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The Dhammachai International Research Institute (DIRI) is a research institute that traces the roots of the Buddhas teachings back to original manuscripts with the aim of finding true and clear evidence of early methods of the teaching and practice of Dhamma. The study and skill of genuine practice will help us obtain pure knowledge of Buddhism that has been passed down to mankind for the happiness and progression of life.

This journal will publish articles by members of DIRI as well as relevant papers by other scholars engaged in research into the field of Early Buddhism

DIRI was established in Australia and in New Zealand by the 60th Dhammachai Education Foundation of Australia and New Zealand in 2007 and 2009 respectively.

JDIRI Journal Volume 1ISBN 978-0-646-58571-0

Copyright 2012, Dhammachai International Research Institute Inc.

FounderThe Most Venerable

Phrathepyanmahamuni(Luang Phaw Dhammajayo)

Advisory BoardVen. Dr. Monchai Mantagamo

Professor Sukanya SudbanthadDr. Edward Crangle

Dr. Chaisit SuwanvarangkulDr. Siriporn Sirikwanchai

Sanit Svekaghane

Editorial BoardPhrakrupaladnayokwarawat

(Sudhammo Bhikkhu)Professor Garry W. Trompf

Dr. Jeff WilsonDr. Elizabeth Guthrie

CoordinatorPhraThong Katatepo

PhraAkbordin PanyaratanoSaichonnanee Rassameepaithun

Creative & DesignChayuda Chapman

Satit KriengmahasakSupakij Nantarojanaporn

Pittaya Tisuthiwongse

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The Most Venerable Phrathepyanmahamuni(Luang Phaw Dhammajayo)

Founder of DIRI,President of the Dhammakaya Foundation

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The teaching of the Great Lord Enlightened Buddha is Dhamma, which is the truth that leads sentient beings to be salvaged from the suffering of life and the cycle of rebirth and also truly enable them to access peaceful happiness to the full. Dhamma is akliko1, accessing the real teaching of the Buddha is, therefore, to access the entirety of humanity and other sentient beings in the hundred thousand koti2 universes - in the immeasurable cosmos.

1 akliko, being beyond time2 koti: ten million, highest counting point

Homily

2Prefaceby Professor Garry W. Trompf

3Preface

Not a month goes by these days without another important article being published on some newly uncovered Buddhist text, and among the discoveries are ancient materials about Buddhist meditation. It is a matter for our admiration that Venerable Phrakrupaladnayokwarawat (Sudhammo Bhikkhu), such a gentle and generous instructor in Buddhist concentration, has kept abreast of these findings and encouraged scholars to explore their implications. This present volume no better illustrates his industriousness and inspiration, and I am honoured to commend its contributions to as wide as readership as possible. Since it is also offered as one way of celebrating the ordination anniversary of his superior Most Venerable Luang Phaw Dhammajayo, the president of the Dhammakaya Foundation, we can add support to the Ven. Sudhammos gift with thanks for the initiatives and generosity of the Foundations leader. For, through the Dhammachai International Research Institute (DIRI), many relevant academic units of scholarship throughout the world have been funded and valuable high-level conferences very pleasantly hosted.

Consensus has yet to be reached about the nature and meaning of meditation in the original teachings of the Buddha, and insufficient attention has been paid to the purpose and effects of meditative practice for a proper understanding of the Buddhist tradition. This is why the research activities of DIRI are so important, and why the International Samadhi Forums and the inauguration of the DIRI journal with this volume should be welcomed into the sphere of ongoing scholarly discussions about Buddhism in the world of religions. Quite apart from in-house differences of outlook between schools and movements, all significant positions should be aired in print and if they are reinforced by the attention to detail and quests for critical analysis we find in DIRI-backed research then they should all the more be welcomed. For too long traditionalist transmission of teaching has left many of Buddhisms own highly adept practitioners unable or disinclined to consider their tradition with critical reflection. As a result foreign experts are constantly pontificating about what Buddhist teaching is essentially all about (even while acknowledging that the practices of Buddhism are open to all, and how valuable it can be for our understanding that many Zen roshis, for

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4instance, are of non-Japanese origin). But DIRI is crucial for fostering many and varied indigenous scholarly voices of those who can speak more and more confidently within contemporary academic forums and who are seeking to acquire critical skills of exposition and analysis in the study of meditative practice and inner visioning.

Such a journal as this portends to be of immense value for sharing crucial information, for allowing fruitful consultation between those bringing different kinds of expertise to the field, and for both disseminating knowledge about newly discovered texts and the re-reading ancient texts in a new light. With the uncovering of very ancient bits and pieces, some on bark and palm-leaf that belong among the most ancient book remains on the planet, how exciting it will be to see the unfolding of Buddhist scholarship in future years, and to see the increasing participation in it of well-trained minds under DIRIs beneficent sponsorship. Under Ven Sudhammos attentive eye, and with editor Dr Jeff Wilsons skills at presentation, one looks forward to this journals bright future.

Garry W. TrompfEmeritus Professor in the History of Ideas and

Adjunct Professor in The Centre for Peace and Conflict StudiesUniversity of Sydney

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5Congratulatory letter from Professor Murray Rae

6Congratulatory letter

The 60th Dhammachai Education Foundation of Australia and New Zealand has developed an increasing commitment in recent years to the academic study of the Buddhist tradition, including, in particular, its ancient texts and manuscripts. This commitment has manifested itself through the establishment of the Dhammachai International Research Institute, the fostering of strong relationships with a number of universities internationally, collaborative research projects, the funding of research and teaching, the provision of scholarships for students in Buddhist studies and the encouragement of students from the Foundation to undertake postgraduate study at the University of Otago and elsewhere.

The launching of the new Journal of the Dhammachai International Research Institute provides further evidence of this commitment to academic study and will provide a valuable vehicle for the dissemination of research in Early Buddhism. The central purpose of the journal will be to promote and publish research on the early texts of the Buddhist tradition. This is a timely development for as the Foundations Early Buddhist Manuscript Project pursues its goal of translating and digitizing previously unpublished Buddhist manuscripts, it will progressively make available a wealth of material deserving of careful scholarly consideration and analysis.

The study of ancient texts is always a collaborative exercise in-volving a range of academic disciplines. In the case of the Buddhist manuscripts, the skills of textual and linguistic analysis will be com-bined with the work of historians, ethnographers, anthropologists and scholars of religion. All of these will have an interest, therefore, in the publication of this new academic journal, both as contribu-tors themselves and as those whose own study of the Buddhist tradi-tion will be enriched by the scholarship made available through this journal.

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7I am pleased to congratulate the Dhammachai International Research Institute on this new initiative and look forward to its growing success.

Professor Murray RaeHead of the Department of Theology and Religion

University of Otago, New Zealand

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8Inspirational Messageby Phrakrupaladnayokwarawat (Sudhammo Bhikkhu)

9Inspirational Message

On the 44th Anniversary of the Ordination of Most Venerable Founder Luang Phaw Dhammajayo on 27th August 2012 and also in the historical year of the Buddhajayanti 2600 celebration of the Buddhas Enlightenment, Dhammachai International Research Institute (DIRI), as an academic organization preserving Early Buddhist teaching, proudly publish the inaugural volume of their research works. This is part of meritorious needs deserving the celebration.

Our institute believes in the sharing of knowledge with the academic realm and world society by promoting Buddhist studies and practice in order to encourage practitioners towards their profit and peaceful happiness. This complies with the Lord Buddhas words: Dhammo have rakkhati dhammacr meaning Dhamma protects the Dhamma practitioner. In addition to the research in Buddhist studies and essays, we plan to proceed on an expanding scale that covers larger academic and geographic areas including the preservation of the texts of ancient manuscripts by means of digital photography. These manuscripts are left to the mercy of time in Buddhist monasteries, libraries, museums and Buddhist research institutes worldwide. Recently, we began carrying out such a project with the University of Kelaniya and the University of Peradeniya in Sri Lanka as well as fieldwork around the Thai-Cambodia border.

Before the essays contained here could be collected, much support and encouragement was provided and that needs to be addressed. We are grateful to Prof. Dr. Harald Hundius and his Preservation of Lao Manuscripts Program that inspires our team and shares knowhow on how to preserve manuscripts in a digital form, which last much longer than microfilm. Acknowledgement must be given and appreciation shown to the EFEO in Phnom Penh, Cambodia for their generously donated time and instruction on the photographic techniques, devices and applications appropriate to our work. The progress of academic research personnel in DIRI has been assisted by the University of Sydney, Australia and the University of Otago, New Zealand by special agreement and

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cooperation throughout the last ten and five years respectively. Appreciation to the Social Research Institute, Chiang Mai University for the photographic duplication of some Lan Na Palm-leaf manuscript is hereby acknowledged. Most of all, we are thankful to the International Association of Buddhist Studies (IABS), of which we are members, for their openness in sharing opportunities with us, and for the chance to participate and contribute in several valuable conferences hosted by the national institutes of members. With the benefit of these associations, DIRI has benefited largely in terms of up to date knowledge on history, archaeology and anthropology. For example, we became aware of the new discoveries and research essays in the Early Buddhist Manuscript Project by the University of Washington and the University of Oslo. Later that led us to contribute in the project by establishing a special agreement with the University of Washington and the Unversity of Oslo. The conference also gave us the opportunity to make the personal acquaintance of international and vanguard scholars, who have published remarkable works. We were becoming familiar with, as well as sharing knowledge and ideas with, several very interesting academic organizations and institutes. We count this as the beginning of a policy of sharing and cooperation with the academic/ research community.

