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Cross-Cultural Perspectives on Psychosocial Issues of Humanitarian Staff Care Conference 16th-17th November 2004, Melbourne

SUMMARY OF CONFERENCE PRESENTATIONS Implications for supporting National Staff

We gratefully acknowledge the assistance of postgraduate students in the preparation of this document through their contribution of tracking each session during the course of the conference.

Transpersonal Aspects of Stress and Resiliency

(Tuesday, 16th November, 2005; 12.25pm)

Name: Marta Balan Position/Title: Transpersonal Psychotherapist and Clinical PsychologistOrganisation: Transpersonal Growth Institute Contact details: [email protected] Abstract:

The aim of this workshop was to develop guidelines/strategies for increasing the resiliency of National staff and for maintaining harmony in multi-cultural teams from a transpersonal point of view. The workshop involved: • Understanding the universal values in all spiritual traditions and applying these concepts in cross cultural

team work; the significance of shared spiritual values for the success in this team work • Exploring self-awareness, gaining inner peace & application of spiritual principles • Gaining awareness, detachment, inner peace & spiritual purpose in life’s happenings, letting go of

expectations, detachment are important in order to understand the limits of one’s capabilities • The use of meditation to detect stress IMPLICATIONS FOR SUPPORT OF NATIONAL STAFF

by directly supporting national (local, indigenous) staff to work in cross-cultural teams • Developing an understanding of shared spiritual values within the team • Communicating and using group debriefings to identify shared spiritual principles

by preparing expatriate staff to work with national (local/indigenous) in cross-cultural teams • As above • Identifying the range of differences/similarities in spiritual principles – individuals and team

Summary:

The importance of pre departure training in the effectiveness and wellbeing of expatriate staff while overseas is well known. Based on experience Ms Beasley and Beasley Intercultural have developed interactive and challenging pre-departure and re-entry programs which integrate the issues faced by expatriate humanitarian aid workers. This workshop outlined some of the core competencies required of facilitators to enable maximum learning in a limited time frame. From experience Ms Beasley has found that attitude is more important than knowledge and skills when navigating cultural differences and looking for common outcomes.

Pre-Departure Training With Impact

(Wednesday 17th November, 2004; 3.25pm)

Name: Ms Tamerlaine Beasley Position/Title: Managing Director of Beasley Intercultural Organisation: Beasley Intercultural Contact details: [email protected]

SUMMARY OF CONFERENCE PRESENTATIONS: IMPLICATIONS FOR SUPPORTING NATIONAL STAFF compiled by FRITHA MELVILLE and AMANDA ALLAN

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IMPLICATIONS FOR SUPPORT OF NATIONAL STAFF

by directly supporting national (local, indigenous) staff to work in cross-cultural teams

• Use story telling as a powerful cross cultural tool • Increase awareness of how culture shapes our own perspective

by preparing expatriate staff to work with national (local/indigenous) in cross-cultural teams

• Provide good pre-departure training to enhance intercultural competence • Increase awareness of how culture shapes our own perspective • Allocate appropriate resources to training

Organizational and Interpersonal Cross Cultural Liaison and Mediation Issues


Name: Irbel Budaya Position/Title: Liaison Officer Organisation: Australian Volunteers International, Indonesia Contact details: [email protected] Summary:

Mr Irbel Budaya used his own personal experience to highlight cross-cultural issues for national staff working in humanitarian aid organisations. Mr Budaya recounted his own journey from a female dominated society in Sumatra, Indonesia to the present day. Until the age of 19 he had never experienced or had knowledge of other cultures. At the age of 19 he moved to Jakarta, a diverse and cosmopolitan society and at 24 years he received the opportunity to see the world beyond Indonesia. He has also experienced directly a number of traumatic events. Mr Budaya used the metaphor of the rainbow as a way of understanding cross cultural diversity. Each colour of the rainbow has its own values. When we destroy one colour of a rainbow or blend the colours, the beautiful rainbow will fade away and even become non existent. He emphasised how important the role of cross-cultural liaisons and mediation are and that these processes need to be integral components of humanitarian aid organisations and the support of national staff IMPLICATIONS FOR SUPPORT OF NATIONAL STAFF


• Appoint a cross cultural liaison officer within NGO agencies to help introduce concepts of cross-cultural mediation to resolve cross-cultural team conflict

The Story Telling Approach to Training of Staff for Cross Cultural Work (Tuesday, 16th November, 2004; 2.35pm)

Name: Ms Abigayle Carmody Position/Title: Facilitator, trainer and developer of human communications programs including cross

cultural communication, leadership and people management. Organisation: Narrative Matters Contact details: [email protected] Summary:

The narrative approach to training is a conversational style where one brings the participants inside the 'story' of the content. Its value is in providing meaning in training and using stories to put facts together in ways that are palatable and memorable. It is a means of facilitating a process to assist individuals and organisations to capture knowledge and learning for prosperity and training. Most importantly, it works across cultures as all cultures relate to storytelling.


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• Consider the use of story telling in training in a cross-cultural context as a means of capturing knowledge and learning

• Use story telling to instruct and prepare cross cultural work and teams • Use story telling as a tool for research, consultation, knowledge sharing and to resolve conflict and

interpersonal challenges • Use story telling to assist in the debriefing process in the

post deployment phase of a project by preparing expatriate staff to work with national (local/indigenous) in cross-cultural teams

• As above

Trainer as a Story Teller


Name: Ms Abigayle Carmody Position/Title: Facilitator, trainer and developer of human communications programs including cross

cultural communication, leadership and people management. Organisation: Narrative Matters Contact details: [email protected] Abstract:

This workshop was an extension to the core paper presented by Ms Abigayle Carmoday. The aim of the workshop was to provide participants with an overview of the processes involved in designing training content in story form. Participants explored ways of clearly defining their training ‘story’.

The elements and structure of story were briefly described and an introduction to using storyboarding techniques was offered. Elements of what makes an effective good story were discussed: • Consider what is the point, purpose, reason and intent • Every story has to have two characters: the main character and another character to give the background for

the main character • Give the story time, give place, give texture • Every story has to have an exciting incident, resulting in a challenge that the main character has to solve • Consider what content you have to cover to get a result, for example the purpose of your interview Good storytellers always have intent, a reason and a purpose. IMPLICATIONS FOR SUPPORT OF NATIONAL STAFF


• Consider the use of story telling in training • Use story telling to instruct and report human resource issues • Provide training for facilitators on storytelling training techniques


• As above

Cross Border Peace Initiatives


Name: Mr Wesley Chebii and Ms Caren Kiptoo Position/Title: Program Coordinator of the Cross Border Peace Initiative and Regional Peace Coordinator Organisation: National Council of Churches, Kenya Contact details: wespa402yahoo.com or [email protected]

Summary:

This presentation introduced the conflict that engulfs the Karamoja cluster region (North Western Kenya, Southern Sudan and North-Eastern Uganda) and presented an overview of the causes of the conflict and current peace initiatives in that area. This region is plagued by poverty and environmental problems and has become engulfed in conflict due to the proliferation of small arms and weapons, which are a major cause of instability in the region.

One of the current peace initiatives is the cooperation of a number of faith based organisations, under the National Council of Churches Kenya (NCCK) and Uganda Christian Council of Churches (UJCC). This umbrella has been instrumental in jointly implementing cross border peace programs in the region. The strategy of this programme is holistic, incorporating social and economic projects, advocacy, and conflict resolution concepts. The underlying philosophy is one of tolerance and respect regardless of ethnic or religious affiliation. IMPLICATIONS FOR SUPPORT OF NATIONAL STAFF


• Acknowledge the role of faith in wellbeing • Be aware of the complexity of issues affecting different regions and how national staff embody this

complexity • Consider adopting more holistic approaches to development work and achieving peace through

conscious interpersonal relationships

Resilience, Stress and Demoralisation

(Tuesday, 16th November, 2004, 11.25am)

Name: Assoc Prof. David Clarke Position/Title: Associate Professor and Psychiatrist Organisation: Monash University Contact details: [email protected] Summary:

Assoc. Prof David Clarke presented a contemporary psychological view of resilience in the context of the experience of severe stressor. The intention was to provide a useful platform upon which to consider the psychology of stress and resilience as it relates to the experiences of national staff working in cross cultural situations. Under stress, particularly stress of such quality and severity that it threatens the very integrity of the person, or an activity in which one has great ‘investment’, people can begin to feel ‘unable to cope’. This is experienced as impotence and helplessness. If the situation does not improve, hopelessness ensues, and, to the extent that what is under threat contributes to personal significance and meaning, one’s sense of self-worth can be significantly undermined. This is demoralization, often involving meaninglessness and a feeling of despair. Severe demoralisation can be contagious; others begin to feel helpless. Different people have different capacities of coping and degrees of resilience. Several factors contributing to how well a person adapts to adversity were discussed: individual factors, social factors and coping. Individual factors include personal self-efficacy, optimism and a sense of coherence. Social factors include seeking support, altruism (offering help to others) and reaffirming social ties. The importance of these, it was argued, will differ for each person and in different cultures and different situation, but together they make for individual and corporate resilience. It was emphasised that organisations need to be mindful of the process of demoralisation and put in place strategies to encourage resilience. IMPLICATIONS FOR SUPPORT OF NATIONAL STAFF


