] Conservação de Frescos,Boletim da Direcção-Geral dos Edifícios e Monumentos Nacionais, Nº 106, Dezembro 1961

[4] Igreja de Nª Sr.ª da Azinheira do Outeiro Seco, Boletim da Direcção-Geral dos Edifícios e Monumentos Nacionais, Nº 112, Junho 1963

[5] D. Rodrigues, A pintura mural na região Norte. Exemplares dos séculos XV e XVI, in A Colecção de pintura do Museu de Alberto Sampaio - Séculos XVI- XVIII, Instituto Português de Museus, Lisboa, 1996

[6] J. I. Caetano, “A pintura a fresco e as suas técnicas. O caso dos exemplares dos séculos XV e XVI no Norte de Portugal e a sua conservação”, X Encontro de História Local, Museu de Alberto Sampaio, Guimarães, 2002

[7] Catarina V. Gonçalves and J. I. Caetano, “Um olhar sobre a pintura mural na região de Guimarães no século XVI”, X Encontro de História Local, Museu de Alberto Sampaio, Guimarães, 2002

[8] C. Brandi, Teoria do restauro, Edições Orion, 2006

[9] P. Mora, L. Mora and P. Philippot, La conservazione delle pitture murali, Editrice Compositori, Bologna, 1999

Alice Cotovio is a conservator-restorer of mural

paintings. She started working in 1983 in the In-

stitute José de Figueiredo after which she attended

the Higher Course of Conservation and Restoration

and its specialisation of mural painting. In 1991,

she co-founded Mural da História, a company

specialised in conservation-restoration of mural

paintings where she is the co-responsable of the

technical and research work. She is also a founding

member of the Professional Association of Conser-

vator-Restorers of Portugal (ARP).

Mural Paintings Conservator

Contact: mail@muraldahistoria.com.pt

www.muraldahistoria.com.pt

MARIA ALICE DE SOUSA COTOVIO

68 e-conservation

MUDEJAR CEILINGS Study, Conservation and Restoration

by Carlos José Abreu da Silva Costa

The conservation-restoration intervention on the Mudéjar ceilings from the National Museum Machado de Castro, as a part of the rehabilitation and expansion project of the museum, focused not only on the treatment of the ceilings, but also on the reassembling and relocation of the wood panels. Originally provenient from the Old Cathedral of Coimbra, the ceilings were altered in structure, geometric decorative composition and colour layer. Besides the conservation-restoration treatment, the present intervention sought to remove the undesirable previous interventions that could give a wrong perception of the design and original location of the ceilings. This adaptation was recognised and the panels were contextualised not as simple architectural elements but as museum pieces.

Introduction

The conservation-restoration intervention on the

wooden ceilings of the National Museum Machado

de Castro (MNMC), as planned in the rehabilitation

project of the museum, included the treatment of

11 ceilings with internal and external bin structures

and of the flat polychrome ceilings. This article

describes the intervention performed to the two

ceilings belonging to this ensemble.

The intervention was performed by Atelier Sam-

thiago as subcontractor of Edifer Reabilitação,

from June 2007 to December 2008. The work on

the Mudéjar structures comprised, beside the con-

servation-restoration treatment, the complete

disassembly and relocation of the final assembly.

The Mudéjar Art

Origins and formal characteristics

The presence of the Islam in the Iberian Peninsula

produced a society very different from the Christian

Figure 1. Mudéjar ceiling at the National Museum Machado de Castro, now designated type 1.

70 e-conservation

CARLOS JOSÉ ABREU DA SILVA COSTA

one but permanently in contact with it. The im-

portance of the cultural expression of the Islamic

society, often linked to religiosity, was a striking

presence for the Hispanic culture even after it

ceased to exist, having created one of the most

original components of this culture: the Mudéjar.

This new art, influenced by images of Islamic faith,

would impose itself by the end of the 8th century

having as main objective to serve the needs of

religion and aspects of the socio-economic life.

By that time, new buildings for religious purposes

started to appear. The architecture played a central

role in Islamic art as well as all the other arts de-

pended from it.