I look forward to receive your kind valuable advice and co-operation for further improvement and mutual academic advancement.

Phrakrupaladnayokwarawat (Sudhammo Bhikkhu)Director of Dhammachai International Research Institute (DIRI)

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Introductionby Dr. Jeff Wilson

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Introduction

This collection of articles marks the launch of the Journal of the Dhammachai International Research Institute (JDIRI). The articles presented here indicate some of the perspectives on Buddhism that the journal intends to represent. It will feature articles that investigate all aspects of studies into Early Buddhism, with particular emphasis on the discovery and study of old manuscripts. Some of these manuscripts are copies of discourses from the Pli canon. Others are extra-canonical Southeast Asian meditation manuals. The latter tend to relate to esoteric methodologies, as well as presenting exoteric notions from the vinya, the suttas and the abhidhamma. The former present researchers with the opportunity to examine early palm-leaf versions of canonical texts, many of which are often subjected to esoteric interpretations.

The JDIRI, then, plans to publish research articles about Early Buddhism and Buddhist meditation written by members of the DIRI and by international scholars. An important focus of the JDIRI will be research into the Buddhist texts related to the ancient meditation tradition, ml kammahn, of Theravda Buddhist mainland South East Asia, and the connections between this bor or ancient meditation tradition and the modern vijj dhammakya popular in Thai Buddhism today.

Over the past decade, the DIRI has trained a team of researchers, and entered into agreements with various universities around the world, for the purpose of pursuing these research interests. The DIRI sponsors graduate students from Thailand to undertake research degrees in Australia, New Zealand, the USA and other countries. Graduates from these programs have gone on to participate in various international Buddhist research projects such as the DIRI is assisting with the Early Buddhist Manuscript Project. at the University of Washington (Seattle) USA and the Unversity of Oslo, Norway. One of these graduates and participants in the Early Buddhist Manuscript Project is Dr. Chanida Jantrasrisalai; she is also a contributing author to this first volume of the Journal.

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The journal begins with Anatole-Roger Peltiers article on his investigations of a wooden chest containing palm-leaf manuscripts that were recently discovered in a cave in the Khammouan province of Laos. The readable texts reveal that their sources lie in the Pli canon. It is estimated, from the fact that the writing is in Pli in the Lao and Lan Na scripts - that the oldest date back to the sixteenth century and that they were probably sent to this location from Chiang Mai. These scripts were very similar at that time, as Peltier demonstrates, a fact that further strengthens the claim of a sixteenth century origin. It also adds to the notion of strong historical links between this region and the kingdom of Lan Na.

Chanida Jantrasrisalais article explores the possible interpretations of the term dhammakya in the Pli canon. It separately investigates the meanings of dhamma and kya as well as that of the compound itself. The result is a semantic field of possibilities from which she constructs a textual analysis of the probably intended meaning of the term. Two main issues emerge at once. Only one of the four Pli references to dhammakya have previously been taken seriously by scholars, perhaps because the Apadna discourses were considered too late to be considered expressions of Early Buddhism. The second issue arises from the meaning of the term itself. Jantrasrisalai suggests that many scholars have assumed that the term signifies the collection of teachings. dhamma can easily be interpreted as teachings and kya means a collection as well as body. She offers persuasive textual evidence to support her thesis that kya means more than the teachings of the Buddha and can also refer to the Buddhas body.

These two issues come together when we realize the amount of information that is added to the available pool of knowledge about dhammakya by the addition of the three references from the Apadnas. The earlier reference, from the Agaa-sutta provides the image of the dhamma body alongside that of the brahm body. Whenever the two terms dhamma and brahm are mentioned together in parallel, they usually refer to the state of highest purity. Then the Apadnas add the story of the Buddhas aunt, Gotam, who drinks dhamma milk from the embodied dhamma

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and is spiritually reborn. The dhammakya becomes her new identity as the milk nourishes her spiritually. It is something she is given as a verbal teaching.

To add the material from the Apadnas is to come closer to an understanding of the notion of dhammakya. It is to support what we have learned from the Agaa-sutta where the term designates the Tathgata. But it is not just the teachings that are to be equated with the dhamma; it is the reality that the Buddha has realized. The body of the Buddha signifies rebirth on a transcendental plane and indicates the acquisition of the same sort of qualities as those possessed by the Buddha. The transcendent paths that transform the ordinary person (putthajna) into the enlightened noble one belong to a whole spiritual process that includes the teachings but that is better understood as the creation or realisation of a new person, a Buddha within. The term dhamma then, in the expression dhammakya, refers to the processes that bring about the enlightened person.

Dr. Joe Zhou Ya writes about the discovery of Theravda manu-scripts around the region of Sipsongpanna in the Southwestern part of China. Theravda is the traditional form of Buddhism in what is historically a predominantly Mahyna country. Sipsongpanna is home to over a million people of the Dai group. Dai is also the name of the family of languages that Thai belongs to. It should not be surprising then that this Theravda community exists in China. The manuscripts used by this group reveal an unmistakable Theravda perspective. ZhouYa discusses the geographical sources of the manuscripts, the writing systems used, the materials employed as well as the particular sections of the Theravda canon emphasised in the region. She confirms the fragility of the earlier palm-leaf manuscripts and warns of the possibility of the imminent extinction of these valuable historical assets.

Another contributor, Kitchai Urkasame, is involved with the discovery, transliteration and translation of Lan Na manuscripts from Northern Thailand. Urkasames article Dhammakaya Verse : a Lan Na Thai Manuscript presents a Thai manuscript from the Lan Na period. The text is known as dhammakya. A Thai transliteration

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of the original content of the palm-leaf manuscript is provided along with a translation into modern Thai and English. It consists of a correlation of body parts with the sublime attributes of the enlightened Buddha, along with a note at the end that it should be recited every day. This suggestion reveals that this class of manuscript was part of the regular Buddhist practices of the era. Urkasames research confirms that meditation manuals of the born kammahn type existed in Thailand as well as Cambodia and Sri Lanka.

This author has previously produced studies into other Thai manuscripts of the born kammahn or yogvacara type. Urkasames investigations into the Pavarabandha, Buddhanorakan and Phra akasia reveal many correspondences between these Lan Na texts and the Khmer texts studied by Bizot and the cole Franaise dExtrme-Orient. Like the Khmer texts, these old Thai meditation manuals refer to the Nng Cittakumr, the subtle body that transmigrates from one lifetime to another. Other commonalities include the mantra samma arahan and the dhamma sphere at the centre of the body that makes possible the birth of the subtle body or bodies. The text presented here shows that the notion of dhammakya was also emphasized in the esoteric Theravda practices common in Thailand before the mid-nineteenth century.

The last article by Phra Kittipanyo discusses An Shigao who taught meditation in China during the first century CE. It reveals how this influential figure in early Chinese Buddhism employed Daoist concepts to translate Buddhist notions. It demonstrates that npnasati or mindfulness of breathing meditation was an important aspect of An Shigaos teaching. The technique of concentrating on a central point in the body is also shown to have been part of this meditation style. Phra Kittipanyo then draws comparisons between the essentials of Daoism, the system of An Shigao, and the teachings of Phramongkolthepmuni (Sodh Candasaro). He compares the Daoist practice of concentration on the centre of the body (dan tian) with the practices of An Shigao and Phramongkolthepmuni. It is the middle way of esoteric Buddhism, the central channel where

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the cakras are located, a location that suggests comparisons with Tantra.

While the primary focus of this journal is dhammakya, Luang Phaw Dhammajayo has instructed the Director of DIRI, Phrakrupaladnayokwarawat (Sudhammo Bhikkhu), to ensure that no bias be shown to any particular Buddhist school or nikai, and to support research that leads to a better understanding of the notion of early Buddhism. Previously undiscovered Buddhist manuscripts are emerging all the time, and each one adds another piece to the jigsaw of Buddhist knowledge. The DIRI is fully committed to supporting this search for knowledge.

This journal is freely offered by Phrakrupaladnayokwarawat (Sudhammo Bhikkhu) in order to promote interest and research in the Buddhas dhamma for the benefit of all sentient beings.

Dr. Jeff WilsonGeneral editor

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The Most Venerable Phrathepyanmahamuni(Luang Phaw Dhammajayo)HomilyGarry W. TrompfEmeritus Professor in the History of Ideas andPrefaceProfessor Murray RaeCongratulatory letterPhrakrupaladnayokwarawat (Sudhammo Bhikkhu)Inspirational MessageDr. Jeff WilsonIntroduction

Dr. Anatole-Roger PeltierThe Tipitaka Manuscripts of the Khammouan Cave in LaosDr. Chanida JantrasrisalaiDhammakya in the Pali CanonDr. Joe Zhou YaBuddhist Manuscripts in China: A Case Study of Theravda Buddhist Manuscripts in Sipsong Panna (Xishuangbanna, Yunnan Province, PRC)Kitchai UrkasameThe Dhammakya Verse: a Lan Na Thai manuscriptPhra Kiattisak KittipanyoAn Shigao and Early Chinese Meditation Techniques

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JDIRIContents

Articles

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1The Tipitaka Manuscripts of the Khammouan Cave

in LaosAnatole-Roger Peltier

2The Tipiaka Manuscripts of the Khammouan Cave in Laos

Anatole-Roger Peltier

On invitation of the Ministry of Information and Culture (Vientiane, Laos), I went to Thakhek, capital of the Khammouan province, on May 8, 2005. Accompanied by an officer of the Bureau of Culture and a Lao scholar, I went into the cave. The purpose was to decipher and read the palm-leaf manuscripts which are kept in the cave.