• Consider process of demoralisation within the workplace • Understand the interaction of the process of demoralisation within culturally specific ways • Work proactively to reduce the experiences of demoralization


• Raise awareness of how different people may exhibit signs of demoralisation


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• Have in place culturally specific strategies to prevent or address such issues

An Examination of the Psychosocial Risks and Wellbeing of Indian Rural Development Workers


Names: Vinita Duraisingam & Assoc Prof Maureen Dollard Position/Title: Organisational Psychologists Organisation: Work & Stress Research Group, University of South Australia Contact details: [email protected] Summary:

Work stress research has traditionally been limited to industrialised nations and urban settings, with a paucity of studies that have focused on workers in rural contexts and/or in developing economies. The present study examined the applicability of the Job Demands-Resources Model of Burnout among a sample of Indian rural development workers. The study consisted of one hundred and ninety four workers who completed surveys measuring burnout, psychological distress, and job satisfaction (eg rewards, autonomy). Results showed that Western models were somewhat supported. Job demands were most strongly related to psychological distress and job control moderated the effects of job demands on exhaustion and psychological distress. Issues for workers included long hours of travel and meetings, a lack of trust between colleagues, and a lack of family time. IMPLICATIONS FOR SUPPORT OF NATIONAL STAFF


• Generate awareness of the role of job demands on general stress levels of national staff • Assess and address causes of general stress among staff • Be aware of the stress for community workers who come from the community they are working with, as

there are pressures from multiple contexts, for example, the government, employer and the community • Design roles to increase job rewards, family time and where appropriate autonomy • Decrease the job demands for older and female workers catering for their extra family responsibilities


• Increase awareness among international staff of the above issues and the impact on national staff

Summary:

The management of conflict affecting National staff in cross-cultural contexts demands the use of a cultural diversity lens to view the cultural contexts of both national and expatriate staff, and any models for resolving conflict must be culturally competent. However, Professor Eisenbruch argued that the critical issue is how one incorporates cultural competence. Furthermore, culture is not static. It was proposed that planning and design, governance, quality improvement, case management, communication styles and cross-cultural communication, linguistic support, training, and evaluation must take place within a clear framework of cultural competence at individual, professional, organisational and system levels. Humanitarian aid organisations need to undertake cultural mapping at the community level as well as at the macro-level. They also need to synergise with indigenous assistance networks such as traditional healers and religious opinion makers. The challenge was raised to humanitarian organisations to include specific cultural diversity indicators as part of

The Lens Of Culture, The Lens Of Health: Cultural Competence In Managing Conflict


Name: Professor Maurice Eisenbruch Position/Title: Professor of Multicultural Health and Director of the Centre for Culture and Health Organisation: Centre for Culture and Health, University of New South Wales Contact details: [email protected]


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their organisational outcome indicators. IMPLICATIONS FOR SUPPORT OF NATIONAL STAFF


• Introduce the concept of cultural competence throughout all levels of the organisation • Introduce indicators of cultural competence as part of outcome targets


• As above

Keynote: When Elephants Fight, Are the Ants Always Crushed?

(Tuesday, 16th November, 2004: 9.45am)

Name: Mr John Fawcett Position/Title: INGO consultant Organisation: Green Gate Associates, Phnom Penh, Cambodia Contact details: [email protected] Summary:

The mental health of individuals is a concern for every culture. Assessment of health and ill-health are performed in differing manners across cultures. The rapidly emerging influence of INGO’s in general and psychologists in particular have sharpened the debate over what is an appropriate mental health intervention in any given context. As this debate proceeds, most of the front line humanitarian work of any variety, including mental health, is performed by locally employed national staff. A significant group of people whose needs have been largely overlooked in this debate are the national staff themselves. In contexts of extreme trauma, violence or tragedy local staff are as much survivors as the populations they seek to serve. Do we know what the mental health concerns are of this group? And how are we seeking to meet them? In addressing these questions there are several issues that need to be considered. The first is concepts of stress and resiliency from national staff perspectives. We need to be careful about assuming anything about another culture. Stress is largely a Western cultural term and concepts can be imposed across cultures. We need to be open to different ways of meeting. The second is debriefing in cross cultural contexts in terms of when, in what mode, individual versus groups. Third, what is the impact of security on national staff? Fourth, is the process of selection of expatriate and national staff for cross cultural work. How do we determine who is best for the work? This may differ in different contexts. There is a disproportionate allocation of resources and most of the money is spent on expatriates, and some on capacity building of national staff. Fifth, how do we manage conflict in cross cultural teams? Cross cultural teams are made up of people with different assumptions, ideals, backgrounds etc IMPLICATIONS FOR SUPPORT OF NATIONAL STAFF


• Develop cross culturally appropriate methods of selecting national staff for humanitarian aid work. • Develop cross-cultural ways of measuring resilience • Train /educate national staff on what to expect from expatriate staff, working in cross cultural teams


• Ensure that expatriate staff are provided with training and education on the culture they are going to work in and who they may be working with, eg awareness of the importance of family, kin, tribe and the importance of maintaining kinship links for the individual (especially for national staff)

• Selection needs to consider resiliency, openness, working with conflict in cross cultural situations

Security Issues in Cross Cultural Contexts

(Wednesday, 17th November, 2004; 11.50am)


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Name: Mr John Fawcett Position/Title: INGO Consultant Organisation: Green Gate Associates, Phnom Penh, Cambodia Contact details: [email protected] Summary:

Security and safety have always been a component of international humanitarian work. In recent years security has become a major issue with the current global war on terror and other events threatening neutrality and impartiality. Hundreds of INGO staff are injured, kidnapped or killed every year in the line of duty. Most of these are national staff. Western NGO’s have tended to define ‘security’ as it relates to staying alive and maintaining protection of agency assets. But security is a much broader concept. When we feel threatened our stress levels rise, which impacts on our wellbeing and the quality of our work. For many national staff INGO employment and relationship offers both security and insecurity in a whole variety of ways. An important question is do national staff have different security risks to international staff. The answer was yes and no. One of the main security risks for national staff is in fact employment not violence. Security preparedness requires sound risk assessment, policy development, the commitment of resources, training and the implementation of policy into practice. National staff are less likely to receive security training. Another emerging issue is legal action. In the UK employers are liable for all employees worldwide. The security policies of INGOs need to more fully developed to better address issues of security at all levels of humanitarian effort for all staff. Personal security is a basic right.



• Provide adequate security preparedness, assessment, training and management for all national staff • Create and implement strategies for risk assessment of activities undertaken by national staff • Assess issues of security at all levels of an organisation • Put in place safety nets for national staff if INGOs have to withdraw due to security issues • Provide greater employment security for national staff • Be aware of national staff families as well as the national staff themselves


• Understand the security risks that national staff (and family) are exposed to

Selection and Assessment in a Cross Cultural Context


Name: Denis Flores Position/Title: Organisational Psychologist Organisation: Career Focus Pty Ltd; College of Organisational Psychologists Contact details: [email protected] Summary:

This paper discussed a general selection model and the selection processes useful for identifying staff to work in a cross cultural context. Based on a review of the literature a number of global predictors of cross-cultural success were highlighted, including, interpersonal skills, open mindedness and adaptability. Specific criteria that contributes to both technical vocational competence cross-cultural competence in cross cultural contexts, include: • Psychological wellbeing – an ability to deal with ambiguity and psychological strain • Personal qualities – for example intelligence, technical skills adaptability and open-mindedness • Interpersonal relationship & communication skills- for example cultural empathy and understanding

A method of assessment known as competency profiling was illustrated, which detailed individual characteristics that have been shown to relate to effective performance in a cross cultural context, as illustrated in the selection matrix A number of pitfalls in selection was outlined, including • Reliability and validity of assessment tools,

especially with staff from different cultural groups • Measurement of the impact of external factors,

such as, job responsibilities • Lack of standardised training/preparation

(Source not advised) IMPLICATIONS FOR SUPPORT OF NATIONAL STAFF


• Assess the interpersonal relationship and communication skills of national staff • Assess the personal quality profile of national staff • Assess the psychological stress and adaptability levels of national staff


• Conduct research with cross cultural NGO teams to validate assessment tools in cross cultural situations

Stress Management in Mission: Stress factors for UN Volunteers in Afghanistan (Tuesday 16th November, 2004; 3.50pm)

Name: Ms Gabriella Ghidoni Position/Title: UNV Preventive Stress Management Trainer Organisation: United Nations, Afghanistan Contact details: [email protected] Summary:

This presentation presents an overview of a research study exploring stress and factors successful in preventing major stress symptoms among 200 United Nations Volunteers in Afghanistan. Stress in mission is nowadays one of the most spoken about topics. It entails having a structure able to support personnel deployed in high-risk areas, taking preventive measures and providing ongoing psychosocial support (immediate vs. long term) for national and international staff. The preventative Stress Management program, started in 2003 and is focused on increasing resiliency and awareness of UN Volunteers through preventive training and counselling. The Programme consists of: induction workshops counseling, follow up, critical incident stress (CIS) defusing/debriefing, referrals to other sources of help, evaluation and potential repatriation. A survey of 200 United Nations volunteers from different countries on assignment in Afghanistan showed that general and cumulative stress were the main sources of reported stress. A breakdown of the figures revealed: 58% experienced basic stress, 17% no stress, 9% cumulative stress; 8% critical incident stress; 0.7% posttraumatic stress disorder. However, these statistics may be influenced by the timing of the survey, for example, as elections approached there was increasing stress due to security incidents. Sources of basic and cumulative stress included: security, housing, job related issues, social and cultural issues, motivations and other mental health issues.