It is important to note that the figurative art was

completely excluded from the liturgical sphere of

Islam. Sculpture and relief were practically non-

existent in the decoration of monuments, its ab-

sence being greatly compensated by the ornamental

richness of the plaster carved coatings, the mosaics

of glazed ceramic and, in particular, the wooden

carved panels. The decorative elements inspired

by nature - leaves, flowers, branches, etc. - were

stylized to the maximum, forming their own com-

positions, reticulated, intertwined and geometric

surfaces known as arabesques. Another innovation

in the decorative programs was the introduction

of epigraphic elements. In every type of surfaces

- architectural decoration, furniture, etc. – Arabic

calligraphy was used as a proclamation of the

Koran faith and its beauty as formal element.

It was between the 13th and 15th centuries that

the entire Iberian Peninsula, Spain in particular,

and Morocco were definitively converted to the

artistic and cultural model of Mudéjar art, which

gained great popularity and in the case of Morocco

is still in use today.

But what had marked the Islamic culture in the

Iberian Peninsula of such singular and unique cha-

racter that was not observed in any other territory

dominated by the Islam? This singularity is owned

Figure 2. Mudéjar ceiling at the National Museum Machado de Castro, now designated type 2.

e-conservation 71

MUDEJAR CEILINGS

to a series of special historic circumstances that

made possible such particular artistic manifestation

to occur in this territory. For eight centuries (8th-

15th), the medieval Iberian peninsula, especially

Spain, was divided between two political cultures

and religious rivals: Christianity and Islam. How-

ever, political and religious separations did not

prevent mutual teaching and cultural contacts and

it was precisely from these contacts that Mudéjar

art arose, at the border between Islamic and Chris-

tian art. The Mudéjar art was a long-term phenom-

enon, much more durable in time than other Eu-

ropean artistic styles of that time - Romanesque,

Gothic and Renaissance.

The Christian reconquest of southern Spain in the

11th and 12th centuries brought on a delicate situ-

ation concerning the occupation of the territory,

in particular of the larger cities, for which there

was not enough manpower to repopulate. When

the Muslim population was allowed to stay in the

conquered territories under Christian domination,

being allowed to maintain their religious practices,

language and legal organization, a new figure was

created on the then social context: the Mudéjars,

i.e., Muslims with authorisation to remain in the

Christian Spain in exchange for a tribute. The ex-

istence of a cheaper, quick and effective workforce

and the construction of a system considered more

economic, together with a crisis and an economic

recession in the peninsula, may partly explain the

success of the Muslims work, especially in the ar-

tistic field, where they were structured by crafts

and had their own terminology.

The Muslim culture would eventually be assimilated

by Christianity, and Christians would eventually

surrender to the allure of Islamic monuments,

transforming them into royal palaces or consec-

rating them to churches and cathedrals. It was

this confluence of different artistic traditions that

would eventually result in a new stylistic expres-

sion, so singular and unique, and different from

each of the parties that composed it.

The alfarge1 work and its expression in Por-tuguese territory

From the formal point of view, the Mudéjar art is

characterized by the combination of Christian and

Muslim artistic elements. It is also commonly, al-

though wrongly stated, that it takes advantage

of the structures of Christianity and the ornaments

of Islam. Returning to the basic principles of the

Islam artistic representation, which formalize the

vegetal elements to the extreme – with the incor-

poration of new motifs coming from Christian art,

such as naturalist gothic flora - and register artis-

tically the Arabic epigraphic elements, the almost

abusive use of repetitive rhythms that completely

cover the surfaces using patterns without spatial

limit can be noted.

From the structural point of view, there are several

basic examples of the Islamic character applied

in the Mudéjar architecture, the most important

in the current context being the woodwork.

The carpentry work was in fact one of the important

legacies of Mudéjar art. There were many carpen-

ters working in the Iberian Peninsula which were

known for their peculiar way of working wood ceilings

and beams with exquisite technique. The structures,

particularly the roofs, were light and allowed an

even load distribution on the walls.