Nong Pa Fa Cave is located in Khammouan Province, center of Laos. As for the cave, it was discovered in April 2004 by a farmer from the village of Ban Nakhangxang, Khammouan Province

Road leading to Nong Pa Fa Cave

Map of Nong Pa Fa Cave

3In front of Nong Pa Fa Cave

Some of the Buddha images in the cave

Seeing the bats flying out of a hole, he climbed the cliff, 15 m above the ground, saw a beautiful cave with more than 200 Buddha images ranging in size from 15 cm to 1 m tall.

The wooden box containing the palm-leaf manuscripts

Most of the manuscripts are in poor condition

4The Buddha images and the wooden box of manuscripts were probably brought to the Nong Pa Fa Cave before or during the Siamese-Lao war (1826-1828 AD), almost 200 years ago.

1 Dr Anatole Roger-Peltier is a member of the EFEO (1970) and a professor at Chiang Mai Rajabhat University, Chiang Mai, Thailand. He has published many books on the Tai languages and literature of Mainland Southeast Asia.E-mail : peltieranatole@yahoo.fr

Taking the manuscripts out of the wooden box

Most of the manuscriptsare in poor condition

5The palm-leaf manuscripts that I have just presented belong to the Tipiaka. These texts, or parts of texts, are in Pli, the lingua franca of the Indochinese Peninsula. The versions in vernacular languages like Thai, only date from the beginning of last century. The latest version in local language comes from Tai Khn (Shan State of Burma), printed only five years ago.

Some manuscripts are readable

Pi Mahvagga

Collection of readable manuscripts

Reading manuscripts with Mr Khemphon Sengpathum, the officer of the Bureau of Culture, Khammouan Province

6The manuscripts of the Nong Pa Fa Cave have two forms of writing : Dham Lao from Laos, and Dham Lanna from northern Thailand. These two scripts are very similar, especially on manuscripts dating back several centuries, as shown in the following table. In fact, people do not make much difference between these two writings, they just call them Dham Phra Chao or Scripts of the Buddha .

Pi Mahvagga

Comparative Dhamma alphabets of Laos

7According to historical chronicles, the King Tilokaraja of Chiang Mai organized a Buddhist Council in 2020 BE (1477 CE). This Council is considered the eighth by the Lanna people. Its also mentioned that, at the request of King Pothisarat of Lang Xang (old name of Laos), sixty bundles of the Tipiaka manuscripts have been sent from Chiang Mai to Luang Prabang in 2066 BE (1523 CE). It is quite possible that the manuscripts from the Nong Pa Fa Cave were a remote copy of the Tipiaka from Chiang Mai.

According to research done by many linguists, it seems that the Dham Lao is influenced by the Dham Lanna script, and the latter derives from Mon writing, as Burmese does also.

Roman

Mon

Burma

Dham Lanna

Dham Lao

Nong Pa Fa Cave manuscripts

8On the cover of one of the Nong Pa Fa Cave manuscript, we can read :

As the writing is clearly that of Dham Lanna, one wonders if some parts of the manuscripts come from Muang Nandaburi, a former name of Nan province, in northern Thailand.

Two hypotheses can be considered, as shown in the following table and on the map in

- The first is that the manuscripts with Lanna script were sent from Chiang Mai to Luang Prabang, then to Vientiane and then to Thakhek, province of Khammouane.

- The second is that these manuscripts were sent from Chiang Mai to Nandaburi (Nan), then to Luang Prabang, then to Vientiane and, finally, to Thakhek.

Map of Laos

9The Nong Pa Fa Cave manuscripts are quite old and one of them dates back to 2112 BE (1569 CE), or 441 years, which is extremely rare for a palm-leaf manuscript. The oldest manuscript, however, is kept at the Provincial Museum in Luang Prabang (formerly the Royal Palace). It is dated 1520 CE. This manuscript, written in a Lao variant of Dhamma script, is a copy of the Parivra.

The manuscripts of Nong Pa Fa Cave show that the Lan Xang and Lanna had a close relationship in the past, especially in the culture.

These manuscripts are unique materials, both for the knowledge of the Tipiaka and the study of the Early Buddhism in the region.

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Dhammakya in the Pali Canon1

Chanida Jantrasrisalai

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Dhammakya in the Pali Canon1Chanida Jantrasrisalai

I. Why Dhammakya in the Pali Canon?The term dhammakya/dharmakya appears in Buddhist literature of different schools. Previous scholars have done excellent work on interesting aspects of studies regarding the term,2 mostly in relation to its notions in Mahyna Buddhism. But its usages have not been studied in detail, and what the present study offers is a close examination of the term in the Pali canon.

Admittedly, many previous studies mention the appearance of the term dhammakya in the Pali canon3, but only brief references have been made, most occurrences missed out altogether and some significant aspects not yet touched upon. 1 The topic was originally presented in the Annual Conference of the Australasian Association of Buddhist Studies (AABS) in December 2007 at the University of Western Sydney and once again in the International Seminar on Early Buddhism (ISEB) in August 2010 at the University of Sydney. The present paper is a revision of such presentations and a slightly revised edition of an earlier paper: Chanida Jantrasrisalai, Early Buddhist Dhammakya and Its Relation to Enlightenment, in The Pathway to the Centre - Purity and the Mind: Proceedings of the Inaugural International Samdhi Forum, ed. Edward F. Crangle (Sydney: Dhammachai International Research Institute Inc., 2010).2 To name but a few: A.J. Prince, The Conception of Buddhahood in Earlier and Later Buddhism, The Journal of the Oriental Society of Australia 7, no. 1-2 (1970); Barbara E. Reed, The Problem of the Dharmakya as Seen by Hui-Yan and Kumrajva (Ph.D., The University of Iowa, 1982); Ruben L. F. Habito, The Notion of Dharmakya: A Study in the Buddhist Absolute, Journal of Dharma. 1986. 11: 348-378. (1986); Peter Harvey, The Selfless Mind: Personality, Consciousness and Nirvana in Early Buddhism (Richmond, Surrey: Curzon, 1995); John Makransky, Buddhahood Embodied Sources of Controversy in India and Tibet, ed. Matthew Kapstein, Suny Series in Buddhist Studies (NY: SUNY Press, 1997); Paul Mus, Barabudur: Sketch of a History of Buddhism Based on Archaeological Criticism of the Texts (New Delhi: Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts: Sterling Publishers, 1998); Guang Xing, The Concept of the Buddha: Its Evolution from Early Buddhism to the Trikaya Theory, Routledgecurzon Critical Studies in Buddhism (London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2005).3 Paul Williams, Mahyna Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations, Library of Religious Beliefs and Practices. (London ; New York: Routledge, 1989), p. 352 n.10; Paul Harrison, Is the Dharma-Kya the Real Phantom Body of the Buddha?, The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 15, no. 1 (1992), pp. 50; Reed, op. cit.; Xing, op. cit.; Harvey, The Selfless Mind, op. cit.

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4 D.III.84.5 Ap.I.13; Ap.I.168, Ap.II.532.6 For example, Dutt refers to the passage as one of early references that lend support to Mahyna development of the Tri-kya theory. Nalinaksha Dutt, Mahayana Buddhism (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1978), p. 138-139. Harvey refers to the passage as an early Buddhist reference that indicates the nature of the Tathgata. Harvey, The Selfless Mind, op. cit. pp. 233-234.7 See, for example, Mary E. Lilley, The Apadana of the Khuddaka Nikaya (London, New York [etc.]: Pub. for the Pali text society by the Oxford university press, 1925), p. v; H. R. Perera, Apadna, in Encyclopaedia of Buddhism, ed. G. P. Malalasekera (Colombo: Govt. of Ceylon, 1961), p.3.

Most of them refer only to the Aggaa-sutta passage,4 missing out the three Apadna references.5 The reason could be either that the scholars concerned have taken the aforementioned text as representing early Buddhism,6 while the Apadna is usually seen as a later compilation,7 or that the Apadna literature was not accessible at the time of those studies.

The present paper concentrates on overlooked parts of the Pali canon on dhammakya. It places the use of the term in a distinct context, in a way not presented previously. Rather than treating the Pali canonical references either as purely representing early Buddhist ideas or simply sectarian Theravda thoughts, it understands the function of the Pali canon as something in between that reflects the understanding of the term in an early Theravda community that sought to preserve and understand the Buddhas teachings as they are.8 By means of this more direct approach, the resulting interpretation, while dissimilar to most previous studies, will be interestingly more or less in correspondence with the majority of traditional understandings, which have been too downplayed by contemporary academics. The following will briefly explain how and why the present study differs from previous works with respect to their research approaches.

