Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Chapter 7 Memory. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Human memory is an...

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Chapter 7Chapter 7Memory


Human memory is an information processing

system that works constructively to encode,

store, and retrieve information

What is Memory?What is Memory?


What is Memory?What is Memory?

Memory – Any system – human, animal, or machine – that encodes, stores, and retrieves information


Why is choosing the right penny so difficult?


It’s difficult because. . .It’s difficult because. . .

1. We haven’t encoded that info.

2. We haven’t stored that info.

3. Therefore, we cannot retrieve it easily.


What is pseudoforgetting?What is pseudoforgetting?

Pseudoforgetting (false forgetting) is a failure to encode the information

You didn’t forget; you just never cared enough to pay attention!

(pseudo = false)


EncodingEncoding StorageStorage RetrievalRetrieval

3 basic tasks of memory3 basic tasks of memory


EncodingEncoding Storage Retrieval

Putting info in the brain

Elaboration – trying to understand it

Making it meaningful to you

The way I see it!!The way I see it!!


Encoding StorageStorage Retrieval

Keeping the info in the brain



Encoding Storage RetrievalRetrieval

Getting stuff out of your brain



Now, use computer Now, use computer terminology to terminology to describe the describe the processes of memory!processes of memory!


ReviewReview

Getting information into the brain is called _____; getting information out of memory is called ______.

a. storage; retrieval

b. Encoding; storage

c. Encoding; retrieval

d. Storage; encoding


Let’s talk about Let’s talk about encoding.encoding.


Now let’s try Now let’s try something.something.


Can you remember this?Can you remember this?

GBX IYU CSE GWE LIY TRN


It’s tough. You might remember the structure (all capital letters).

That’s structural encoding.


Try thisTry this

Pain Crane Sane Layne


Phonemic EncodingPhonemic Encoding

That was easier because they all rhymed.

Remembering sounds is easier than remembering structure.


Acoustic encoding – Conversion of information to sound patterns in working memory


Acoustic encodingAcoustic encoding

Think of a song!!!!!!!!!

What are the parts of the human What are the parts of the human body?body?


Can you remember all 50 states?Can you remember all 50 states?

Make up a song.


Acoustic encodingAcoustic encoding

I remember Rick’s name because it sounds like he acts on a daily basis.


Semantic encodingSemantic encoding

“Semantic” means meaning. We remember stuff that has meaning better than their structure and sounds.


Try this.Try this.

Apples are grown in Washington.


Levels of EncodingLevels of Encoding


ReviewReview

The word “big” is flashed on the screen. A mental picture of the word big represents a ______ code; the definition “large in size” represents a ______ code; “sounds like pig” represents a _______ code.

a. structural; phonemic; semantic

b. Phonemic; semantic; structural

c. Structural; semantic; phonemic

d. Phonemic; structural; semantic


What is serial What is serial positioning effect?positioning effect?

Imagine a grocery list: milk, eggs, butter, bread, celery, chocolate, Big

Red, Beans, chips.

We most likely will remember the first few items and the last few.


Encoding: Serial Position EffectEncoding: Serial Position Effect

12

Percentage of words

recalled

0

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

Position of word in list

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Serial Position Effect-tendency to recall best the last items in a list


How can we use this How can we use this as students?as students?


Encoding is effective whenEncoding is effective whenYou pay attention. “Selective attention” If you don’t pay

attention, your sensory memory will hear blah, blah. You have to pay attention to get info into your working memory


Effective EncodingEffective EncodingWe encode what we are interested in. This

is called self-referent encoding.

Can you remember my phone number?


Self referent encodingSelf referent encoding

We remember information that is personally relevant.

I’ll give you money if you remember something.


Dual EncodingDual Encoding

Dual encoding (learning) involves combining different levels of processing.

Combine Semantic with phonemic with structural processing when you learn and study.


A common way of dual A common way of dual encoding is encoding is MnemonicsMnemonics


Mnemonics (encoding)Mnemonics (encoding)

Chunkingorganizing items into familiar, manageable units

like horizontal organization--1776149218121941

often occurs automatically

use of acronymsHOMES--Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior

PEMDAS - ?????