The Mudéjar art, undervalued in terms of art his-

tory, is one of the most genuine and particular art

forms developed in the Iberian Peninsula. In what

concerns Portugal – where this art had influence

all over the country, even in places without any

kind of Islamic tradition, and where the prestige

CARLOS JOSÉ ABREU DA SILVA COSTA

72 e-conservation

1 Alfarge is an Arab term meaning carved wood ceiling.

of Mudéjar masters reached its peak during the

15th century - the Mudéjar art was little studied

and even less published.

The alfarge work is not abundant in Portugal; with-

out the significance it has in Spain, it would have

been susceptible to get lost. Due to its material

vulnerability to fire and the fact that it has a shorter

lifespan, it was greatly altered and/or removed in

successive restoration campaigns.

In general, the alfarge work preserved until nowa-

days is characterized by an extreme heterogeneity

and can be divided in 2 main groups, as Dias [6]

notes: those located at the border - in Alto Minho

and Beira Interior – which are the result of Spanish

regional schools influence, and those located in

the Portuguese territory, which comprise some

workshops and/or teachers mostly from Coimbra

and Évora.Figure 3. Geographic distribution of the Mudéjar woodwork in

Portugal.

MUDEJAR CEILINGS

e-conservation 73

Location Date

Almeida – Church of St. Vicent in Castelo Mendo

Almeida - Leomil 16th century – First quarter

Almeida - Castelo Bom

Almeida – Church of Vilar Formoso 16th century – First quarter

Bragança - Church of St. Benedict

Church of Caminha 1565

Coimbra (Episcopal Palace) – M.N.M.C. 15th century

Coimbra (Old Cathedral) – M.N.M.C. 1413-1477

Figueira Castelo Rodrigo - Church of Escarigo 16th century – First half

Sabugal - Vila do Touro

Sabugal - Sortelha

Sertã - Marmeleiro

Torres Vedras - Church of St. Peter 16th century – First third

Pombal – Chapel of Vila de Redinha 1508

Soure - Church of St. James 1490

Coimbra - Tower of the Archpriest Amaral

Guimarães - Collegiate Church of Our Lady of Oliveira 1387-1411

Sintra – Palace of Vila de Sintra 1508

Oliveira do Hospital – Church of Seixo da Beira

Table 1. Mudéjar woodwork in Portugal; referenced locations.

The Mudéjar ceilings from the National Mu-seum Machado de Castro

Historic and Artistic context

Information such as the interpretation and analysis

of the formal composition, aesthetics, iconography

and history of the object are of the outmost im-

portance for those who undertake a conservation

intervention. Normally, this kind of information

helps to contextualise the intervention and to

establish actions and methodologies to use in the

treatment. However, there is almost no information

concerning Mudéjar art, especially on timbering

and alfarge. It is therefore imperative to fully ex-

plore the theoretical, historical and technical con-

siderations, bearing in mind that during interven-

tion is the best time to clarify uncertainties, acquire

data and enhance theoretical knowledge.

The Mudéjar ceilings were made during the bishopric

of João Galvão in Coimbra, between 1460 and 1481,

to decorate the background of the high choir sup-

port of the Old Cathedral of Coimbra. The ceilings

are an example where the use of an ornamental

Islamic system corresponds perfectly to the reli-

gious needs of the Christian population. They date

from 1469, the likely construction date of the Old

Cathedral’s high choir. It is believed that they were

painted and gilded in 1477, as outlined on a wood

beam. “It was in 1469 that the choir was inaugurated.

It occupied all the space of a big nave from the main

door till the second pillars. Two arches [...] served

as support to the choir. Those from the first section

of the nave who would lift their eyes would see some

beautiful Mudéjar ceilings that dressed the choir

from underneath – these ceilings were precious and

very rare examples in Portugal.” [10].

It is from an albumin print dated 1880, of unknown

author and that belongs to the collection of Alex-

andre Ramires, and a sketch dated 1894, made

during the demolition by Prof. A. Gonçalves, that

we can seen with clarity the presence of the panels

covering completely the high choir support. The

campaigns in 1894 promoted by A. Gonçalves led

to the disappearance of much of the works, the

high choir being completely dismantled and the

pieces transferred to the then Bishop's Palace.