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II. The Different Approach

A fairly established academic understanding has settled regarding the term dhammakya in the Pali canon, that it was used merely in the sense of the Buddhas teachings.9 In concluding so, most studies refer to a few canonical passages where the Buddha appears to equate himself with dhamma. The first passage frequently mentioned is located in the Aggaa-sutta where the term dhammakya, along with three other terms,10 are said to designate the Tathgata.11 The second is a passage in the Mahparinibbna-sutta where the Buddha is said to say that the teaching taught and the discipline laid down by him (dhamma-vinaya) would be the future teacher after his passing.12 The third is the Buddhas discourse delivered to the elder Vakkali which states that it is useless to long for seeing the Buddhas corruptible physical body, for he who sees the dhamma sees the Buddha and he who sees the Buddha sees the dhamma.138 It is usually debatable to determine the position of the Pali canonical context at all. To rely on it as purely early Buddhist thought requires caution, for there are at least some signs of later re-arrangment. But to view it as only Theravda could mean to deprecate the effort of the old Buddhist community who sought to preserve the Buddhist teachings intact at best of their ability, as may be observed by its separation of Theravda traditional writing in commentarial and postcanonical accounts rather than adding them to the canon. The well-preservation of the Pali suttas can be witnessed also by its close correspondence with the content of ancient Gndhr Buddhist manuscripts, dated 1st-5th century CE, known to be the earliest Buddhist manuscripts ever found.To stratify the older and later layers of parts of the canon is also not an easy task and not always perfectly correct.9 For example, see Dutt, op. cit., p. 142; Reed, op. cit., pp. 28-29; Xing, op. cit., p. 74; Williams, op. cit., p. 352, n.10; Harrison, op. cit., p.50.For example of different voices that are the minority of academic interpretations, see Harvey, The Selfless Mind, op. cit., p. 234; Frank E Reynolds, The Several Bodies of the Buddha: Reflections on a Neglected Aspect of Theravada Tradition, History of Religion 16(1976), p. 376, n. 6; David Norton Need, Rendering the Body: Etherealization and Sense in Vedic and Early Buddhist in Religiosity (University of Virginia, 2004), pp. 383-387. It is interesting to note that the minority of academic interpretations of the term dhammakya accord with the majority of Theravdin interpretations, as detailed in the Appendix. But very few instances of traditional understandings on the term agree with the interpretation of the academic mainstream.10 The three terms are dhammabhta, brahmakya, and brahmabhta.11 D.III.84.12 D.II.154.13 S.III.120.

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14 It is possible that the identification of d hammakya with dhamma in the sense of teaching, which has become a common practice in many previous works, was influenced by different factors. A possibility is some of Buddhaghoas writings viewed through the researchers preferred style of interpretation. For example of this case, see Dutt, op. cit., p. 138-142. Reed and Xing seem to follow Dutts lead. Reed, op. cit., p. 29; Xing, op. cit., pp.35-36. But for some scholars, the idea seems to have been influenced partly by the authors aversion of Mahyna conception of dhammakya as transcendent body, or more specifically of kya as body. For example, see the expression in Harrison, op. cit., pp. 74-76. Cf. Chanida Jantrasrisalai, Early Buddhist dhammakya: Its Philosophical and Soteriological Significance (University of Sydney, 2009), pp. 18-19.

Of the three canonical passages mentioned above, only the first, namely the Aggaa-sutta passage, contains the term dhammakya, while the other two do not. The reason for which all these passages are employed as being Pali references to dhammakya is the seeming identification of the Buddha and his teachings. This may reflect the scholarly methodology employed whereby previous studies were set off from a preconception regarding the early meaning of dhammakya,14 as if the term dhammakya/dharmakya was exclusively related to the Buddha.

The present study employs a different approach. Rather than beginning from the preconception of such an exclusive relation of the term to the Buddha, it simply starts from listing Pali canonical passages in which the term dhammakya appears. The use and meaning of the term dhammakya in each passage is then assessed, by means of text critical analysis, from each passages environmental setting. On providing interpretations, it considers the philosophical background existing in the Pali canonical context as a key tool to determine the intention of particular expressions. A review of contemporary academic interpretations will be made according to each particular passage as we proceed. By means of a neutral method of assessment, it hopes to provide resultant interpretations which are more direct and inclusive.Below is the list of all Pali canonical passages containing the term dhammakya.

15

III. References to Dhammakya in the Pli Canon

In the Pali canon, the term dhammakya appears four times; once in the Aggaa-sutta of the Dgha-nikya and three more times in Apadna literature. They can be listed as follows:1. Aggaa-sutta: Dhammakya as the Tathgatas Designation (D.III.84)2. Paccekabuddha-apadna: Dhammakya and Paccekabuddhas (Ap.I.13)3. Mahpajpatgotam-apadna: Dhammakya and Noble Disciple (Ap.II.532)4. Atthasandassakathera-apadna: Dhammakya and Previous Buddha (Ap.I.168)Of these four passages, only the first was cited in previous scholarly works that refer to the term dhammakya in the Pali canon, while the latter three seem to have been unknown to them.15 The present study takes all these references as a whole to reflect the use and understanding of the term in the early Theravda community - the Pali canonical period.16

We shall now look at each passage in detail.

15 With the exception of a PhD dissertation (Need, op. cit.), other scholarly works do not mention the appearance of the term dhammakya in the Apadna literature.16 Even though the Apadna literature is usually viewed as a later added part, its canonical status in all editions of the Pali canon is beyond doubt.

16

IV. Reference 1: Dhammakya as the Tathgatas DesignationThe first Pali reference to the term dhammakya that is well known to all previous works is a passage in the Aggaa-sutta, wherein the term is said to designate the Tathgata.17 The narrative setting is a conversation between the Buddha and two novices, namely Vseha and Bhradvja, who went forth from Brahmin families and were awaiting higher ordination (upadampad). In the Buddhas discourse being delivered, the term dhammakya is mentioned in the context of a definition of an heir of dhamma or the Tathgatas true son:

yassa kho pan assa vseha18 tathgate saddh nivih mla-jt patihit dah asahrik19 samaena v brhmaena v devena v mrena v brahmun v kenaci v lokasmi, tasseta kalla vacanya:20 bhagavatomhi putto oraso mukhato jto dhamma-jo dhamma-nimmito dhamma-dydo ti. Ta kissa hetu? Tathgatassa heta Vseha adhivacana dhamma-kyo iti pi brahma-kyo iti pi, dhamma-bhto iti pi brahma-bhto iti pti.

17 This passage is claimed in some scholarly works as being the sole appearance of dhammakya in the Pali canon. For example, see Williams, op. cit., p. 284, note 5; Harrison, op. cit., p. 50. 18 The vocative vseha in this passage is variably written in different editions of the Pali sutta. The PTS and CS versions put the word in singular form, while the BJ and SR versions show the word in plural form vseh. The singular form implies that the Buddha was speaking to vasettha only, while the plural form implies both vseha and bhradvja. (The latter is a reduced form of a dvanda compound in which there remain only one component and the plural number.) the present paper takes this to be plural, as it is stated at the beginning of the story that both novices approached the Buddha together [D.III.80], and at the end of the story that both of them were delighted and rejoiced at the Blessed ones speech. [D.III.98].19 Some manuscripts write asahriy.20 SR edition writes, vcya.

17

D.III.84Vseha and Bhradvja, he whose confidence in the Tathgata is settled, rooted, established, solid, irremovable by any ascetic or brahmin, any deva or Mra or Brahm or anyone in the world, can truly say: I am a son of the Blessed one, born of his mouth, born of dhamma, created by dhamma, an heir of dhamma. Why is that? Because, Vseha and Bhradvja, this designates the Tathgata: dhamma-bodied, brahma-bodied, (who) become dhamma, or (who) become brahma.21

The passage lists four words by which the Tathgata may be denominated: dhammakya, brahmakya, dhammabhta, and brahmabhta. As the context of this passage is complicated, it requires a lengthy discussion.Previous Scholarly InterpretationsPrevious scholars interpret the term dhammakya in this passage either as a substantive or an adjective. Most of them interpret the first component, i.e., dhamma, in the sense of the Buddhas teaching(s). For example, Dutt interprets the term as being a tappurisa compound referring to a collection of the Buddhas teachings and disciplines.22 Reed interprets it in the same way that it refers to the body of the Buddhas verbal teachings.23 Similarly, Kajiyama notes that the later expression of dharmakya as a collection of Buddhist stras agrees with its meaning in the Pli Nikya.24 Xing also interprets the term dhammakya in this passage as the Buddhas collective teachings.2521 The two latter compounds are undoubtedly adjectives, as their last component bhta, which is a past participle modifying the subject, indicates. The first two compounds, each consists of two substantives, while being potential to be translated as one among the two alternative compounds, i.e., kammadhraya (Skt.karmadhraya), or tappurisa (Skt.tatpurua), seems more likely to be a bahubbhi,21 being a designation of the Tathgata, as Harrison has suggested. Harrison, op. cit., p. 50.22 Dutt, op. cit., p. 139.23 Reed, op. cit., pp. 28-29.24 Yuichi Kajiyama, Stpas, the Mother of Buddhas, and Dharma-Body, in New Paths in Buddhist Research, ed. Anthony Kennedy Warder (Durham, N.C.: Acorn Press, 1985), p. 14.25 Xing, op. cit., pp. 71, 74.

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26 Richard Gombrich, The Buddhas Book of Genesis, Indo-Iranian Journal 35(1992), p. 165.27 Harrison, op. cit., p. 50.28 Ibid., p. 54.29 Need, op. cit., pp. 377-378. As he comments:

......care should be taken with respect to reading the compound as one who has the teachings as his body, or one whose body has been developed in accordance with the teachings, where teachings is understood as text or canon.30 Reynolds, op. cit., p. 376 n. 6. He comments:

As we shall see, the term dhammakya was already in use in the canon. However in the later context it is clear that dhammakya is being identified with the scriptural legacy.31 He notes further that, even though the term has encountered a series of changes of meanings in the Pli commentarial tradition, it has consistently been employed to express the Buddhas essence. Tomomichi Nitta, The Meaning of Dhammakya in Pli Buddhism, Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies 51, no. 1 (2002), p. 47.32 Harvey, The Selfless Mind, op. cit., p. 234. Harvey also interprets dhamma that is the Tathgatas nature as Nibbna.

