Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Research Problems Chapter 2 This multimedia product and its contents...

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Research Problems

Chapter 2

This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law:• Any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network;• Preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or in part, of any images;• Any rental, lease, or lending of the program.


Discussion Topics

Research problems Quantitative research problems Qualitative research problems


Research Problems

One or more sentences indicating the goal, purpose, or overall direction of the study

General characteristics– Implies the possibility of empirical investigation– Identifies a need for the research– Provides focus– Provides a concise overview of the research


Research Problems

Two ways of stating the problem– Research problems: typically a rather general overview of

the problem with just enough information about the scope and purpose of the study to provide an initial understanding of the research

– Research statements and/or questions: more specific, focused statements and questions that communicate in greater detail the nature of the study


Research Problems

A general research problem– The purpose of this study is to investigate the attitudes of

high school students to mandated drug testing programs Specific statements and questions

– This study examines the differences between males’ and females’ attitudes toward mandated high school drug testing programs.

– What are the differences between freshmen, sophomore, junior, and senior students’ attitudes toward mandated high school drug testing programs?


Research Problems

Researchable and non-researchable problems– Researchable problems imply the possibility of empirical

investigation What are the achievement and social skill differences between

children attending an academically or socially oriented pre-school program?

What is the relationship between teachers’ knowledge of assessment methods and their use of them?


Research Problems

Researchable and non-researchable problems– Non-researchable problems include explanations of how to

do something, vague propositions, and value-based concerns

Is democracy a good form of government? Should values clarification be taught in public schools? Can crime be prevented? Should physical education classes be dropped from the high

school curriculum?


Research Problems

Quantitative problems– Specific– Closed– Static– Outcome oriented– Use of specific variables

Qualitative problems– General– Open– Evolving– Process oriented


Research Problems

Sources of research problems– Personal interests and experiences

The use of formative tests in a statistics class The use of technology in a research class

– Deductions from theory The effectiveness of math manipulatives The effectiveness of a mastery approach to learning

research


Research Problems

Sources of research problems– Replication of studies

Checking the findings of a major study Checking the validity of research findings with different

subjects Checking trends or changes over time Checking important findings using different

methodologies

– Clarification of contradictory results


Quantitative Research Problems

Identifies three specific elements– The type of research design– The variables of interest and the relationships

between or among these variables– The subjects involved in the study



Variables– A variable is a label of name that represents a

concept or characteristic that varies (e.g., gender, weight, achievement, attitudes toward inclusion, etc.)

– Conceptual and operational definitions of variables



Conceptual and operational definitions of variables– Conceptual (i.e., constitutive) definition: the use of words or

concepts to define a variable Achievement: what one has learned from formal instruction Aptitude: one’s capability for performing a particular task or skill

– Operational definition: an indication of the meaning of a variable through the specification of the manner by which it is measured, categorized, or controlled

A test score Income levels above and below $45,000 per year The use of holistic or phonetic language instruction



Three types of variables defined by the context within which the variable is discussed– Independent and dependent variables– Extraneous and confounding variables– Continuous and categorical variables



Independent and dependent (i.e., cause and effect)– Independent variables act as the “cause” in that they

precede, influence, and predict the dependent variable– Dependent variables act as the effect in that they change as

a result of being influenced by an independent variable– Examples

The effect of two instructional approaches (independent variable) on student achievement (dependent variable)

The use of SAT scores (independent variable) to predict freshman grade point averages (dependent variable)



Extraneous and confounding variables– Extraneous variables are those that affect the dependent

variable but are not controlled adequately by the researcher Not controlling for the key-boarding skills of students in a study

of computer-assisted instruction– Confounding variables are those that vary systematically

with the independent variable and exert influence of the dependent variable

Not using counselors with similar levels of experience in a study comparing the effectiveness of two counseling approaches



Continuous and categorical variables– Continuous variables are measured on a scale

that theoretically can take on an infinite number of values

Test scores range from a low of 0 to a high of 100 Attitude scales that range from very negative at 0 to very

positive at 5 Students’ ages



Continuous and categorical variables– Categorical variables are measured and assigned to groups

on the basis of specific characteristics Examples

– Gender: male and female– Socio-economic status: low middle, and high

The term level is used to discuss the groups or categories– Gender has two levels - male and female– Socio-economic status has three levels - low, middle, and high



Continuous and categorical variables– Continuous variables can be converted to categorical

variables, but categorical variables cannot be converted to continuous variables

IQ is a continuous variable, but the researcher can choose to group students into three levels based on IQ scores - low is below a score of 84, middle is between 85 and 115, and high is above 116

Test scores are continuous, but teachers typically assign letter grades on a ten point scale (i.e., at or below 59 is an F, 60 to 69 is a D, 70 to 79 is a C, 80-89 is a B, and 90 to 100 is an A



Hypotheses– Hypotheses are tentative statements of the

expected relationships between two or more variables

There is a significant positive relationship between self-concept and math achievement

The class using math manipulatives will show significantly higher levels of math achievement than the class using a traditional algorithm approach



Reasons for using hypotheses– To provide specific focus– To provide for the testing of the relationships

between variables– To direct the investigation– To allow the investigator to confirm or not confirm

relationships



Reasons for using hypotheses– To provide a framework for reporting the results

and explanations deriving from them– When supported, provides empirical evidence of

the predictive nature of the relationships between variables

– To provide a useful framework for organizing and summarizing the results and conclusions



Two types of hypotheses– Inductive and deductive

Inductive hypotheses are formed through inductively reasoning from many specific observations to tentative explanations

Deductive hypotheses are formed through deductively reasoning implications of theory



Two types of hypotheses– Research or statistical

Research hypotheses are conjectural statements of the expected results

– Directional– Non-directional

Statistical hypotheses are statements of a relationship or difference that can be tested statistically

– Null hypothesis– Alternative hypothesis



Criteria for evaluating research hypotheses– Stated in declarative form– Consistent with known facts, prior research, or theory– Logical extension of the research problem– States an expected relationship between two or more

variables– Can be tested– Is clear and concise


Qualitative Research Problems

Identifies a central phenomena (i.e., an issue or process) being investigated

– Examples of issues Drug abuse in high schools Teacher burnout Alienation of children with special needs

– Examples of processes How teachers change to standards-based curricula How students react to high stakes testing programs How students incorporate teachers’ expectations into their

studies



Criteria for evaluating quantitative research problems– Problem is researchable– Problem is important– Problem should indicate the type of research– Problem specifies the population being

investigated– Problem specifies the variables and the

relationships between or among them



Characteristics– Includes a single, central phenomena– Open-ended– General in nature– Evolving, that is, problems change as data is collected and

reflected upon Foreshadowed problems Emerging and reformulated questions

– Neutral with respect to what will be learned No predictions No expected outcomes



Criteria for evaluating qualitative research problems– The problem should not be too general or too specific– The problem should be amenable to change as data are

collected and analyzed– The problem should not be biased with restrictive

assumptions or desired findings– The problem should be written in “how” and “what” forms to

focus on describing the phenomena– The problem should include a central question as well as

the participants and the site

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Research Problems Chapter 2 This multimedia product and its contents...

Documents

Transcript of Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Research Problems Chapter 2 This multimedia product and its contents...