Later these were incorporated into the Museum

Collection – "The Mudéjars ceilings that were moved

from the Old Cathedral to the low lands of the new

cathedral were beautifully recovered here" [8].

Formal description and interventions after the execution

The ceilings, now measuring 406 x 595 cm (type

1) and 406 x 590 cm (type 2), have structures and

supports in chestnut wood, as the majority of the

lace ceilings known in Portugal. They are decorated

by alfarge work with geometric elements combined

74 e-conservation

Geographic Reference Name Function Date

Évora Azmede (Castilian Moorish) Carpenter 1466

Sintra João Cordeiro Carpenter 1508

Coimbra João Martins Painter 1413

Guimarães Garcia de Toledo Carpenter 1387-1411

Guimarães Gonçalo Domingues Painter 1387-1411

Guimarães João Garcia Painter 1387-1411

Caminha Fernam Munhoz (Tui, Galiza) Carpenter 1565

Table 2. Mudéjar woodwork in Portugal; referenced artists (painters and carpenters).

CARLOS JOSÉ ABREU DA SILVA COSTA

in the foreground in order to create similar inter-

laced patterns. The background is flat and poly-

chromed with red, blue, ochre, black and gold leaf.

The type 1 ceiling presents alfarge lace work in eight

and sixteen points. The ceiling is polychromed and

painted in shades of red, blue and gold in tempera

on a thin preparation layer with epigraphic motifs

in the centre of the azafate. The profiles, made in

woodwork and artistically intertwined, are painted

in white, red and gold. The geometric composition,

made of broken and tangled laces, forms 8 and

16-pointed stars in the middle of which are beau-

tiful golden rosettes.

The type 2 ceiling presents alfarge work with geo-

metric lace motifs, forming stars and interlaces,

although it shows a higher rigidity and styling.

The profiles are white, red and golden but they

preserve few traces of polychromy. We believe the

colour layer was removed due to the fact that the

new geometric composition of the profiles did not

match the then existing painted decoration.

An interesting aspect of the construction is that

there are profiles in both ceilings that are assumed

as part of the structural composition integrating

the secondary timbering of the panels and have

a decorative function at the same time.

Figures 4 and 5. Left: Plan of the first floor of the Old Cathedral of Coimbra, with original location of the ceiling (source: IHRU); Right: Albumin (owned by Alexandre Ramires) where the type 1 ceiling above the high choir can be observed. In our opinion, the ceilings would not form a completely horizontal plane, but 2 slopes broken by a soft horizontal, each composed of 9 sets of panels.

e-conservation 75

Figures 6 and 7. Type 1 and 2 ceilings, repetitive stylising used in the profile decoration.

MUDEJAR CEILINGS

What we see today is, in fact, only a diffuse image

of what was the original alfarge work and decora-

tion. As Dias refers in his attempt to organize the

Portuguese Mudéjar Architecture [5], what we can

see today at the National Museum Machado de

Castro are “parts of the ceilings which decorated

the entrance of the Old Cathedral”. The panels went

through several interventions, both on the struc-

ture and on the polychromy, which altered their

disposition and profile geometry. Interventions

included overpainting and application of finishing

and protection coatings such as waxes, varnishes,

etc. (table 3).

Laboratorial exams were performed to gather in-

formation for a better understanding of the charac-

teristics and execution technique of the ensemble

and of the sequence of previous interventions. It

was also sought to quantify and characterise the

stratigraphy, with the number and thickness of

layers, for a possible removal of the lower quality

interventions.

Analysis to the pigments present in the overpaint-

ings and polychromy were performed at the Center

Figures 10 and 11. Polychromy adjacent to the existing 'alfarge' work (evidence of intervention 1) and inadequate connection between different panels (evidence of intervention 4).

76 e-conservation

Figures 8 and 9. Construction system with double function elements: structural and decorative; type 1 panel, with combined 16-pointed lace. 1 - Bell; 2 - 'Azafate'; 3 - 'Ponta de Azafate'; 4 - 'Almendrilla'; 5 - 'Candilejo'; 6 - 'Aspilla'; 7 - 'Costadillo'.