Gombrich, while differently translating the term in this passage as a bahubbhi compound dhamma-bodied, similarly interprets it as an indication that the Buddhas true import is due to his teaching, not his personality.26 Likewise, Harrison proposes that the term dhammakya in the Aggaa-sutta is to be translated as a bahubbhi compound,27 and that its first component, dhamma, is used in the sense of the Buddhas teaching.28

In contrast, Need believes that the meaning of dhammakya in this passage is unclear and can hardly be certain. Nevertheless, he suggests a caution against the interpretation of the first component, dhamma, in the sense of text.29 Similarly, Reynolds seems to suggest that the interpretation of dhammakya in the early Pli suttas as teaching or scripture has been developed at a later date.30 Nitta, while reluctant to ascribe an exact meaning to the term dhammakya in the sutta, similarly expresses a disagreement towards the claim that the original meaning of dhammakya is exclusively a collection of the teachings.31

Harvey is more specific in regard to the interpretation of the term dhamma as the first component of dhammakya. On interpreting the term in the Aggaa-sutta, he suggests a bahubbhi compound, interpreting dhamma, that is the Tathgatas body, as the noble eightfold path.32

19

In brief, contemporary academics refer to the term dhammakya in the Aggaa-sutta either as a noun or an adjective. As a noun, the term is interpreted mostly as the Buddhas teachings collected together. As an adjective, the terms first component dhamma is also mostly interpreted in the sense of the Buddhas teaching collected together, with a few exceptions.

The translation of the term dhammakya in this passage as a bahubbhi compound agrees with explanations given by traditional Pli commentators, Buddhaghoa and Dhammapla. The former explains the term as (he) who has dhamma as body, and interprets its first component either as the Buddhas verbal teaching33 or as the ninefold transcendent dhamma (navavidha lokuttaradhamma).34 The latter refers to the ninefold transcendent dhammas (nava-lokuttara-dhamma) as being the Tathgatas nature or body. He relates it with the Buddhas enlightenment that it is the dhamma which all Tathgatas have attained and have become.35

33 DA.III.865.34 SA.II.313. Even though this is not a direct commentary to the Aggaa-sutta, its mention of dhamma that is the Tathgatas body refers directly to the term dhammakya in the Aggaa-sutta. Note that the expression ninefold transcendent dhamma (navavidha lokuttaradhamma) is a commentarial expression collectively referring to nine dhammas mentioned in the canon, i.e., the four transcendental fruits (phalas) along with their corresponding paths (maggas) and Nibbna.35 ThrA.II.205.Dhammabhtehti dhammakyatya dhammasabhvehi, navalokuttaradhammato v bhtehi jtehi, dhamma v pattehi. Having become dhamma means having dhamma as their own nature, for they (the Tathgatas) have the dhamma as body. In other words, they have become or have been born through the ninefold transcendent dhamma, or they have attained the dhamma.

20

Points to ConsiderIt may be observed that the difference in previous scholarly interpretations of the term dhammakya in this passage mainly pertains to the inter-relatedness of two distinctive meanings of the term dhamma, i.e., the reality the Buddha has realized and its verbal expression, i.e., his teaching(s).36 Closer attention is therefore required regarding prior fine distinctions, in order to re-interpret the term dhammakya more precisely. Also, more attention needs to be paid to the nuance of the context. At least, three inter-connected issues required a close reading:

1. saddh: the criterion of being the Tathgatas son2. implication of parallel descriptions between monks and brahmins3. implication of parallel usage of the terms dhamma and brahma

The following section will assess these points more closely. It will then determine the most probable meaning of the terms first component, dhamma, followed by considering the most appropriate meaning of the terms second component, kya.

36 The two inter-related meanings of dhamma may be distinguished according to the context of the following passage:Adhigato kho me aya dhammo gambhro duddaso duranubodho santo pato atakkvacaro nipuo paitavedanyo. Aha ceva kho pana dhamma deseyya pare ca me na jneyyu. Vin.I.4-5, M.I.167-168, S.I.136.This dhamma attained by me is deep, hard to see, hard to comprehend, serene, subtle, beyond the dominion of reasoning, recondite, apprehensible only to the wise. Would I preach the dhamma, others will not understand.In this passage, which is generally regarded as a revelation of the Buddhas thought after his perfect enlightenment and prior to his first teaching, the word dhamma is used in two distinct contexts. Its first appearance in the phrase dhamma attained by me (adhigato dhammo) represents the reality realised or spiritually experienced by the Buddha. Its occurrence in the second phrase would I preach the dhamma (dhamma deseyya) stands for the teaching taught by the Buddha which can be regarded as the verbal expression of the reality he has realised.

21

Saddh: Criterion of being the Tathgatas SonThe first point to be looked at is the criterion of being the Buddhas true son which is, in this passage, defined by means of his irremovable confidence in the Tathgata. The degree of saddh is described here as settled, rooted, established, and solid so that it cannot be altered either by the one who possesses magical power, or who is of so-called high birth, or by divine power, evil power, or highest power these being symbolized by the titles ascetic, brahmin, god, Mra, and Brahm respectively.

According to Buddhist philosophy in the Pali canonical context, this kind of unshakeable confidence is not merely a strong belief or firm faith in the ordinary sense, but is a specific quality of noble persons (ariya-puggala)37 who have witnessed the reality and become independent or self-reliant regarding Buddhas dhamma, as is evident in a passage describing the spiritual attainment of a Stream-enterer:

seyyathpi nma suddha vattha apagatakaka sammad eva rajana paigaheyya, evam eva tassa purisassa tasmi yeva sane viraja vtamala dhammacakkhu udapdi ya kici samudayadhamma sabba ta nirodha-dhamman ti. atha kho so puriso dihadhammo pattadhammo viditadhammo pariyoghadhammo tiavicikiccho vigatakathakatho vesrajjappatto aparappaccayo satthu ssane.

37 Buddhist noble ones are those who have spiritually realised/experienced the reality and hence have been transformed by means of a permanent eradication of certain influxes (savas). They are classified into four main levels; 1) sotpanna - Stream-enterer, 2) sakadgm - Once returner, 3) angm - Non-returner, and 4) arhant - Arhat. A Stream-enterer (sotpanna) is a noble disciple of the lowest degree of enlightenment. According to Buddhist philosophy, a stream enterer (sotpanna) has uprooted three fetters: 1) the view that the assemblage of five aggregates subject to clinging (paca-updna-khandha) is self or belonging to self (sakkyadihi), 2) the doubt regarding truth or realities (vicikicch), 3) the practice of discipline or ceremonial observances without right understanding that could lead to strong attachment (slabbataparmsa). This is elaborated in detail in the Mahniddesa. Nd1.27, 141, 507.

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Vin.II.192, A.IV.186, 210, 213Just as a piece of clean cloth that is deprived of dirt would well-absorb the dye, the pure and clear eye of dhamma (dhammacakkhu) arose to the man, on that current seat, that whatever whose nature is to arise, are those whose nature is to cease. At that time, the man has seen dhammas, attained dhammas, known dhammas, dived into dhammas; has crossed beyond doubt, deprived of uncertainty; has obtained confidence in the masters teaching, without having to rely on others.As a consequence of transformation resulting from their spiritual

realization of realities, these noble disciples have eradicated at least the three lower fetters (sayojanas), including doubt (vicikicch).38 Therefore, the quality of saddh in the Pli Aggaa-sutta as a property of the Buddhas true son, indicates the persons state as being a noble disciple who has witnessed the truths, rather than anyone who claim himself a Buddhist.39

The definitions of true son reaffirm his state of being a noble disciple. Here, he is entitled a) a son of the Blessed Lord, b) who is born of his mouth, c) who is born of dhamma, d) who is created by dhamma, and e) an heir by (of) dhamma. These titles refer to different aspects of the same person. Each of them corresponds, in one way or another, to the activities and qualities of a Stream-attainer

38 See note 37 above.39 As Harvey rightly states in The Selfless Mind, op. cit., p. 234: A person of such firm faith is clearly at least a Stream-enterer, one who has entered the `stream of the Holy Eightfold Path (S.V347) and is endowed with `unwavering confidence in the three refuges: the Buddha, Dhamma and the Holy Sangha of Stream-enterers and other saints (S.II.68).

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40 Different sets of qualities of a Stream-attainer as mentioned in the canon are as follows:1. Being possessed of four activities: a) association with a virtuous one, b) listening to his teaching, c) proper contemplation on the teaching heard, d) proper practice according to the teaching. D.III.227, S.V.347.2. Being possessed of the noble eightfold path, and, to some extent, the qualities of a non-trainee (asekhadhamma). S.V.348, S.V.380-385.3. Having witnessed (seen, known, attained, penetrated) the truth and becomes independent or self-reliant regarding Buddhas dhamma. Vin.II.192, A.IV.186, 210, 213.4. Being endowed with four qualities of a Stream-attainer (sotpattiyaga), namely, unwavering confidence in the Buddha, dhamma, Sangha; and the perfect virtues beloved of the noble ones (ariyakanta-sla). D.II.93-94.5. Having quitted of the five evils, as well as having penetrated the truth to be realised - the dependent causation (paicca samuppda). S.II.68-70, S.V.387-389.

It is more likely that a Stream-attainer possesses all of these qualities, rather than some of them. These different descriptions seem to represent different steps in the process of realisation of an individual, rather than representing different individuals.

mentioned in the canon.40The title son of the Blessed one suggests that, through the

Buddha, the person was (re)born to the same plane (bhmi) to which the Buddha belongs, i.e., passing beyond the worldly plane (lokiya-bhmi) to the transcendental plane (lokuttara-bhmi). So the title son of the Blessed one suggests that the person is a noble disciple (ariya-svaka).