The lessons learnt from this research included: • the role of the recruitment process (technical vs pre departure briefings) • the importance of different levels and types of stress, for example, there may be a greater risk of stress for

staff on their first mission


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• the need to facilitate a healthy environment (social space, sport) • the importance of Peer support programmes • the need for in-country orientations/trainings, for example, culture, security and critical incident stress

briefings • the need to promote a more positive organisational image within the community IMPLICATIONS FOR SUPPORT OF NATIONAL STAFF


• Reassess recruitment and indication processes, for example, brief national staff on issues in international teams, technical project orientations, critical incident stress education

• Assess vulnerability with regards to stress of national staff, for example, first mission • Identify stress reduction strategies available to national staff • Set up peer support programmes for national staff • Seek advice from national staff on how to promote and maintain a more positive organisational image

within the community


• as above

Abstract:

The process of re-entry into one’s home culture is often overlooked and how immersion in a foreign culture may affect a person when they return is often not given sufficient consideration. This presentation outlined a programme that is designed to assist humanitarian aid workers negotiate the period of transition when they return home.

The aim of the programme is to integrate the cross cultural experience into everyday life, not merely in terms of cultural adjustment in reverse but a process of rediscovery of self, of one’s way of being in relationships with others and of reorganising previously unquestioned values. The programme, Cultural Transitions, is offered to missioners and humanitarian aid workers. It is an eight day residential programme based mainly on various methods of story telling , group sharing, and input The facilitators all have overseas work experience and between them training in cross cultural studies, psychodrama, counselling, spiritual direction and body therapy. The course is structured around three phases (a) Letting Go - giving closure to overseas experience; (b) Letting Be - addressing the re-entry experience and existential questions; (c)Letting Begin – moving forward and future plans. It was argued that humanitarian aid organisations have a duty of care to prepare and assist humanitarian aid workers to negotiate the acute life transition which this stage of re-entry represents. Although this programme focused on the experience of the expatriate some of the core concepts could potentially be useful for national staff, for example, returning from working on a project in another part of the country, at the end of their employment with the INGO or even adapted as part of a debriefing process.



• Offer national staff in-country post deployment or post project debriefings

Re-entry: The Neglected Story


Name: Marlene Hixon; Majella Tracey; Kate Hill Position/Title: Group facilitator and Psycho dramatist; Adult educator; Psychotherapist and

Psychodrama trainer. Organisation: Franciscan Missionaries of Mary Contact details: Majella Tracey [email protected]

Marlene Hixon [email protected]


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mailto:[email protected]


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• Discuss with national staff some of the risks to their identity, relationships and status over time as they undertake humanitarian work

• Local staff who have adequately addressed their own cultural adjustments are better equipped to support other staff members, indigenous and expatriates


• Offer long term expatriates a process for integration of their experience so that unhealthy baggage is put aside rather than taken to a new assignment, to meet each culture on its own terms

• Give expatriates skills for effectively processing their relationships with national staff – recognition of their own strengths and vulnerabilities

Abstract:

Mr Adam Horner spent a year managing a project aimed at dismantling the institutional orphanage system in Romania and setting up more child centred child care alternatives. The presentation began with a sensitive and detailed overview of the historical and current determinants of the situation of orphans in Romania. The presentation also discussed some of the discourses that impacted on his work and relationships with his colleagues, such as, • Feelings of isolation both professionally and personally and the lack of a strong local social support network.

No available ongoing professional supervision or debriefing provided by the London office. • Traumatising experience of working with the orphans and the state of their predicament • Lack of understanding by NGO of professional role and responsibility of Social Workers. Dilemma of conflict

between Social work code of ethics; “working in the best interests of the child “and Community Development role. For example, reintegrating a child into circumstances which there are still some aspects of “risk”, such as lack of “safe” housing but within the family and community system.

• Political and organisational obstacles • Having to constantly juggle “hats” of Social worker and Community Development.

He adopted strategies of coping by focusing on the needs of children and meeting the training needs of local social workers. Despite the lack of support from the NGO, Mr Horner and the six teams of local social workers achieved a substantial amount in Romania in a relatively short time scale. Working in collaboration they met the requirements of the six agreed protocols, placed two hundred children with foster carers, and developed blue prints for the future training of maternal assistants and the placement of disabled children in the community. Closure of an orphanage. IMPLICATIONS FOR SUPPORT OF NATIONAL STAFF


• Have a clear understanding of differing professional roles and the potential for professional dilemmas and their impact on staff before you get involved in a project

• The importance of support networks both social and professional and set up localised system of support • Acknowledging that when you try and merge two differing professional ideologies that this can result in a

conflict of values for workers .Provide them with the necessary training to deal with this by preparing western / expatriate staff to work with national (local/indigenous) in cross-cultural teams

• As above

Issues for National Staff Working in Humanitarian Teams

(Tuesday, 16th November, 2004; 11.25am)

What, No Briefing! Integration of Romanian Orphans: Management and Development Issues

(Wednesday 17th November, 2004; 10.50am)

Name: Adam Horner Position/Title: Counsellor / Social Worker and Family Therapist Organisation: Victorian Foundation for Survivors of Torture Contact details: [email protected] or [email protected]

http://webmail.unimelb.edu.au/src/compose.php?send_to=joelhorner%40yahoo.com


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Name: Fr Peter Hosking Position/Title: Clinical Psychologist Organisation: Jesuit Refugee Service Contact details: [email protected] Summary:

Humanitarian situations affect national staff in specific ways. They are survivors and participants in the situations that brought humanitarian teams to their country. They have livelihood, safety, and other needs, which require assistance. Many have experienced trauma directly and events can trigger secondary and vicarious trauma reactions. There are often justice and reconciliation issues. They belong to belong to a family and community systems that affect allegiances. Risk and protection issues impact on resilience and coping. Some are external and some are internal to the person. The degree of communal support influence people’s sense of coherence. Humanitarian interventions occur at a) early warning, b) emergency, and c) reconstruction phases. Humanitarian organizations were founded to protect human rights, and for relief and development work. At the early warning stage local staff are the ones who get information out, often at great personal risk. At the emergency phase local staff can cooperate effectively with community and other groups. They are expected to be ‘bridge builders’ between INGOs, military and local community. Security issues affect local staff e.g. homes in unsafe areas, left behind when evacuations occur etc. During the reconstruction phase there are many issues for local staff e.g. cross-cultural interactions, perception regarding advantages, gender issues, corruption, lack of equality etc. It is important to have principles that describe good standards of care. Standards guide reflection and response especially in difficult situations. There is a value in teams being innovative, adaptable, according to needs on the ground. It is necessary to determine what is needed for doing the right thing by the people, not just to assess the risk management liabilities of the agency. Humanitarian situations affect national staff in different ways, for example, national staff may have psychological or physical sequelae, which require trauma recovery. They may have livelihood needs. They may be implicated as oppressed or oppressors, which raises reconciliation and justice matters. National staff belong to family and community systems which affect allegiances. National staff will experience both an individual and communal journey. Cultural differences, stress and vicarious trauma and trauma recovery processes should be considered from the perspective of national staff, for example, national staff are often required to be translators of horrific stories. The use of a trauma recovery grid model is suggested as one way to identify some key recovery goals and then adapt it to the needs of the specific culture. It is also important to consider factors of coping and resilience as well as risk and protective factors (eg demoralisation, family separation/ intact, strong sense purpose in life/faith) in creating the audit. Stress and trauma recovery may be different depending on the nature of humanitarian work being conducted, for example, differences in early warning phases, emergency phases, reconstruction and post conflict phases. Security issues in a crisis affect local staff differently compared to expatriates. Other issues contributing to the stress levels of national staff that include perceptions by local community, expectations by family and friends, local structures of gender and hierarchy, the balancing of work and family commitments, alternative local systems, such as bribes, paternalistic attitudes of INGOs and lack of equality in relationships with expatriate staff. The ‘employee life cycle’ for local staff in a humanitarian mission may require procedures distinctively different to international team members and cross-cultural interactions can be complex when the language for communication and organizational ways of proceeding are led by expatriates rather than the culture of the local worker.