CARLOS JOSÉ ABREU DA SILVA COSTA

of Conservation and Restoration of the School of

Arts of the Portuguese Catholic University in Porto.

The pigments were identified by Energy Dispersive

X-ray Fluorescence (EDXRF).

There are few colours present. The areas analysed

by EDXRF identified iron, mercury and lead, from

earth pigments, vermilion and lead white, respec-

tively. These pigments are present both in the

original strata and in the overpaintings. An or-

ganic black was also identified.

The overlayers of pictorial strata were studied

through examinations of cross-section by optical

microscopy with reflected and polarized light at

different resolutions. The analysis of the fillers

present in the preparation layer was done by micro-

chemical tests which detected the presence of car-

bonate (chalk) and/or sulfate (gypsum) anions.

e-conservation 77

Original construction Type1 / Type 2 1477

Intervention 1 Type 2 Formal readjustment of the alfarge decorative elements Contemporary?

Intervention 2 Type 1 / Type 2 General surface overpaint with new finishing

Intervention 3 Type 2 Cleaning (scraping) with the removal of the colour layer (original and overpaint)

Intervention 4 Type 1 / Type 2 Formal readjustment of the structural elements for adaptation to a new location

Intervention 5 Type 1 / Type 2 General conservation work with application of new elements and wax-based protection layer

Contemporary? 1911?

3 to 5 important interventions after the original execution are accounted for

Table 3. Interventions after the execution; quantification, characterization and dating.

Sample location Elements identified Pigments present

Ca Fe Cu Ni Hg Pb Sr

Polychromy . Vermilion (HgS); lead-base pigment, possibly lead white (2PbCO3

.Pb(OH)2), earth pigments (FeOOH), calcium filler (gypsum)

Preparation layers

. calcium filler (gypsum), lead white (Pb3(CO3)2(OH)2), earth pigments (FeOOH), vermilion (HgS)

... ..

. . ..

Table 4. Chemical elements identified by EDXRF analysis and interpretation of the pigments present in the samples.

Figures 12 and 13. Microphotograph of cross-section obtained by optical microscopy.

MUDEJAR CEILINGS

In general, the panels present two main sequences

of strata: the first is the original one (strata 1 to 5)

and the second (strata 6 to 8) corresponds to the

overpaint. The preparation layer is essentially made

of calcium filler (gypsum). The particle size of the

filler is large and uniform and it was applied in two

different layers. It is likely to contain also lead

white, as identified in the EDXRF spectra. Areas

without filler were also observed due to lack of

cohesion between the particles and the binder.

Conservation state – identified degradations

Four types of degradations were identified in the

analysis of the conservation state of the ceilings:

the poor conservation condition of the support,

including a strong biological attack of the timber

support; the detachment of the colour layer of the

type 1 ceiling; the presence of numerous non-origi-

nal materials; the strong dirt accumulation, espe-

cially at the masonry level, where the weight of the

existing rubble combined with the low resistance

of the timbering could have induced a possible

collapse of the structure.

At structural level, a difference was noticed be-

tween the conservation state of timbering types:

the structural timbering of the building, mainly

the one of the type 1 ceiling was strongly degraded

by biological attack and led to its total replace-

ment (in case of type 2 ceiling, the conservation

state allowed its partial preservation after treat-

ment), and the structural timbering of the panels,

which presented similar degradations that are

described below.

The main degradation of the panels’ wood support

is related to the large number of fissures and cracks:

the natural movement of the wood, expansion and

contraction driven by continuous humidity changes,

combined with the strong oxidation of the nails

and its consequent volume increase resulted in the

appearance of major cracks. In the areas where

many nails were present, the iron corrosion products

contributed largely to the deterioration of the

wood support. Furthermore, the migration of the

corrosion products promoted by moisture altered

the colour layer as well. The structural timbering

of the panels presented similar degradations, having

been substituted due to the lack of resistance. The

possibility of its maintenance was considering but

this would imply the reinforcement with new wood

beams which would create weight problems and

Table 4. Description of the layers.