The next title clarifies the means by which the person was born through the Buddha. Born of his mouth signifies his rebirth into such a transcendental plane through the Buddhas verbal teaching.

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This corresponds to the set of four activities41 belonging to a Stream-attainer (sotpattiyaga) which brings about other sets of qualities.

The titles born of dhamma (dhammaja) and created by dhamma (dhamma-nimmita) imply a further step - the realization or attainment of dhamma, and the consequent transformation of the person. Having listened to the teaching, having contemplated on it, and practised according to it, the person then attains or spiritually realizes the realities. Consequently, some fetters (sayojanas) have been eradicated and superior transcendent qualities have arisen in him.42 In other words, the persons mental qualities have been raised up from an ordinary level to a supramundane level; in which case he is said to be (re)born of dhamma (dhammaja) and created by dhamma (dhammanimmita).

41 See no. 1 of note 40.While it is evident in the canon that some noble disciples could attain their noble state through a single hearing of the Buddhas discourse without other preparatory activities, it can be explained that, during the time of their listening and understanding of the discourse, their mental qualities have been gradually purified and thus prepared. All their three modes of activities, i.e., body-speech-mind, were all at peace, and hence considered right or wholesome in accordance with the first six constituents of the noble eightfold path. This engenders the seventh (sammsati) and eighth (sammsamdhi) constituents of the path, which can be identified with the appropriate state of mind which is instrumental to the realisation. As is usually described in the canon, when the mind of listeners becomes workable as such, the Buddha would consider it is the right time to deliver a deeper discourse associated with the four noble truths in order to direct the listeners workable mind to the realisation of the truth. In this manner, a single listening to the discourse can be equated with the right practice elaborated into these four activities.42 The mention of the rise of new qualities does not preclude the idea that the person attains the previously hidden qualities.

25

Therefore, the titles dhammaja and dhammanimmita indicate the persons acquisition of a new state being his rebirth to the dharmic plane, obtained through the penetration of the dhamma.43 As Horner notes, a spiritual paternity and sonship are meant, not a physical one.44

The last title an heir by means of dhamma (dhammadyda) is generally employed to refer to a noble disciple, and more specifically an Arhat.45 It indicates the acquisition of the same sort of qualities as those possessed by the Buddha - the qualities arising as a consequence of spiritual realization of the reality. Such qualities or properties, being the indicators of the noble lineage, must effectively distinguish both the Buddha and his dharmic inheritor from a worldly individual (puthujjana).

Hence, the description of his unwavering confidence in the Buddha and the various descriptions of such a true son indicate his state as a noble disciple (ariya-svaka). This point will be helpful for further understanding of other implications as will be discussed below.We shall now proceed to the next point.

43 This is, perhaps, as Eliade observes, for the Buddha, one can be saved only by attaining nirva - that is, by going beyond the plane of profane human experience and re-establishing the plane of the unconditioned. In other words, one can be saved only by dying to this profane world and being reborn into a transhuman life impossible to define or describe.Mircea Eliade, Yoga: Immortality and Freedom, N.Y: Panthean Books, 1958, p. 165.44 I. B. Horner, Early Buddhist Dhamma, Artibus Asiae 11, no. 1 (1948), p. 119.45 For example, see M.II.25-29, S.I.221-222, Ap.II.544.

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Implications of Parallel Descriptions of Monks and BrahminsAs Gombrich points out, the passage in question is comparable to the Brahmins claim:46

brhma va brahmuno putt oras mukhato jt brahma-j brahma-nimmit brahma-dyd.

D.III.81.The Brahmins are Brahms own children, born of his mouth, born of Brahm, created by Brahm, heirs of Brahm.

Grammatically, the component brahma- in the three compounds brahmaj, brahmanimmit, and brahmadyd may be translated either as a masculine Brahm which refers to the bramanical creator, or a neuter brahman which represents brahmanical ultimate reality.47 Therefore, from the above two parallel passages, the comparable context may be arranged in two forms, according to two different translations of the term brahma- as follows.

46 Gombrich, op. cit., p. 163. 47 Ibid, p. 165. Here, Gombrich briefly mentions the distinction between the masculine Brahm (the creator) and the neuter brahman (ultimate reality).

27

From the table, two possible translations of brahma- suggest different sets of parallels implied in the context. This may be summarized as follows:

Table 1: Parallel descriptions of noble disciples and Brahmins

Implied Parallel

Mythical paternity& Spiritual paternity

Brahm & Tathgata

Brahms mouth& Tathgatas verbal teaching

Brahm & dhamma

brahman & dhamma

Brahm & dhamma

brahman & dhamma

Brahm & dhamma

brahman & dhamma

Noble Disciples (D.III.84)Tathgatas sons

Born of Tathgatas mouth

born of dhamma (dhamma-ja)

created by dhamma (dhamma-nimmita)

heirs of dhamma (dhamma-dyda)

Brahmins(D.III.81)Brahms children

Born of Brahms mouth

Born of Brahm

Born of brahman

created by Brahm

created by brah-man

heirs of Brahm

heirs of brahman

No.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

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1. The Tathgata and Brahm,48 the creator god2. The Tathgatas mouth (verbal teaching) & Brahm mouth.3. The dhamma and Brahm, the creator god;or

The dhamma and Brahman, the ultimate reality.In both instances of the alternative translations of brahma-, it appears that there are different degrees of semantic depth of terms in the whole passage. In the brahmanical claim, the passage first refers to Brahms mouth, but later on to the Brahm as a whole. The same holds true for the Aggaa-sutta passage. At the beginning, the context refers to the Tathgatas mouth, which implies his verbal teaching, comparable to Brahms mouth. But afterward it refers to dhamma, which is comparable to Brahm the creator, or Brahman the ultimate. With this fine distinction, it seems not appropriate to readily conclude that the term dhamma in the passage refers to the Buddhas verbal teaching simply because the passage begins with the phrase mukhato jto (born of mouth).49 Hence, our study will closely examine the above two sets of parallels one after another.

48 Note that Brahm in Brahmanical sense is different from the Brahm as beings in form (rpvacara) or formless (arpvacara) realms in Buddhist philosophy.49As shown in the above parallel, to equate the Tathgata with his verbal teaching is like to equate the Brahm with his mouth.

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In the case that brahma- refers to the masculine BrahmIn case of the term brahma- in the three compounds50 being translated as a masculine Brahm,51 the comparison of the first and the third parallels suggests that the Buddha compares both himself and the dhamma with the brahmanical Brahm, the creator. Thus, he is also equating himself with the dhamma. The reason given immediately afterward reinforces this point: Why is that? Because the Tathgata is designated dhamma-bodied (dhammakya) and he who has become dhamma (dhammabhta), so the noble disciples are entitled born of dhamma, created by dhamma, and heir (by means) of dhamma, as they are named the Tathgatas sons. According to this line of thought, the sense of the Tathgatas paternity is retained throughout the passage. The Tathgatas designations and the noble disciples titles are thus connected together, implying that the term dhamma in all these compounds, both the designations of the Tathgata and the titles for his noble disciples, carries the same connotation; the connotation that is comparable to the brahmanical Brahm, the creator.

In order to determine which connotation of dhamma is meant here, it is necessary to understand the distinction between the Tathgatas spiritual paternity and the Brahms mythical fatherhood. According to the brahmanical claim, Brahm may simply create Brahmins through his mouth, out of his desire.52 In contrast, the Tathgatas creation of a Buddhist noble disciple through his verbal teachings involves the entire process of spiritual realisation.

As discussed earlier, the titles of the Tathgatas true son as born of dhamma, and created by dhamma, imply the persons transformation from a worldling (puthujjana) into a noble one (ariya-puggala). His title as an heir of dhamma implies similar qualities he shares with the Buddha which indicates the noble (ariya) heredity. Therefore, the component dhamma in all these compounds must

50 This refers to the compounds brahma-ja, brahma-nimmita, and brahma-dyda.51 Gombrich chooses to translate brahma- in this instance as Brahm. Ibid., pp. 163-165.52 Paul Deussen, V. M. Bedekar, and Gajanan Balkrishna Palsule, Sixty Upaniads of the Veda, 1st ed. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1980, pp. 414-415.

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refer to something which transforms the person into noble states, so that itself is comparable to the creator. At the same time, it must refer also to the shared or same kind of qualities or essence of the Buddha and his noble disciples which are distinct from those of worldly people.

According to the Buddhist philosophy of the Pli canon, transformation arises in succession of, and as a consequence of, the realization of truths. It involves the elimination of particular fetters, as well as the rise of new qualities. In such a circumstance, the dhamma which transforms a worldly human (puthujjana) into a noble disciple (ariyasvaka) may be identified either with defilement-uprooter, the resultant qualities or with both of them.

In this regard, the Paisambhidmagga describes that the four transcendent paths function in eradicating different sorts of defilements53. Once a particular transcendental path (lokuttara magga) eradicates particular defilements, a set of new resultant qualities arises. Each set of ensuant qualities is identified with a particular transcendental fruit (lokuttara phala) by which the person is then said to have achieved a corresponding noble state.

A similar statement is made in the Dhammacakkappavattana-sutta54 that the middle way, i.e., the noble eightfold path, leads to Nibbna. Also, as stated in Magga-sayutta, the noble eightfold path once cultivated to the degree that the practitioner is endowed with it or has attained it, is destined to experience the removal of lust, anger, and delusion.55 Hence, it may be said in general terms that the noble eightfold path functions by eradicating defilements.