• Often directly affected by experiences during the conflict. Sometimes recruited with little concern about their need to process what they have been through. Occasionally put at forefront of stressful work eg human rights investigations, psychological support, and health trauma. Consider trauma recovery


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issues for local staff for their sake and also because their issues may affect the quality of their work (eg enmeshment, detachment involvement, or victim, perpetrator, rescuer issues etc).

• Processes of truth, justice and reconciliation unfold slowly. May have family associated with perpetrators or victims. People can be trapped in anger, sadness, and fear. National staff may be implicated as oppressed or oppressors both an individual and communal journey.

• National staff are part of a communal culture: extended family systems, traditional village structures, clans and tribes, ethnic and religious groups, political affiliations which affect allegiances and responsibilities.

• National staff can cooperate with local communities, church, students, women’s groups, workers’ rights groups, and local NGOs. Often have credibility, mobility, and flexibility. Often more effective than UN, military or transitional Government structures.

• Local staff expected to be ‘bridge builders’ between INGOs, military and local community. Can become ‘triangulated’ between internationals and locals - hard to help each side understand perspectives of the other.

• Cross-cultural interactions are complex - language for communication & organizational ways of proceeding led by internationals rather than culture of the local worker. Internationals may not be as sensitive to the community development needs as national staff. Acknowledging & creating opportunities to examine cross cultural issues - a step in supporting local staff. Team building exercises for national and internationals to introduce cultural issues & in-country stress issues etc.

• Local NGOs are often ‘cannibalised’ when their personnel are recruited to visiting INGOs. Important for INGOs to be sensitive to developing local networks (eg intro IT & other technical support, training in management, human rights investigation and advocacy etc).

• Perception among locals that national staff get ‘benefits’ which should be shared. Local staff often feels pressure from family and friends. Pressure can be such that local staff engage in unethical practices to satisfy demands made of them.

• Local staff often cannot devote so much time to their jobs - they have families and other responsibilities. They have to rebuild family home, plant crops etc.

• Internationals may insist that local counterparts have the same rights as they do, but usually the expatriate will have the better salary, living conditions and access to medical service. An expatriate usually pays salaries and has the power to employ staff. Expatriate staff have the option to leave in times of strife or once their contract is completed.

• The ‘employee life cycle’ for local staff in a humanitarian mission may require distinctive procedures. Guidelines for staff care could look at recruitment & assignment, pre-employment briefings & training, ongoing support, performance management, professional development, team building, response to unusual events, debriefing at end of assignment etc.

• Create opportunities to openly examine cross cultural issues/stress - team and individual • Culturally appropriate staff support services • People development roles - activities within line areas, organization development etc • Management of agency culture -understanding agency vision, appreciating the values etc • Selection-recruitment induction -job specifications, selection, assessment, induction etc • Performance management and rewards for national staff • Training and development -team and individual • Administration -policies and accountability procedures


• As above • Develop processes for expatriates to seek information/advice from local staff

Assessing Intercultural Sensitivity


Name: Ms Karen Huchendorf Position/Title: Managing Director Organisation: Global Interface Pty Ltd Contact details: [email protected] Summary:

The aim of this work shop was to explore the following questions:


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• Does past intercultural experience predict intercultural sensitivity? • Why do people behave as they normally do in the face of cultural difference? • How are they likely to change in response to education?

By way of addressing these questions, the workshop used a model called the Development Model of Intercultural Sensitivity developed by Milton Bennett. The underlying assumption of this model is that as one’s experience of cultural difference becomes more complex and sophisticated, one’s potential competence in intercultural relations increases. The model identifies several stages of intercultural sensitivity defined in terms of stages of personal growth: denial, defence (or reversal), minimisation, acceptance, adaptation and integration. Participants were also introduced to The Intercultural Development Inventory (IDI), which is a statistically reliable and valid measure of intercultural sensitivity. This measure is used to create profiles that can be potentially used to generate needs analyses for targeted training in cross cultural teams in humanitarian aid organisations. This could be used for both national and expatriate staff. IMPLICATIONS FOR SUPPORT OF NATIONAL STAFF


• Raise awareness of cultural difference • Increase intercultural interaction and sensitivity in order to create in increased understanding and greater

awareness of intercultural competence • Survey the level of intercultural sensitivity within cross cultural teams during selection, training and

throughout all project phases by preparing expatriate staff to work with national (local/indigenous) in cross-cultural teams

• As above

Providing a Mediation Service for Victoria’s Indigenous Community – the DSCV Experience


Name: Bindi James & David Leonard Position/Title: Indigenous Mediator and the Aboriginal Project Officer

Lead trainer and policy & project officer. Organisation: Dispute Settlement Centre of Victoria (DSCV) Contact details: [email protected] or [email protected] Summary:

The presentation presented a programme of mediation and conflict resolution that is used in the Koori culture. Strengths and weaknesses of the programme were presented. It was purported that knowing about different cross cultural programmes of mediation is specifically useful for humanitarian staff and organisations working in cross cultural contexts and with cross cultural teams. It is useful in that models of best practice can be developed and lessons learned. The DSCV is a business unit of the Department of Justice which provides an alternative dispute resolution service to all individuals, communities and organisations in Victoria, Australia regardless of their cultural background. The DSCV also runs a Koori program aimed at developing culturally appropriate conflict management and mediator training courses; Koori specific promotional materials; the recruitment of Koori mediators; a referral system; protocols for Koori people and active training of mediators. The mediation process used by DSCV involves: introductions, opening statements, agenda setting, exploration, private session, negotiation and agreement. The outcome is not a legally binding contract, it is signed as a goodwill gesture. Its focus is to help clients to manage conflict themselves and to adapt the process of traditional mediation. Some of the issues include

• The problem between neutrality and cultural knowledge. It is best to find a balance using a combination of somebody who is indigenous and somebody who is not indigenous.

• The idea of mediation is a very western structured process. How much tailoring do we need to do? • Awareness of cultural issues of hierarchy, gender etc • Cultural protocols of speaking out


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• How to attain levels of trust and openness in the process IMPLICATIONS FOR SUPPORT OF NATIONAL STAFF


• Introduce concepts of mediation • Work with national staff to adapt mediation principles so they are culturally relevant • Be aware of the important role of developing levels of trust and openness critical to the process • Be aware of the role of cultural differences in different phases of the mediation process


• Introduce expatriate staff to knowledge of traditional values • Work to develop a context of cultural awareness • As above

Cultural Differences in Autobiographical Memory of Trauma (Tuesday, 16th November, 2004; 12.25pm)

Name: Laura Jobson Position/Title: PhD (Clinical Psychology) Candidate Organisation: Australian National University Contact details: [email protected] Summary:

The focus of this presentation was to present some current research exploring cultural differences in autobiographical memory of trauma. The research is part of Ms Jobson’s PhD thesis. Very little is known about the effect of culture on autobiographical memories of trauma yet research has found that culture influences the emergence of autobiographical memory and can account for many individual differences in adulthood autobiographical memories of everyday events. Culture influences identity, emotions, goals and personal meanings, and hence, the autobiographical memories one constructs. Thus, there is a need to explore the influence of culture on autobiographical memories of trauma. Often humanitarian aid workers work with people who are traumatised individuals from different cultural backgrounds and may themselves have experienced critical incidents. Humanitarian aid workers may be of different cultural backgrounds and hence may respond to trauma differently yet organisations tend to respond to critical incidents and trauma recovery through models which have rarely considered the influence of culture. Therefore there exists a need to understand how different cultures remember trauma and its meaning and how to deal with trauma from culturally appropriate perspectives. In order to heal trauma you need to give the trauma memory context. IMPLICATIONS FOR SUPPORT OF NATIONAL STAFF


• Conduct cross cultural research in autobiographical memory • Develop trauma support and culturally focused training with national humanitarian aid workers • Adapt interventions and treatment models in accordance with cross cultural contexts


• As above

Intercultural Conflict Resolution


Name: Dr Siew Fang Law Position/Title: Conflict Resolution Lecturer


15

Organisation: Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology & University of Melbourne Contact details: [email protected] Summary:

Individuals share an experience of a conflict in a particular time and setting but individuals and cultures may have different processes for resolving conflict. This workshop explored the challenges and difficulties of resolving intercultural conflict between expatriate and national staff. The discussion focused on aspects of conflict resolution such as identifying commonalities and the importance of appreciation, respect and status issues. Trust and patience have also been found to be critical in the resolution of conflict. Understanding the origin of assumptions is important and it was emphasised that we should be careful not to assume that all people from the same culture behave the same way. Finally different approaches to conflict resolution and the consequences of these approaches were discussed, such as, power based conflict, right based conflict, and interest based conflict. IMPLICATIONS FOR SUPPORT OF NATIONAL STAFF


• Management and staff should be aware of the concepts of conflict and conflict resolution • Organisations should invest in building trust and appreciation and respect within teams • Cross cultural team building exercises should be implemented to identify similarities and differences,

cross cultural experiences and the problem of making assumptions about a member from another culture