78 e-conservation

Layer description Thickness (µm)

1. White layer with presence of brown and translucent particles of different morphologies associated with the preparation layer

_

2. Translucent layer with possible isolating function 10

3. Orange layer applied in irregular shape, not visible in all the areas of the sample 15

4. Red layer consisting of birefringent vermilion particles 25-70

5. Gray layer consisting of white, brown and black particles of variable morphology 35

6. Irregular white layer of translucent particles 25-85

7. Red layer (vermilion) 10

8. Black layer with presence of birefringent particles 90

CARLOS JOSÉ ABREU DA SILVA COSTA

structural stability and, thus, the option was aban-

doned. It should also be mentioned that some

problems were observed due to the presence of

fungi and dry rot.

The conservation state of the polychromy also

presented considerable disparities, mainly due

to the massive loss of polychromy in the type 2

ceiling. The remaining polychromy was protected

by the relocation of the profiles and was in good

conservation state. Although type 1 ceiling pre-

serves more of the polychromy, it was poor conser-

vation condition, with numerous gaps of variable

size and depth and severe detachments and lack

of adhesion and cohesion between pictorial layers.

A pronounced darkening of all the surfaces should

also be noted, directly related to the existence of

a highly altered varnish and a thick superficial wax-

based layer, facilitating adhesion and accumulation

of dirt.

The ceilings were approached as a unique set in

the conservation treatment despite the fact that

it presented different pathologies and specific

problems. The panels of type 2 ceiling were in a

worse condition due to the location in the Old Ca-

thedral and in the museum. At the Old Cathedral,

the panels were always subject to varying levels

of moisture and temperature, and even exposed

to moisture from rain water or capillary ascension,

while at the museum they were subject to sun ex-

posure from north and south windows. However,

type 1 ceiling had more inventions, according to

the fact that a worst conservation state had re-

quired a higher number of interventions.

Therefore, and despite the problematic and parti-

cularities of each ceiling concerning the different

degradations and causes, our intervention on en-

semble aimed to achieve as final result an homo-

geneous quality in presentation, reading and aes-

thetic consistency.

Conservation-Restoration Intervention

The condition of the work itself defined the inter-

vention on the architectural wood structures,

making clear the materials to be used and the

operation mode. Obviously, such methodology

could not have been defined so precisely without

a clear assessment of the conservation state and

without performing diagnostic exams, interpre-

tation of data and compatibility tests.

The materials used in the intervention were chosen

taking into account not only their compatibility

with the original but also their reversibility and

stability in time, thereby safeguarding the integrity

of the object.

The operations and the technical specifications

followed the following outlines:

e-conservation 79

Intervention stages

Preliminary identification

Historic, artistic and technical identification;Specific photographic and graphic surveys;Definition of the degradations (mapping)

Digital photographyTechnical drawing (FreeHand)

Cleaning and local stabilisation

Protection and provisory fixation of the polychrome surface;General cleaning and removal of debris

Japanese paper and rabbit glue; manual and mechanical cleaning by controlled suction

MUDEJAR CEILINGS

The complete disassembly of the panels was un-

avoidable due to various reasons, such as the

treatment in the atelier and the relocation, and

to facilitate the proper treatment of support and

structures. Nevertheless, efforts were made, when-

ever possible, to avoid fragmentation and to safe-

guard various original elements such as connectors

and assembling parts, often neglected.

The intervention could have been limited to stop

the degradation process, hoping that the museum

environment, providing the best storage and ex-

hibition conditions, would act on the deterioration

agents. There were, however, numerous previous

interventions that needed to be corrected in order

not to induce perception errors of the whole com-

position: the ceilings were not designed for the

same place; the original number and arrangement

of the panels was not the actual one; the lace

geometric decoration in the case of type 1 ceiling

did not correspond to the original, and the poly-

Table 5. Stages in the conservation treatment and respective technical specifications.