While being addressed with different titles, the noble eightfold path may be considered comparable to the four transcendent paths in certain respects. As some scholars have suggested, the path may be developed to higher levels until the point of final liberation. For example, Govinda suggests a spiral-like progression of the noble eightfold path:56

53 Ps.I.72-3, 94, 96, 117-8. 54 S.V.421.55 S.V.5-6.56 Lama Anagarika Govinda, The Psychological Attitude of Early Buddhist Philosophy (London: Rider, 1969), pp. 69-70.

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[R]ight concentration, again, becomes the basis of right views, right aspirations, and other steps of the noble eightfold path, which is now experienced on a higher level, and this spiral-like progression is continued until complete liberation is attained.

Similarly, Harvey explains the development of the threefold path in different levels up to the point where Arhatship is attained:57

With each more refined development of the virtue-meditation-wisdom sequence, the path spirals up to a higher level, until the crucial transition of Stream-entry is reached. The holy path then spirals up to Arahatship.

Harveys explanation of the development of the path-function is quite explicit in its relation to the attainment of different levels of noble states. The development of the threefold path in this manner is comparable to that of the noble eightfold path, previously explained by Govinda, as these two titles of path correspond to one another.58 Thus, certain levels of the noble eightfold path can be comparable to the four transcendent paths, just like the same road leading straight up to a destination being addressed with different titles at certain points along the way.59 The four transcendent maggas, in functioning by eradicating defilements, must be constitutive of the eight elements of the noble path that are instrumental to enlightenment.

As these transcendental paths and fruits function in transubstantiating a person into noble states, they may be considered comparable to Brahm, the creator. Indeed, as these supramundane paths and fruits can be regarded also as shared or the same kind of properties/qualities of the Buddha and his noble disciples which distinguish them from worldly people (lokiya puthujjana), they seem to fit in the meaning of dhamma in our quest.6057 Peter Harvey, An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History, and Practices (Cambridge England ; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990), pp. 70-71.58 M.I.301.59 In the Pli canon, the noble eightfold path is mentioned as the best of all conditioned states. A.II.34. The Theravdins also understand the four transcendent maggas as conditioned. Kv.318, Kv.580.60 Cf. Harveys interpretation of dhamma that is the Tathgatas body as the noble eightfold path, as mentioned earlier.

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With regard to dhamma as the essence of the Buddha and Arhat disciples, however, it may be more appropriate to refer to Nibbna, for once they have attained Buddhahood and Arhatship their spiritual qualities are transformed and they have passed beyond the earlier paths and fruits by means of the permanent destruction of certain defilements. Besides, the Buddhas designation dhammabhta, (he) who has become dhamma, indicates that previously he was not a dhamma-being, but that he becomes dhamma later. Such a later time in this case must refer to the time of his enlightenment, when he could declare himself Buddha. This, again, implies dhamma at the level of enlightenment, and seems to support the earlier interpretation as transcendent dhammas especially Nibbna.

In this case, it does not mean that all the noble ones possess all transcendental paths and fruits. The noble disciples of lower levels have not possessed the higher paths and fruits. Nevertheless, as the word heir indicates, while the properties shared by the father and the son are of the same kind, those belonging to the son may be less or of lower quality than those belonging to the father. In a similar way, the qualities/properties possessed by the noble disciples could be of a lower level than that possessed by the Buddha. But they must be of the same sort, which in this case means lokuttara, that differs from those belonging to the worldlings.

As discussed above, the Tathgatas designation61 being related as the reason for the true sons titles62 renders it necessary in both cases that the term dhamma carries the same connotation in all compounds. Thus, it may be concluded heuristically that the term dhamma as the first constituent of the compound dhammakya and dhammabhta may be identified in a general term such as transcendent dhamma.We shall now turn to examine another possibility by which the term brahma- is translated in the compounds as brahman.

61 This refers to the designations dhammakya and dhammabhta.62 This refers to the titles dhammaja, dhammanimmita, dhammadyda.

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In the case that brahma- refers to the neuter brahmanIn the other case in which the term brahma- is translated as brahman63 the ultimate,64 the third parallel65 suggests that the term dhamma in the passage equals ultimate reality, but in the Buddhist sense. This directly precludes the interpretation of the term dhamma in the passage as the Buddhas verbal teaching, while allowing its interpretation as transcendental realities. The equation of the Buddha and dhamma, as well as the connection between the Buddhas designations and the titles of his true son is implied in the same manner as in the above case.

Thus, the translation of brahma- in the Brahmins titles either as the masculine Brahm or as the neuter brahman leads to the same conclusion that the term dhamma constituting the compound dhammakya refers to transcendental realities. It refers to the dhamma that is the incorruptible Buddhas essence;66 dhamma which gives birth to noble disciples, dhamma which is the shared qualities of the Buddha and his noble disciples which distinguishes them from worldly people, and dhamma the verbal expression of which is regarded as the Buddhas verbal teaching. Therefore, the present study concludes that dhamma, that is, the body of the Tathgata, refers to transcendental realities in general.

63 Some scholars are more inclined to choose this translation. For example, see Wilhelm Geiger, Dhamma Und Brahman, Zeitschrift fr buddhismus (1921): 73-83, 79, Harrison, op. cit., note 20, p. 78. Here, Harrison refers to a number of scholars who translate brahma- in this case as brahman, which he thinks more correct. Gombrich, while translating the term in this case as the masculine Brahm, acknowledges also the possibility of translating it as the neuter brahman. Gombrich, The Buddhas Book of Genesis? op. cit., p. 165.64 As Geiger states, Ursprnglich umfasst dieses Wort die Summe aller der geheimnisvollen magischen Krfte, die im Opfer und in der priesterlichen Ttigkeit enthalten sind. Wilhelm Geiger, Dhamma Und Brahman, Zeitschrift four buddhismus (1921), p. 74. Cf. Gombrich, op. cit., p. 165., p. 12.65 As a reminding, the third parallel refers to the parallel of the term dhamma in the three titles of Buddhist noble disciples (dhammaja, dhammanimmita, dhammadyda) with the term brahman in the titles of brahmins (brahmaja, brahmanimmita, brahmadyda.)66 Cf. S.III.120. Seeing the Buddha purportedly means seeing the Buddhas incorruptible nature or essence as opposed to seeing the Buddhas corruptible physical body which is useless.

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While a conclusion is proposed here to some extent, it may be useful to examine further implications from the parallel usage of the term dhamma and brahma elsewhere, for it may add further understanding to the present conclusion regarding the four designations of the Buddha.Implications from Parallel Usage of Dhamma and BrahmaOf the four designations of the Buddha, scholars note also the parallel usage of dhamma and brahma that seems to equate dhammakya with brahmakya and dhammabhta with brahmabhta.67 The same parallel can be found also in other passages where, for example, brahmacakka replaces dhammacakka68 or where brahmacariya and dhammacariya appear to correspond.69The parallel usage of the two terms appears to have some significance. On their own, both terms can carry different connotations in different contexts. But their analogous usage restricts their possible interpretations to some degree. It is observed that, whenever both terms are mentioned together in parallel, they usually refer to the state of highest purity, or at least signify the best.

The parallel between dhammayna and brahmayna points to this direction. In Magga-sayutta, the noble eightfold path is entitled either the path to/of brahma- (brahmayna),70 the path to/of dhamma (dhammayna), or the supreme path of victory in the battle (anuttara sagmavijaya). This is because such a noble path, once cultivated and frequently practised to the degree of attainment, leads to the removal of lust, anger, and delusion.71 Hence, the terms dhamma and brahma in this case refer to the state of supreme purity,67 Geiger, op. cit.; Horner, op. cit., pp. 117-118; Theodore Stcherbatsky, The Conception of Buddhist Nirvana. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1977, p. 52; Gombrich, op. cit., p. 165.68 M.I.69-71, S.II.27, A.II.9, A.III.417-419, A.V.33-38.69 Dhammacariya-sutta, Sn.49.70 DA.III.865. Cf. S.V.4-6.While the term yna is used usually in the sense of vehicle, its meaning in the ancient Indian traditions is path. As brahmayna and dhammayna in this passage refer to the noble eightfold path, they are, hence, translated as path to brahma and path to dhamma respectively. Thanks are due to Prof. Richard Gombrich for teaching me its ancient meaning.71 S.V.5-6.

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72 Harvey, The Selfless Mind, op. cit., p. 271. 73 The former generally refers to the renunciation (living the holy life), while the latter to the virtuous observances (living the righteous life).74 Sn.49.75 S.III.83.76 brahmabhtena attan viharati . For example, see M.I.348-349, M.I.413, A.II.208-211.77 so anattantapo aparantapo dihe va dhamme nicchto nibbuto stibhto sukhapaisaved brahmabhtena attan viharati. M.I.348-349, M.I.413, A.II.210-211.78 M.II.160-162.79 Geiger, op. cit., pp. 76-77.80 A.III.346.81 Phayre MS. (in Burmese characters), in the India Office Library. [Information from the preface of Edmund Hardy, The Anguttara-Nikaya V.3 (London: Pali Text Society : Distributed by Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1976), p. v.]

where all fetters are uprooted, or at least they signify the best state.72 The same may be said for the parallel of dhammacariya and brahmacariya. Although these two compounds are normally used in different senses,73 in the passage where they appear together, both are said to be the highest ways of living.74

It is likely that the analogue of both terms in dhammakya, brahmakya, dhammabhta and brahmabhta in the Aggaa-sutta can be understood in the same way. The notion of brahmabhta found elsewhere seems to reinforce this. It always refers to an Arahat, who has eradicated all defilements.75 Sometimes, an Arahat is described with the expression lives by means of self having become brahma.76 In these cases, he is said to live without burning himself or others, satisfied, extinguished, tranquil, and experiencing happiness presently.77 Sometimes an Arahat who lives with his self and becomes brahma is explained as passionless, as opposed to worldly people who passionately seek material properties.78 Therefore, the word brahmabhta indicates the state of having eradicated all traces of defilements and sufferings - that he becomes one with the ultimate peace and happiness.