• As above

Film Ethnography in Cambodia: Role of Ritual in Recovery: Context-specific responses to trauma by

people reflecting on life under the Khmer Rouge (Tuesday, 16th November, 2004, 10.30am)

Name: Dr Peg LeVine Position/Title: Senior research fellow and clinical psychologist Organisation: University of Melbourne, School of Population Health Contact details: [email protected] Summary:

The aim of Dr Peg LeVine's film documentary was to open discussion on the role of cultural ritual in psychological recovery. The video presented an example of how people from a different culture, (eg Cambodia) “protect” themselves psychologically and spiritually. The film work presented evidence of culture-specific responses to trauma. It was contended that any analysis of generational trauma requires an understanding of “animate other” and geographical influences. For instance, identification of violence and/or loss is not just as simple as a victim-perpetrator dynamic; entire communities are impacted by violence against land, water, and breakdown of rituals. Also, English-language can impose meaning, for example there is no direct translation for the word ‘resilience’ in Khmer – yet this word is often used in research as an outcome measure. The presentation highlighted how culturally specific rituals can be important to the wellbeing of national staff. Another important point raised was the how national staff cope with working in organisations whose underlying agendas and philosophies may be fundamentally different from their own, such as a secular versus faith-based organisation, and in particular Christian-based rituals and icons imposed on national staff. (In particular, examples were given from Cambodia wherein international organisations may recognise Christmas holiday leave and use literature that highlights the symbol of the cross, with little recognition of Pchum Ben or season of deceased ancestors in Khmer context). IMPLICATIONS FOR SUPPORT OF NATIONAL STAFF


• Recognise the rituals in the culture of nationals and how loss of access to ritual impacts trauma and stress


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• Consider and support the role of collective and individual responses to trauma • Consider how a community can share symptoms in village-based cultures


• Consider culturally specific ways of supporting nationals, such as, relationship to time, place (geography, ancestor roaming places, spirit ground and water), sound, taste, and smell in daily activity

Summary:

Unintentional "cultural imperialism" can be very destructive in humanitarian projects. In 2000 Margaret worked in Indonesia with MSF on a mental health project. Her concerns about the welfare of national staff stem from her own experiences in the field and from her work debriefing returned expatriates. Margaret is concerned that NGOs unwittingly harm and change national staff. These people are vulnerable as they bring different expectations of organizations, work place behaviour & relationships. This can cause misunderstandings, hurt and inefficiency. She is also concerned that national staff often experience dislocating personal change in regard to their sense of identity and in their relationship to their own culture and families.



• More personal development and self awareness training for staff • Training should promote awareness of cross-cultural working relationships and the valuing of the local

culture • Job descriptions and project plans to include ongoing and active mentoring of national staff • Frequent and explicit discussion between all staff of cultural differences including work-place differences • Pre-termination group discussions with national staff which foreshadow the adjustments they will make

as they return to their own cultures • Individual debriefing of national staff at end of projects

References Gilbert, J "Self knowledge is the prerequisite of humanity." Personal Development & Self Awareness for Aid Workers Development in Practice, 2004 T.Vaux The Selfish Altruist, London, Earthscan, 2001

Summary:

The presentation focused on ways to support the wellbeing of national staff and incorporated psychological, social and cultural perspectives. The presentation drew on both research and clinical experience overseas. In particular the presentation highlighted the importance of risk and protective factors that affect the wellbeing of

Cultural Imperialism in International Teams (Wednesday 17th November, 2004; 3.25pm)

Name: Ms Margaret Lord Position/Title: Consultant Psychologist Organisation: Perception Psychological and Educational Services, Melbourne Contact details: [email protected]

Risk and Protective Factors: Culturally Responsive Promotion of the Wellbeing of National Staff


Name: Ms Colleen McFarlane Position/Title: PhD Candidate Organisation: Monash University Contact details: Department of Psychological Medicine, Monash University, 246 Clayton Road, Clayton,

Victoria, Australia, 3168. Ph: 0421 922 771 Fax: (03) 9594 6499 Email: [email protected]


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national staff. Factors that contribute to distress amongst national staff include:

• The psychosocial impact of environmental poverty, dislocation and disaster prior to employment • The psychosocial impact of civil conflict, violence, lawlessness and threats to life both prior to and during

employment. • Individual health and wellbeing • Professional inexperience and the first few months of employment • Individual and collective coping mechanisms • Security of self, family and community • Hassles associated with field work such as security problems, relocation, separation from family, social

isolation, accommodation, financial burden. • Cultural differences and interpersonal conflict e.g., urban vs rural, agency vs host culture, expatriates vs

nationals • Agency and professional issues, such as job security, lack of professional reward, ethical dilemmas, role

conflicts and aid dependency • Political factors such as the liaison between agency, community, government and international interfaces IMPLICATIONS FOR SUPPORT OF NATIONAL STAFF

Both expatriate and national (local, indigenous) staff require direct support and training for work in cross-cultural teams

Implications and recommendations for national staff include: • Improve awareness about and access to religious, traditional and Western networks of support • Improve awareness about local and traditional explanations of mental health • Strengthen naturally occurring social and health networks • Provide training in preventive health behaviours • Provide training in intercultural competence • Provide training to managers in leadership and psychosocial skills/triage • Adjust agency structures to suit social, cultural and religious features of the host society • Adjust agency structures to promote pay equity and medical insurance • Normalise and raise awareness about the impact of aid dependency • Incorporate psychosocial support programming for national staff in agency policies and procedures • Conduct culturally responsive research that incorporates local cultural expertise

Working Together With Australian Indigenous Communities (Tuesday, 16th November, 2004; 2.15pm)

Name: Tim Parslow Position/Title: Coordinator/CEO of Toor-rong Aboriginal Corporation Organisation: Toor-rong Contact details: [email protected] Summary:

The focus of Tim Parslow’s presentation was to share his own experiences working and living in an Aboriginal community, a community that is very different to his own and to illustrate some of the lessons learnt and insights gained. There were a number of challenges for Tim, as an expatriate working in a different culture. These included, loneliness, language and communication, understanding the nuances and the layers of complexity of issues; the confusion between local and non-local systems that were inherent in personal and professional life in these communities and the confusion about whom he was working (the community or government). Some of these challenges may be unique to expatriate staff but also applicable to national staff. It is often too easy to make simple assumptions about the people with whom you work but don't know well. A critical assumption that every humanitarian aid worker should consider is the assumption that the community want and need your presence and skills. Were they consulted? Were they briefed about working with expatriates and the nuances of expatriates?


18



• Address in training the importance of communicating properly and caveats of communication • Training should include working in cross cultural teams • Training (and even selection) should consider the need to explore potential professional and personal

dilemmas that may arise (eg issues of working for government vs. peoples needs) by preparing expatriate staff to work with national (local/indigenous) in cross-cultural teams

• Address in training the importance of communicating properly and caveats of communication • Address potential issues of loneliness and the importance of developing good contacts and support

networks • Explore potential dilemmas that may arise (for example, issues of working for government vs. peoples

needs) • Educate expatriate staff to adopt an attitude of respect for culture as well as humility when working with

people from cultures different to your own • Understand the process of demoralisation and the importance of maintaining a positive outlook and

sound self-care regimes

Stress and Trauma Effects on National Staff: How Best to Use the Resources


Name: Janelle Richards Position/Title: Human Resources Manager Organisation: World Vision, Australia Contact details: [email protected] Summary:

This paper presented the results of research carried out to identify ways in which World Vision could support staff and build resilience in countries in the Middle East and Eastern European. The aim was to identify what could be practically done given that the only part of their environment that World Vision had control over was the work environment. The factors contributing to team and individual health and wellbeing as well as stress related behaviours were divided into factors contributing to individual resilience (eg predisposition, vulnerability, coping strategies) and those contributing to group resilience (eg social support, organisational factors ). The project began with a search of the psychological literature pertaining to trauma and stress reactions in critical incidents. The results from this showed that individual resilience factors only accounted for some 7% of the variance between those who develop stress and trauma reactions and those who do not. The results indicated that the most important factor between those experiencing and not experiencing a severe stress reaction is accounted for by the degree and type of social support an individual is experiencing. These factors accounted for up to 30% variance. A model was developed to reflect these findings. This model and the outcomes it predicted was tested in nine countries covering 646 individuals using six assessments and focus groups all translated and carried out in the local languages. Supplementary analysis was conducted by staff at the Headington Program at Fuller Seminary. The key findings were: • The relationship between a manager and their staff is critical for the mental health of all groups whether

exposed to trauma or not. • Those with compromised Social Support are 10 times as likely to be experiencing trauma following an event

during service with WV as those with non compromised Social Support. • Staff exposed to trauma who have compromised social support are 2.6 times as likely to experience

moderate to severe anxiety as staff exposed to trauma who have good levels of social support. • Social support within the organisation is a good a predictor of health with the most potent social support

being the team leader. • There is a threefold higher risk of experiencing anxiety if staff social support is compromised than if it is not. • The types of leadership skills identified by participants in survey as helpful were: establishes clear work

objectives, interested in my personal welfare, delegated work effectively, lets members know when they do a good job, avoids micromanaging members work, is interested in my thoughts/feelings.