ChunkingChunking

Can you remember this number?

19039848557


Method of loci?Method of loci?

Aristotle talked about this. You have a grocery list: hot dogs, cat food, tomatoes, bananas, Dr. Pepper.


Method of loci?Method of loci?

Now imagine you are arriving home in the driveway you see hot dogs all over the driveway, INSIDE the garage your cat is eating its food, you see tomatoes spattered on the door, you hang your coat but see banannas hanging in the closet, you go to the sink and see Dr. Pepper face down in the sink.

What’s cool about the method of loci is you remember the items in a specific order.


Eggs, strawberries, ravioli, chocolate, beef.


Encoding Specificity PrincipleEncoding Specificity Principle

What are context dependent effects: information learned in a particular context is better recalled if recall takes place in the same context

ex: mood congruence


Godden & Baddeley (1975)Godden & Baddeley (1975)

Memory experiment with deep-sea diversDeep-sea divers learned words either on land or underwater

They then recalled the words either on land or underwater


Mood CongruenceMood Congruence

Easier to remember happy memories in a happy state and sad memories in a sad state.

Teasdale & Russell (1983): subjects study positive or negative words in normal state. Test in positive or negative induced states.

mood primes certain

memory contents


State-dependent recallState-dependent recall

Does physical state matter?

Eich et al. (1975): study while smoking normal or marijuana cigarette. Test words under same or different physical condition


Encoding summaryEncoding summary

Encoding is most effective when we can see it, hear it, touch it, and UNDERSTAND it. Also, it’s most effective when we combine those elements. Encoding is best when we care.


What is spacing effect?What is spacing effect?

Memory is better for repeated information if repetitions occur spaced over time than if they occur massed, one after another. No cramming!

Why? 1.Spacing distributed practice (instead of massed practice) reduces retroactive and proactive interference.

2.REM sleep helps memory. So study Tuesday, sleep, study Wednesday, sleep. You’ll do better.

3.Distributed practice may cause you to encode it in different ways and in different moods.

Melton & Schulman, 1970


If a subject is asked to remember this list of numbers in 10 seconds: 48, 31, 45, 76, 97, 84, 26, 12, 67, which numbers will she most likely remember?

a. 84, 45

b. 48, 67

c. 12, 31

d. 97, 76


Each of the three memory stages encodes and stores memories in a different way,

but they work together to transform sensory experience into a lasting record that has a

pattern of meaning

Now let’s talk about Now let’s talk about storagestorage


What are the Three Stages of Memory?What are the Three Stages of Memory?

Sensory Sensory MemoryMemory

Working Working Memory Memory (STM)(STM)

Long-term Long-term MemoryMemory


The First Stage: Sensory MemoryThe First Stage: Sensory Memory

On the next slide, you will see a series of letters for one second

Try to remember as many letters as you can


D J BX H GC L Y



How many can you recall?


D J BX H GC L Y



Sensory Memory has a large capacity, very short duration, allows quick/online commerce with environment.

It registers sensations coming into our "system" from the environment, allowing us to pick up on all the rich stimuli "out there." There are many "types" of sensory memories, corresponding to our different senses, as in eyes, hears, touch, taste, etc.


Sensory memorySensory memory

Sensory memory lasts no more than 2 seconds. The precise length of different types of sensory memories differs (e.g., visual sensory memory is shorter than auditory).


Sensory MemorySensory Memory

Sensory memory traces fade fairly rapidly. We simply lose the information UNLESS we do something further with it.

Did you remember when I clapped earlier?



Psychologists believe that, in this stage, memory images take the form of nerve impulses


The Three Stages of MemoryThe Three Stages of Memory

Sensory Memory

Working Working Memory Memory

STMSTM

Long-term Memory

Preserves recently perceived events or experiences for less than a minute without rehearsal.


The Second Stage: Working MemoryThe Second Stage: Working Memory

Alan Baddeley’s model of Working memory (STM) consists of• A central executive• A phonological loop• The sketchpad


What is Atkinson – Shiffrin model of memory storage?


Short Term Memory (working)Short Term Memory (working)

STM can hold unrehearsed information up to 20 seconds.