Geiger remarks that the word Brahman here is synonymous to Buddhist Nibbna.79 He notes also the use of the word brahmapatha80 which in a Pli manuscript81 is glossed as amatapatha - the way to the deathless. It is expressed explicitly that brahma- in the passage is to be understood as Nibbna, the undying, which is the highest goal of Buddhists.

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On the whole, it appears that the terms dhamma and brahma constituting four designations of the Tathgata are used in the sense of the highest. It is most likely that they refer to Nibbna.

This is in line with our earlier proposed interpretation that the term dhamma in the designations of the Buddha refers to transcendental realities (lokuttara dhammas), the highest of which is that the essence of the Buddha is Nibbna. According to Buddhist philosophy, the dhammas that create or give birth to a Buddhist disciple could be referred to also as the highest or ultimate, as they transcend the realm of sasra. These are systematized later as the ninefold transcendental dhamma (navavidha lokuttaradhamma), subsuming the four supramundane paths, their corresponding fruits,and Nibbna. Thus, from all the implications discussed above, the present study concludes that the term dhamma in the compound dhammakya and dhammabhta refers to the ninefold transcendental dhamma in general.Next, we shall determine the meaning of the second component kya.The Meaning of Kya in the Aggaa-sutta PassageThe term kya may be translated into English either as body or collection, which sometimes can be used interchangeably.82 However, these English words have different senses in their main definitions. The word body is used mainly in the sense of the entire structure of an organism. But the word collection merely provides the sense of a number of things collected together. This suggests both their similarities and differences which may be considered in two aspects: structure and function.

Structurally, both body and collection consist of a number of elements or individual members. A body, as the entire structure of an organism, consists of organs which are entitled limbs and parts (aga-paccaga). A collection also consists of several things which may be either similar or different. Thus, both body and collection can be reduced to individual members or elements. This may be regarded as their similarity.

82 An example is the expression body of people and collection of people which can be used interchangeably.

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Functionally, however, both terms seem to imply a different relationship between individual members and the totality of the whole body or collection. As a body, the totality of the whole organism is important for an organ to function. Once an organ is cut off from the whole, it cannot function anymore. Likewise, if the sense of totality or whole is lost, in which case the organism is considered dead, all organs cannot function, even though they are still attached to that dead body. Thus, in case of a body, the functional ability of its limbs and parts depends on the sense of functioning totality or the living body. In contrast, the word collection does not imply any sense of such functional dependence. It seems to hold loosely its individual members or several things under the same title of the group. Even though the totality or the collection is not retained, individual members do not lose their identity or function. Thus, from the functional aspect, the words body and collection are different.

In order to determine the most probably meaning of the term kya constituting part of dhammakya, it is helpful to recollect how our study has arrived at the conclusion that the component dhamma in the Tathgatas designation refers to transcendental dhamma. To reiterate, the titles of the noble disciples are connected with the designations of the Tathtata by means of this reasoning; because the Buddha is dhamma-bodied and become dhamma, thus his son can be entitled born of dhamma, created by dhamma, and an heir by means of dhamma. The term dhamma in all these compounds carries the same connotation comparable to the creator, or the dhamma that transforms a worldly human into a noble one. This refers to transcendental paths and fruits.

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The parallel usage of dhammakya and dhammabhta with brahmakya and brahmabhta suggests further that the term dhamma in the passage should refer to Nibbna. Indeed, it is possible also to say that Nibbna itself can transform beings as well, for the realization of it engenders the transformation from worldly people to noble persons.83 Our study thus concludes, in general terms, that dhamma in all these compounds refers to transcendental dhamma.84 As the significance of such a conception of dhamma is determined by its function as transformer or defilement eradicator, the meaning of kya as body is more appropriate.

Each transcendental path or fruit can be understood as a totality of various qualities. As an example, the Stream-attaining path (sotpattimagga) is composed of path-constituents at the level of the Stream-attaining state.85 Thus, the path itself is the whole or the totality of all path-constituents at the corresponding level. It could be possible that different path-constituents may perform different functions in the elimination of defilements. But the effective elimination of corresponding fetters (sayojanas) requires the whole or totality by which the particular path is named. In other words, the effective functions of individual path-constituents are dependent on this whole or totality which is identified with the particular path. Thus, the text mventions the eradication of particular fetters in accordance with different levels of the functioning path, from the path to Stream-entry (sotpattimagga) up to the path to

83 As the Dhammacakkappavattana-sutta suggests, there can be different levels of the realisation of the four noble truths. These many levels may well correspond to different levels of transcendental states. In other words, the trainee (sekha-puggala) from the Stream-attainer (sotpanna) to the Non-returner (angm) have realised Nibbna also to their corresponding degrees.84 Rather than limiting its interpretation to only Nibbna, the present study proposes a broader context of dhammakya as transcendental dhamma (lokuttara dhamma) in order to avoid the preclusion of noble disciples of lower levels, e.g., the stream-attainer (sotpanna) to the non-returner (angm) which appear to be included also in the sutta. Cf. Harvey, The Selfless Mind, op. cit., pp. 233-4.85 S.V.348.

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86 Ps.I.96.87 Even though dhammakya here is used to designate the Tathgata, along with three other designations, two of which are apparently adjectives, it needs not mean that the term dhammakya must necessarily be an adjective, for they are not synonymous in the sense of English grammar. These designations may well be similar to the Buddhas epithets that are simply listed together, while some epithets are adjectives (e.g. vijjcaraasampanno) and some are substantives (e.g. satth devamanussna).

Arhatship (arahattamagga).86 Therefore, the particular path is not a mere collective title of the path-constituents but the essential totality by which a body is defined.

The dependence of functions of individual constituents on the totality of the particular transcendental path allows its definition as a kind of body. The same could be said for transcendental fruits (lokuttara phala) and Nibbna. Thus, the transcendental dhamma should be defined as a body rather than being a mere collection of those functional qualities.From the above conclusion regarding the meanings of both components dhamma and kya, we now come to the re-interpretation of dhammakya as a whole.Possible meanings of Dhammakya in the Aggaa-suttaIn the above discussion, the present study tentatively translated the term dhammakya as an adjective dhamma-bodied. Based on the above concluded meanings of dhamma and kya, the term dhammakya as an adjective conveys the meaning that transcendental dhamma or Nibbna is the Buddhas body. As dhammakya in this instance designates the Buddha, such a translation as an adjective is naturally reasonable. However, as the context of the passage does not preclude the translation of the term as a substantive,87 it may be interesting to try also the other two grammatical forms that give the translation of the compound as a noun.

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First, as a kammadhraya compound, the translation of the term dhammakya will be the body that is transcendental (lokuttara) dhamma or the body that is Nibbna. This gives a similar sense as that of the translation of the term as an adjective that the Tathgatas body is the transcendental dhamma(s) or Nibbna. The only difference is the shift of identification of this dhamma-body,88 from belonging to the Tathgata to itself being (identified with) the Tathgata89 or his essence.

This translation seems also appropriate, considered from the parallel usage of dhammakya and dhammabhta. The Buddha has become the transcendental dhamma or Nibbna, having such dhamma as his nature. Also, as discussed above, the transcendental dhamma itself possesses a property of body. Hence, it is possible to say that the Buddha is the body that is transcendental dhamma, or Nibbna.

Alternatively, as a tappurisa compound, dhammakya may be translated as the body pertaining to transcendental dhamma. Also, as a particular transcendent dhamma consists of corresponding constituents, the term dhammakya may be translated as a tappurisa compound as body of transcendental dhammas, where dhammas in the latter refers to those constituents. Hence, when designating the Tathgata, the translation of dhammakya in

88 As stated at the beginning, the English expression as dhamma-body corresponds to both translations of dhammakya as a substantive, i.e., body that is dhamma and body of dhamma. For the sake of simplicity and understanding, the present work refers sometimes to dhammakya as a noun simply as dhamma-body.89 When translating the term as an adjective, as the Buddha has dhamma as body, it can be said that the body which is dhamma belongs to him. But when the term is translated as a noun, it means that the Tathgata is the body that is (transcendental) dhamma. In other words, the dhamma-body (the body which is dhamma) is the Tathgata.

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this sense conveys the meaning that the Tathgata is the body pertaining to transcendental dhamma or Nibbna, or he is the body of those transcendent qualities. This is similar to the kammadhraya compound in that it provides the sense of an identification of the Tathgata with dhammakya.

To conclude, our study proposes that dhammakya as it designates the Tathgata may be translated either as an adjective (bahubbhi compound) which conveys the meaning that transcendent dhamma or Nibbna is the Tathgatas body, or as a noun (kammadhraya or tappurisa compound) being the dhamma-body with which the Tathgata is identified.In the next part, the study will examine another Pli passage that is related to Paccekabuddhas, the self-enlightened persons.

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V. Reference 2: Dhammakya and Paccekabuddhas A Paccekabuddha is counted as one of the two types of Buddhas.90 According to Buddhist