• The advantage of these findings is that the majority of the skill set involved in these elements of good leadership can be selected or trained for.



• Provide national staff with relevant social support • Determine cultural norms of good leadership, and educate staff on what these are. • Create and communicate good line management, such as, establishing clear work objectives, being

interested in personal welfare and delegating work effectively • Ensure that managers of national staff are aware of traumatic experiences that may impact on a national

staff member’s ability to do their job by preparing expatriate staff to work with national (local/indigenous) in cross-cultural teams

• as above


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Summary:

This paper describes the Critical Incident Stress Management (CISM) model and its application to the field of humanitarian aid and the impact of cultural contexts on CISM. First, a brief overview of the nature of psychological stress and trauma was presented, which emphasized the differences between trauma and stress. It was argued that while there are differences in personal experience due to factors such as different cultural backgrounds the responses to trauma are reasonably universally common. Responses range from none or mild to severe. A severe response is classified as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). CISM was described as a multi-component crisis intervention model, which assists and supports those people whose work exposes them to psychological trauma and extreme distress. The specific aims are: to lessen the impact of critical incidents on personnel, to accelerate recovery, to return people to work and to provide an opportunity to screen for those who may benefit from more professional assistance. The core components of CISM are: education; individual support; group defusing; group debriefing; crisis management, briefing, family support, organisational consultation; monitoring and referral to further support services if required. A number of factors relevant to humanitarian aid workers were discussed. Working within a different culture was viewed as critical. Other factors included: differences in values, length of service, severity of incidents and understanding of the situations humanitarian aid workers experience by their support networks. It was suggested that humanitarian organisations can do much in terms of preventative education and training, which may mitigate the severity of the distress. CISM interventions that have been used in the humanitarian context include one to one telephone support, interview/assessments, longer term follow up and family support. It is important to maintain some degree of follow up and monitoring. IMPLICATIONS FOR SUPPORT OF NATIONAL STAFF


• Establish routine education and training on managing critical incidents and stress • Apply the CISM model to the local context and to the needs of national staff • Have a system of monitoring both cumulative stress levels and trauma recovery post incident • Establish an organisational culture that embraces self care and stress management • Encourage and undertake research

Critical Incident Debriefing from a Cross Cultural Perspective


Name: Dr Robyn Robinson Position/Title: Clinical Psychologist and President of the Critical Incident Stress Management Foundation

Australia (CISMFA) Organisation: Critical Incident Stress Management Foundation, Australia Contact details: Fax: (03) 9663 5422


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• As above

Summary:

This workshop was an extension of the core paper presented by Dr Robinson. Particular emphasis was placed on the role of managers in Critical Incident Stress Management support programs and the complexities of providing culturally tailored support. Facilitators of CISM programmes are trained in the CISM model. Senior staff in the organisation have a pivotal role in critical incident stress management. Senior staff are required to manage resourcing and organisational policy. The CISM team can assist them though it is important to delineate work roles prior to any incident occurring. Senior staff should also ensure that there is adequate pre incident education and training in place. The interactive discussion highlighted a number of cross cultural issues that would need to be considered during debriefing processes. Dr Robinson cautioned against doing debriefings for members of the community who are not as homogonous a group as people in the workplace, for example nurses. Different groups vary in the extent to which they show emotions and some societies have traditional ways of coping, which should be incorporated. Although basic trauma response have been found to be relatively universal and cut across cultural and other boundaries CISM should be adapted to the needs of the client group. It was highlighted that interpreters were a often a forgotten group, who listen to many stories which might impact on them. IMPLICATIONS FOR SUPPORT OF NATIONAL STAFF


• Ensure that people who deliver staff support are appropriately trained • Apply the CISM model to the client base, being sensitive to the cross-cultural context • Traditional and cultural coping mechanisms need to be respected • Pre incident training and education and post incident follow up and monitoring are critical to a CISM

programme


• As above

Critical Incident Stress Management Support Programs for Workers


Name: Dr Robyn Robinson Position/Title: Clinical Psychologist and President of the Critical Incident Stress Management Foundation

Australia (CISMFA). Organisation: Critical Incident Stress Management Foundation Australia (CISMFA). Contact details: Fax: (03) 9663 5422

Challenges to Working With HIV /AIDS in Thailand from a National Staff Perspective


Name: Mr. Surasak (Patrick) Seehanach & Mr. Siroat (Ken) Jittjang Position/Title: Office Manager, Asia Pacific HIV/AIDS Program

Project Assistant Organisation: Australian Red Cross, Asian Regional Office

Asia Pacific Network of People Living with HIV/AIDS (APN+) Contact details: Unit 1701, 17th Floor, One Pacific Place, 140 Sukhumvit Road, Klongtoey, Bangkok, 10110

THAILAND Tel: +66 2255 1125 Fax: +66 2255 1128 Surasak (Patrick) Seehanach E-Mail : [email protected] (Ken) Jittjang E-Mail : [email protected]



Summary:

Mr Surasak Seehanach and Mr Siroat Jittjang based their presentation on personal experiences. They began their presentation with an overview of the distinctive working culture of Thailand and then discussed the challenges of working in the cross-cultural setting of an Australian (and Asia Pacific Regional) organisation based in Bangkok from the perspective of national (Thai) staffs. Some of the issues they highlighted included working culture, gender, Buddhism & royal institution, languages and HIV issue. The working culture discussed consists of seniority, direction and attitude & stereotype. For seniority, there are some factors identifying it but in Thai culture the most overridden is age. For direction, the challenge is that when Thai staff works in non-Thai office, he or she is often required to present some initiatives, but Thais get used to work with assignment. For attitude & stereotype, Australian office has a casual environment that most of Thais prefer formality. Regarding gender, in Thailand certain gender is required for certain position that does not comply with policy on non-discrimination adopted by almost all Australian offices. As for Buddhism and royal institution, Thais pay the great respect to them and it can be evidenced by the fact that the workplace policy in Thailand is influenced by them. Concerning languages, misinterpretation and misunderstanding can occur because of different accents and backgrounds. Relating to HIV issues, since their work is for HIV/AIDS issues, the stress can be stemmed from the boundary of work that is expected to provide service all the time and they have to concentrate on creating and maintaining the positive outlook of people living with HIV/AIDS. Finally, the potential conflicts and stresses that result from having to deal with these cultural differences was discussed. However, there are many ways to avoid the stress, both individually and organizationally. At the organizational level, we have monthly meeting and we also pay considerable attention to team building activity that is a space for everyone to share any topic. IMPLICATIONS FOR SUPPORT OF NATIONAL STAFF


• To provide the opportunity for national staff to work and do trainings at the Head Quarter for an appropriate period


• To provide pre-departure and post-arrival debrief for International or expatriate staffs. The pre-departure debrief should be provided by overseas working experienced staff at the Headquarter, and the post arrival one should be provided by National staff

Cultural Reciprocity Within the Debriefing Process (Wednesday 17th November, 2004; 9.20am)

Name: Ms Senia Sefo-Godinet and Ms Ngaire Eruera Position/Title: Supervisor of the Youth Services Team and Clinical Team Leader, Specialist Services and

therapist Organisation: Department of Child, Youth and Family Services, New Zealand Contact details: [email protected] Summary:

This paper presented a cultural adaptation of Mitchell’s Critical Incident Stress Management (CISM) model from the Pacific Island perspective. In doing so it applied the notion of ‘cultural reciprocity’ to explain how another culture’s worldview can inform, support, parallel and enhance an applied western or dominant culture model as applied to CISM. There are subsequent challenges inherent when different worldviews meet. Political sensitivity, identity, honouring, valuing, meaning and potency are all aspects of that process. For example, Pacific people not only belong to a Family, they have strong links to a Church and their villages. They live in communal rather than in individual living system arrangements. The core message of this presentation was that Western models can be adapted BUT cultural integrity is important and must be maintained throughout the adaptation. The example presented, the Pacific Island perspective and culture remains intact.