80 e-conservation

Total disassembly, element conditioning and transport to the studio

Manual process, cell-air film and transport

Treatment of the colour layer

In depth cleaning;

General fixation;Application of final protective film

General cleaning: commercial anionic agent (C2000) in distilled water (60/40);Overpaint removal: mechanical (scalpel) and chemical -punctually (DMF+Xylene);

Rabbit glue; Acrylic resin Paraloid B72, in xylene

Levelling of gaps;Inpainting of lacunas;Application of finishing layer

Commercial filler (Modostuc)Acrylics W&N and pigments in Paraloid B72Acrylic mate varnish W&N (polychromy) and wax (reverse)

Wood treatment and others

Disinfestation Commercial product (Xylofene) by impregnation and injection

Consolidation;Restoration

Acrylic resin Paraloid B72 (3,5% – 21%);Wood from the same essence as the original, balsa and commercial cetone-based pastes

Execution of decorative elements;Treatment of metallic elements (bolts and others)

Wood from the same essence as the original; tannic acid (stabilisation) and Paraloid B72 (protection)

Treatment of the structural elements

Planning

Implementation of structural elements or restoration of the original, if the preservation state allowed for its reuse

Chestnut wood

Assembly; Threaded rods

Revision of the treatment performed on the golden polychromy

Intervention technical report

Preparation of technical documentation

CARLOS JOSÉ ABREU DA SILVA COSTA

chromy was altered by the overpaints, extensively

in case of type 2 ceiling.

The decision to remove the overpaintings was taken

after the assessment and study of the conservation

state of the underlying polychromy and it was con-

ditioned by two factors: the existence of original

paint in a relatively good condition and the thick-

ness and resistance of the overpaint layer which

could not exceed those of the original layer, in

order not to jeopardize its integrity during the

removal.

The inpainting sought to give a uniform reading

of the ensemble in order to recover its full artistic

potential. Often, with the absolute respect for the

authenticity and integrity of works of art, one of

the most important factors of a work may be dis-

regarded: its aesthetic value. How many times what

captures our attention in a recently conserved

work is precisely the lacunas that, under the excuse

of pseudo-deontology, are religiously maintained

highlighted? Indeed, this aspect plays an impor-

tant role in the concept of an artistic work and even

in the most controversial cases, its conservation

should prevail.

Thus, without resorting to technical or material

mimetism, the inpainting sought to restore the

general reading of the panels. Retouching was

made on the gold layer of the profiles in order to

regain the continuity of the geometric work of the

alfarge, on the central motifs with rosettes, on

those elements of the new support which prevented

a continuous reading of the background panels (in

some cases just by applying a patina) and punctual

areas such as lacunas that disturbed the overall

aspect either by their size or importance.

The contextualisation of the ceilings in a museum

may be seen as a loss of the value of use, i.e., the

inherent value to the purpose for which the panels

had been designed and their function. However, Figure 14. Constructive scheme for a dynamic system of the panel assembly.

e-conservation 81

the panels disposition and location still succeed

to convey their function as ceilings and architec-

tural elements, and yet, they no longer have that

function that is now performed by a plaster false

ceiling. The panels were exhibited by a horizontal

layout that by far best corresponds to the physical

need of the building and even to the aesthetic

reading of the geometric work of the alfarge, with-

out distorting or altering it.

The relocation of the Mudéjar ceilings was included

from the beginning in the architectural project.

Originally, it was planned to locate the two ceil-

ings in separate rooms but the project was revised

so that the relocation could be made in a single

room.

The architectural project also comprised the as-

sembly of the panels based on a practical two-way

system: on the one hand, convenient for conser-

vation, as the system allows the treatment of

individual panels because they were mounted

individually; and on the other hand, advantageous

for exhibition, by changing in a simple way their

distance from the floor. The mounting system in-

cludes the use of numerous threaded rods that

allow the vertical movement of the panels, changing

the exhibiting distance with 15 to 100 cm from

the ceiling and makes possible the partial or total

disassembly for future maintenance operations.