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Initial evaluations of the cultural modifications made to the CISM model from Pacific Island staff reported that they were in favour of the process and participants couldn’t separate the debriefing process from the traditional grieving process because they were similar and had been intertwined. The development and evaluation of these cultural adaptations to the CISM model are still in their infancy and more formal evaluations have yet to be conducted. It was argued that every culture has a way of coping with trauma and to be effective methods should enable the traditional coping mechanisms to continue. IMPLICATIONS FOR SUPPORT OF NATIONAL STAFF


• Western models can be adapted but such a process needs to be done sensitively and appropriately and relevant to the salient culture and identity

• The maintenance of the cultural integrity of national staff is important in the process of psychological support


• Raise awareness that every culture and individual has a way of coping with trauma and that traditional and natural mechanisms should and can be supported

Supporting Australian Volunteers: An Accredited Training Program in Capacity Building of Cross-Cultural Teams


Name: Julian Silverman Position/Title: Coordinator of the Diploma of Community Education at RMIT Organisation: Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology (RMIT) Contact details: [email protected] Summary:

This paper examines the opportunities that exist for participants on cross-cultural assignments to have their work recognised as part of a flexibly delivered national Australian TAFE Certificate IV in Workplace Assessment and Training. It also outlined a Diploma of Community Education for volunteers from Australian Volunteers International (AVI), which would include components such as training needs analysis, the development of training and assessment programs and the implementation, reporting and assessment of training. The benefits of being a vocational programme would be a programme of learning that includes practical based work, online learning and the exchange of learning with local counterparts. It is argued that such training would compliment the skills base of volunteers and enable Australian volunteers to strengthen the work and support of their host community colleagues. IMPLICATIONS FOR SUPPORT OF NATIONAL STAFF


• Provision of ongoing training and development for national staff by such means as distance learning courses and online orientations

• Developing certificates of achievement and supportive processes for developing resumes of national staff

Identifying Staff for Working in Development


Name: Ms Rachel Smith Position/Title: Manager of Knowledge and Learning Services Organisation: Australian Volunteers International (AVI) Contact details:


23

Abstract:

Australian Volunteers International (AVI) is Australia's largest and most experienced international volunteer sending agency and complements the work of Australia's official development cooperation program. Every year, AVI recruits, prepares and supports hundreds of appropriately skilled Australians at the request of host employers in developing communities. AVI has widely recognised expertise in recruiting, reference checking and selecting candidates for cross-cultural assignments. This presentation provided an overview of AVI's current recruitment processes. AVI propose that working in cross cultural environments requires much more than technical skills and one of the central tools used by AVI in assessing other skills is the interview process. Interviews are conducted to assess areas such as health, security and self evaluations. Interviews are based on a Skills & Attitudes Index which covers the selection criteria identified by AVI as important, for example, managing relationships, motivations & expectations. One attribute of the Index is cross-cultural sensitivity. This attribute can be demonstrated for example by showing interest in other cultures and trying to understand rather than minimise differences. Critical to the interview process is interviewer skills AVI also uses storytelling throughout the recruitment process with an emphasis on gathering information and collaborative informed decision making. Is this work right for the applicants? Is it the right time? Future volunteers are encouraged to participate in a pre-departure briefing, and they have the opportunity to talk with nationals from their placement countries as well. . After the selection process, future volunteers receive information, training and briefings among other things. Impressively 98% of AVI volunteers stay at their placement until the end of their project. IMPLICATIONS FOR SUPPORT OF NATIONAL STAFF


• Provide the opportunity and framework to assess own vulnerabilities • Interview and selection to assess cross-cultural sensitivity • Provide the opportunity for future staff to contact returned staff and national colleagues to access

information about the context of deployment

Recruitment and Selection of Development Workers


Name: Ms Rachel Smith Position/Title: Manager of Knowledge and Learning Services Organisation: Australian Volunteers International (AVI) Contact details: Summary:

This workshop was an extension to the core paper presented by Ms Rachel Smith. Participants were required to review a job description and prepare a set of questions for applicants. The discussion focused on: • how the information required to assess suitability for development work can be elicited • how you design suitable questions to assess both the technical skills and personal attributes of candidates

applying to work in development The group brainstormed important skills and characteristics required for volunteers going to work in cross cultural environments, for example, language skills, motivation, creative problem solving and dealing with stress. IMPLICATIONS FOR SUPPORT OF NATIONAL STAFF


• Ask national staff to draw up the characteristics and skills they would like to see in expatriate colleagues


• During selection identify the important skills and characteristics of volunteers going to work in cross


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cultural environments and specific project contexts

Summary:

Dr Robi Sondiregger is one of the founders of the Family Challenge Charitable Trust. He presented an overview of the Trust’s philosophies and outcomes of a community-based leadership-training program that has been piloted in Zambia. The Trust promotes mental health in communities where children and adolescents have lost the support of family due to famine, disease, and war. The Trust currently works with AIDS-orphans in the rural copperbelt of Zambia and with traumatized children in Uganda who have experienced abduction by the Lords Resistance Army. The community-based leadership training has been piloted as an alternative means of promoting community vivacity. It uses pre-existing talents and resources within the community and without external monetary influence. It began as a 10-week program on leadership and the training of local people in areas such as the principles of life purpose, autonomy, motivation and meta cognition. The program aims to increase the self-esteem of the community by empowering local individuals to continue in the training. Outcomes (as measured by various community based projects such as schooling, health and nutrition education, and permaculture farming projects) have so far surpassed expectations at both two and four-years post intervention evaluations.



• Develop leadership skills within the local community • Encourage the development of self esteem, pride and purpose in the roles of national staff take on in

international teams • Offer ongoing training programmes based on local contexts and resources • Minimise the ongoing need for financial reliance and staff wages


• Eliminating or minimising the dependency syndrome of local communities on expatriate staff • Using the Christian faith as a non-western cultural foundation to promote community coherence,

vivacity, and a source of inspiration for what can be achieved (e.g., most powerful leadership of Jesus changing the world in only 3 years of ministry – what principles can be derived, implemented, and evaluated in ways that mobilise and empower)

• Live and work by a “practice what you preach” ethos that has well proven leadership strategies for empowerment which are embedded in cross-culturally sensitive train-the-trainer model

Abstract:

Based on personal experience through working with the Cambodian Red Cross, Mr VA Sopoheak has examined the cultural norms, attitudes, behaviours and values of both Khmer and Western cultures in a workplace setting. Three main cross cultural challenges in the work place were identified (a) work styles, (b) perception and (c) attitudes and communication. Examples of observable cultural differences between Khmer and Western

AIDS-Orphan Community Mobilization Via Leadership Training for Indigenous Staff


Name: Dr Robi Sondiregger Position/Title: Clinical Psychologist Organisation: Family Challenge Charitable Trust Contact details: [email protected]

National Staff Issues Working With HIV/AIDS Program in Cambodia


Name: Mr V.A. Sopoheak Position/Title: Core Facilitator of the UNDP/NAA HIV/AIDS Leadership Program Organisation: Cambodian Red Cross Contact details: [email protected]



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approaches to these three areas were given. A number of key ways for both Khmer and Westerners to enhance mutual understanding and to work together more effectively were identified: • Be open to one another (create brother-sister environment and accept differences) • Build trust and mutual respect • Mentor rather than manage. Expatriates should be consultative rather than directive. • Practice feedback. National staff should learn to give and receive constructive feedback. • Be empathetic, flexible and adaptable • Provide opportunities to local people in how to catch fish rather than giving fish • Make judgements based on concrete evidence rather than assumption • Transfer skills and knowledge based on real needs of local people rather than on expatriate wants IMPLICATIONS FOR SUPPORT OF NATIONAL STAFF


• Train national staff in being open to one another (create an environment that accept differences) • Building trust and mutual respect • Training in how to give and receive constructive feedback • Making judgements based on concrete evidence rather than assumption • Empowering national staff to take initiatives


• Train expatriate staff to mentor rather than manage • Train expatriate staff to assess the needs of local people rather than utilising imposed assumptions

Identifying & Remediating Stress in Culturally Appropriate Ways: Issues & Questions (Tuesday, 16th November, 2004; 12.25pm)

Name: Ms Lindsay Stark Position/Title: Programme Manager Organisation: Action Without Borders, USA Contact details: [email protected] Summary:

There are a number of challenges facing national staff. National staff may be vulnerable to unique and different issues, for example, suffering losses in family or community, organizational differences in pay, benefits and training, team conflict, resentment from the community, economic and other vulnerabilities. It was emphasised that all of the above issues require attention and organisational commitment. Some of the issues that organisations need to consider include: individual resiliency and commitment; the creation of culturally appropriate training and support programmes; the provision of training to all about intercultural understanding and sensitivity and hiring practices. There is very little literature on the current approaches to the psychosocial support of national staff and national staff are often passed over altogether or grouped with expatriate staff. Current psychosocial models of care may be culturally inappropriate. Recent efforts include: a number of conferences (Antares, Melbourne & Tending the Helper’s Fire), working group developing Guidelines (Antares) and a website www. psychosocial.org (resources for managers, field staff etc). IMPLICATIONS FOR SUPPORT OF NATIONAL STAFF


26


• the creation of culturally appropriate training and support programmes • the provision of training to all about intercultural understanding and sensitivity • research on developing the above


• as above

Summary:

Over the past 20 years Sri Lankans have faced a 20-year ethnic war, which has resulted in more than 70,000 deaths and over 600,000 displaced people and various natural disasters in the form of floods, landslides and droughts. With this background in mind, this presentation focused on two areas: the overarching issues currently facing National programs and the direct issues facing the National staff responding to emergencies. A number of issues affecting national programmes were highlighted: • The high levels of state intervention during emergencies • Criticism from the community that conversions take place under the guise of humanitarian aid • The lack of local expertise in large scale disaster mitigation and high staff turnover • The dichotomy and lack of integration between development and relief work • An unstable government and the formation of extremist groups • No progress in the peace process • A lack of funding • The need to integrate peace initiatives with disaster mitigation programmes In terms of direct issues facing National staff the following issues were highlighted: • Staff from the North (conflict zone) and South of the country experience different types of issues and levels

of stress. For example, staff from the North are accountable to local and government authorities, have to deal with land mines, have no basic facilities, violations of human rights and so forth. This is less so for staff from the South.

• There is no local expertise in stress management and psychosocial care for either humanitarian aid workers who have experienced critical incidents or the local population

• It is difficult to mobilise skilled staff to work in war affected areas • Expatriate staff have difficulties adjusting to the local culture • Staff have to work in a context where the objectives of donor organisations do not always reflect those of the

local people IMPLICATIONS FOR SUPPORT OF NATIONAL STAFF


• Provision of training in the psychosocial care of people who have experienced critical incidents • Development of programmes that increase the awareness of the impact of critical incidents • Don’t assume national staff are a homogenous group and have homogenous concerns and needs • Greater dialogue between humanitarian aid organisations and local communities


• Expatriate staff need greater preparation for adjusting to work abroad particularly in contexts that have a history of trauma and conflict

• As above

Issues that Face National Staff Working in Emergency Response and Disaster Mitigation

(Wednesday 17th November, 2004; 9.00am) Name: Mr Andrew Sundersingh Position/Title: Head of Emergency Relief & Disaster Management Organisation: World Vision, Sri Lanka Contact details: [email protected]

Summary:

Conflict is a normal part of human existence and can be either a productive impetus for needed change or a destructive force, depending on how it is handled. Assoc. Prof Wertheim made the distinction between destructive and constructive conflict management and cooperative and competitive styles of handling conflict. Factors related to conflict escalation were discussed including ‘their gain, our loss’ type thinking, positional bargaining, common human perceptual errors, and entrapment. Specific methods of handling conflict were highlighted, including fighting, conceding, avoiding, compromising and cooperative problem-solving. A model (from Wertheim, E., Love, A., Peck C. & Littlefield, L. 1998, Skills for Resolving Conflict, Melbourne: Eruditions) was presented that aims to resolve conflict cooperatively as an alternative to traditional competitive styles of negotiating. In traditional negotiating styles, each party starts with a position (advocated solution) and then tries to convince the other side of their positions, often using power to do so. The best outcome of such an approach tends to be a compromise, in which each party gives in a bit and gains a bit. In contrast, cooperative (or integrative) styles of conflict resolution create options to meet the interests of each side. It was pointed out that a competitive approach on the part of one party is highly likely to result in competition from the other party, while cooperative approaches tend to lead to

Define the issues &Identify the parties

Understand your interests

Encourage positive relations &

Handle negative emotions

Broaden the context or break the problem

down

Combine options into WIN-WIN solutions

Redefine areas of

disagree-ment

Brainstorm creative options

Set the stage for WIN-WIN outcomes

Develop your BATNA

Understand their interests

Retreat to BATNA

Analyse reasons for disagreeing

Is agreement reached?no no

cooperative responses from the other. Therefore, it is useful to begin negotiations cooperatively to achieve productive negotiations. It is also important to note that a good agreement is one that lasts. Just because a party says ‘yes’, does not make an agreement a good one – it is worthwhile considering whether proposed agreements really do meet the needs of all the parties and to reality test whether the parties will be able to implement it successfully. Finally, some tips were offered to resolve conflict: • Spend time uncovering the important interests of all parties • Use active listening skills • Generate options that meet the interests of both sides. Check that the interests really have been met • Develop your best alternatives to a negotiated agreement (BATNA) and consider what their BATNA is likely

to be • Include realistic timelines • Develop strategies to cope and manage emotions (all parties, including yourself) IMPLICATIONS FOR SUPPORT OF NATIONAL STAFF


• Provide training in conflict resolution and mediation especially for staff working as community liaisons • Train all staff in the model of conflict resolution so that each person can recognise their own interests

(and positions) as wells the interests (and positions) of others from different cultural and ethnic contexts, and find creative options to address the needs of others from different contexts


• As above

A Model for Resolving Conflict


Name: Assoc.Prof. Eleanor Wertheim Position/Title: Associate Professor in Psychological Science Organisation: La Trobe University Contact details: [email protected]


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Summary:

This workshop discussed in more detail the model of conflict resolution presented in the core paper by Assoc. Prof. Wertheim. This model for resolving conflict has been used in a variety of contexts cross-culturally from dealing with interpersonal disputes and disputes within organisations to resolving both inter-state and intra-state violent and non-violent conflict. It was emphasised that the model needs to be adapted to each individual, situation, context and culture to be truly effective. The workshop used, as an example, the disparity between locally employed and expatriate staff salaries within an NGO and detailed the following process:

• Identify the problematic issue. Define the issue using language that each of the parties would be willing to discuss, i.e., nonjudgemental, mutually agreeable definition of the problem

• Consider who the parties are, i.e., who the issue affects, for example, management, expatriates, national staff?

• Identify the positions (initial advocated solutions to the problem) of the parties regarding appropriate salaries, for example, national staff may argue “We should get the same salary as expatriate staff”; expatriate staff may argue “Salary should be proportionate to the community that you come from” and management may argue “we don’t want change”

• At some stage it may be necessary to gather objective criteria/standards of fairness (e.g., standard salaries of others in similar contexts) that can be used in settling the problem or in helping different parties (e.g., other expatriate NGO staff, families, local communities and donors) to feel that an eventual solution is fair and reasonable

• Identify the interests, i.e., the wants, aspirations, needs, fears and concerns of the parties • Look at all the different options available to the different parties, for example, collective action, pay rise or

cuts and finding additional funding sources so as to understand the future path of negotiations It was emphasised that the model should be used as a framework. A number of other important considerations were highlighted. First, a mediator needs to look at the parties’ wants and interests and redefine them so as to not sound derogatory to one party or another. Second, try and get to the real interests (underlying needs), for example, issues of safety, belonging and identity. Third, move away from a win-lose approach to the problem and instead seek solutions that address all parties’ concerns. Fourth, look at the history of the parties so as to have a sound grounding prior to talking and conferring. Fifth, never assume you know the true position, keep asking questions. Finally, if you lack cultural respect/awareness then use someone within the culture to help when mediating. IMPLICATIONS FOR SUPPORT OF NATIONAL STAFF


• Address issues that may be an underlying or less obvious source of distress for national staff • Adopt conflict resolution processes for addressing some of the more sensitive issues • Address issues of respect and cultural relativity • Collaborate with national staff to develop culturally modified conflict resolution processes that are

embraced by local peoples

A Model for Resolving Conflict that Maximises the Chances for Mutually Satisfying Solutions


Name: Assoc. Prof. Eleanor Wertheim Position/Title: Associate Professor in Psychological Science Organisation: La Trobe University Contact details: [email protected]


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Summary :

Ms Wilson presented her experience of adjusting to the cross cultural context of working in a large INGO in Indonesia through a theoretical framework based on the theories of Hofstede, Triandis, Landrine and Lerner (see Lopez et al (1989) Development of culturally sensitive psychotherapists. In Professional Psychology: Research and Practice). She conceptualised and presented her experience as four stages of adjustment. Stage one, Cultural Sensitivity as an unawareness of cultural issues and the reliance of your own frame of reference from your own original culture. Stage two is known as ‘a heightened awareness of culture’ where one is very enthusiastic, gathers lots of information, begins to learn the language but also begins to realise how much you don’t know and therefore you can feel overwhelmed. Stage 3 is often called ‘the burden of considering culture’, whereby you are vigilant and preoccupied with cultural issues and it can lead to burnout. Stage 4 involves greater integration where you are culturally sensitive and learning from both the original and new culture are integrated. Most people move back and forward between stages.

Based on her own experience and lessons learned in the Indonesian context Ms Wilson offered the following tips: • Build relationships with national colleagues • Get to know local experts and stakeholders and seek cultural advice from local people • Have a strong core team of national staff and hire a community member full time • Know your place and let the nationals advise about your role as an expatriate • Accept that you don’t know everything about a culture • Create a space where people can meet be warm and welcoming • Make sure there is no loss of face incurred • Create space for national staff to grow, lead and engage IMPLICATIONS FOR SUPPORT OF NATIONAL STAFF


• Create space for national staff to grow, lead and engage with the development project • Place national staff in advisory roles


• Build relationships • Get to know local experts/stakeholders and seek cultural advice from local people • Develop a strong core team of national staff and hire a community member full time • Know your place and limitations • Accept that you don’t know everything about a culture • Create a space where people can meet at an interpersonal level • Make sure there is no loss of face to national staff

Lessons learned in a decade of experience of HIV/AIDS work in Indonesia: The critical interaction of

theory and practice (Wednesday 17th November, 2004; 3.25pm)

Name: Ms Jane Wilson Position/Title: USAIDS Country Coordinator, Jakarta, Indonesia; Member of Australian Psychological

Society. Organisation: United Nations Contact details: [email protected]


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