MUDEJAR CEILINGS

References:

[1] P. Dias, Geografia Mudéjar: Portugal, El

Mudéjar Iberoamericano, del Islam al Nuevo

Mundo, Barcelona, 1996

[2] A. Vasconcelos, Sé-Velha de Coimbra, Imprensa

da Universidade, Coimbra, 1930

[3] A. Gonçalves, Enumeração das obras prepa-

rativas para a instalação do Museu Machado

de Castro, Coimbra, 1929

[4] P. Dias, Arquitectura Mudéjar Portuguesa:

tentativa de sistematização, mare Liberum,

no. 8, Lisboa 1994

Other bibliography

A Arte Islâmica – A estética islâmica na Arte Cristã,

Civilização, Lisboa, 2000

A. Amaral, Digital Ortho-photos & Photogram-

metric Restitution - Ceiling of Mother-Church of

Caminha, Porto, 2006

Catálogo Guia. Museu Machado de Castro.

Secções de Arte e Arqueologia, Coimbra, 1941

V. Correia and A. N. Gonçalves, Inventário

Artístico de Portugal. Cidade de Coimbra,

Lisboa, 1947

P. Dias, Arquitectura de Coimbra na transição

do gótico para a Renascença, 1490-1540,

Coimbra, 1982

P. Dias, Techos Mudéjares, El Manuelino -

El Arte Portuguesa en la época de los

Descubrimientos, Electa, Lisboa, 2002

Notas, Museu Machado de Castro, Coimbra,

1916

82 e-conservation

CARLOS JOSÉ ABREU DA SILVA COSTAConservator-Restorer

Contact: ccosta@samthiago.comWebsite: http://www.samthiago.comPhone: 00351 96 410 88 12 (PT)

Conclusion

It was an intense challenge to assimilate such

complex project of rehabilitation; it was also a

great responsibility to carry on an intervention on

the heritage of a museum that is without doubt

one of the most important, well equipped and

planned in terms of design on a national level.

The communication between a the members of a

large working team - architects, engineers, cura-

tors, archaeologists, historians – with the collabo-

ration of various professions - construction, car-

pentry, electricity, archaeology and conservation

- actually represented a big challenge, which gave

everyone a broad work experience that no theo-

retical knowledge can replace.

Carlos Costa (b. 1980) is a conservator-restorer

graduated from the New University of Lisbon in

2003. From 2001 to 2004 he worked in part-time

as a freelance for several conservation enterprises

from Portugal. In 2005 he co-founded the con-

servation-restoration company Atelier Samthiago,

where he is a managing partner.

CARLOS JOSÉ ABREU DA SILVA COSTA

e-conservation magazine offers the possibility to publish bilingual articles in the html version. Articles inEnglish may also be published in French, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian and Romanian, at authors request.

Talk To Us!If you have just read the magazine

and you wish to tell us your

OpinionsIdeas

CommentsThoughtsProjects

InterestsFeedback

ObservationsReactions

or anything else...?

Just write us an email to:general@e-conservationline.com

e-conservationline

No. 12, December 2009

ISSN: 1646-9283

Registration Number125248

Entidade Reguladorapara a Comunicação Social

Propertye-conservationline, Teodora Poiata

PeriodicityBimonthly

CoverPhoto by Hussein Hassan M.H. Mahmoud,

Detail of a painted inscription from a tomb in Saqqara necropolis, Egypt

Executive EditorRui Bordalo

EditorsTeodora Poiata, Anca Nicolaescu

CollaboratorsAnca Dinã

Daniel Cull

Graphic Design and PhotographyAnca Poiata, Radu Matase

ExecutionTeodora Poiata

Address Rua de Santa Catarina, nº 467, 4D4480-779 Vila do Conde, Portugal

www.e-conservationline.com

All correspondence to: general@e-conservationline.com

LICENCE

Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works 2.5 Portugal

You are free:to Share — to copy, distribute and transmit this work

Under the following conditions:

Attribution. You must attribute the work in the manner specified by our licence, best by linking to CC website.

Noncommercial. You may not use this work for commercial purposes.

No Derivative Works. You may not alter, transform, or build upon this work.

e-conservationline informs that the published information is believed to be true and accurate but can not accept any legal responsibility for any errors or omissions that may occur or make any warranty for the published material, which is solely the responsability of their authors.

e-conservation magazine is published and distributed under the Creative Commons Licence

Attribution - Noncommercial - No Derivative Works.