STM can hold 7 items +/- 2, according to some theories.

TWANBACBSCPR



Encoding and Storage Encoding and Storage in Working Memory (STM)in Working Memory (STM)

Chunking – Organizing pieces of information into a smaller number of meaningful units


Okay, earlier we talked Okay, earlier we talked about chunking as a about chunking as a means of encoding means of encoding (understanding).(understanding).

Now we will mention it as a means of Short-term storage.


ChunkingChunking

Can you remember this number?

19039848557


ChunkingChunking

How about this one?

1-903-984-8557


Maintenance rehearsal – Process in which information is repeated or reviewed to keep it from fading while in working memory


Maintenance Rehearsal Maintenance Rehearsal

JLo says, “My phone Number is 469-259-5968”

You then repeat it to yourself until you canwrite it down somewhere.


Elaborative rehearsal – Process in which information is actively reviewed and related to information already in LTM Example: Suppose you had to know the following definition of the term "norm" for your sociology class: norms are standards of desirable behavior that people are supposed to follow in their interactions with others. If you were to use rote rehearsal, you would repeat this definition over and over many times. If, however, you were to use elaborative rehearsal, you would expand on the above definition by adding additional information and associating it with information already in your memory. Below, the meaning of the term is analyzed in greater detail and also includes examples that connect the information to knowledge you may already have in your memory system.Norms often differ depending on the situation. Example: It's okay to tell my problems to my parents or friends but not to strangers.


What parts of brain are involved in What parts of brain are involved in memory?memory?

The Prefrontal Cortex--Site of Working Memory (STM)


The The hippocampushippocampus is part of a network of regions in the is part of a network of regions in the brain important for memory. Research suggests that the brain important for memory. Research suggests that the mediodorsal nucleus of the thalamus, amygdala , and mediodorsal nucleus of the thalamus, amygdala , and hippocampus may work in concert to regulate which hippocampus may work in concert to regulate which

information is consolidated in memoryinformation is consolidated in memory


Flashbulb memories?Flashbulb memories?

Memories we never forget because of the emotion involved.


The capacity of STM (working memory) is

a. About 50, 000 words

b. Unlimited

c. About 25 stimuli

d. About 7 “chunks” of information


The Three Stages of MemoryThe Three Stages of Memory

Sensory Memory

Working Memory

Long-term Long-term MemoryMemory

Stores material organized according to meaning, also called LTM


Semantic memory

Includes memory for:language, factsgeneral knowledge

Episodic memory

Memory of life’sEpisodes like first kiss

Includes memory for:motor skills, operant and classicalconditioning

Long-term memory

Declarative memory Procedural memory


The Third Stage:The Third Stage:Long-Term MemoryLong-Term Memory

Procedural memory – Division of LTM that stores memories for how things are done

Declarative memory – Division of LTM that stores explicit information (also known as fact memory)


Semantic memory – Subdivision of declarative memory that stores general knowledge, including meanings of words and concepts

The Third Stage:The Third Stage:Long-Term MemoryLong-Term Memory

Episodic memory – Subdivision of declarative memory that stores memories for personal events, or “episodes”


Semantic memory

Includes memory for:language, factsgeneral knowledge

Episodic memory

Includes memory for:events, personal experiences

Includes memory for:motor skills, operant and classicalconditioning

Long-term memory

Declarative memory Procedural memory


Your memory of how to brush your teeth is contained in your ______ memory.

a. Declarative

b. Procedural

c. Structural

d. episodic


Your knowledge that birds fly, that the sun rises in the east, and that 2+2=4 is contained in your ______ memory.

a. Structural

b. Procedural

c. Implicit

d. semantic


Why do we forget?Why do we forget?


Decay theory?Decay theory?

We simply forget over time.


Motivated forgettingMotivated forgetting

AKA “repression” We want to forget awful things.


3 types of amnesia?3 types of amnesia?

Infantile amnesia – stuff we don’t remember as babies

Anterograde amnesia –Inability to form memories for new information

Retrograde amnesia –Inability to remember information previously stored in memory

Note: procedural memory seems unaffected!


Anterograde AmnesiaAnterograde Amnesia


Retrograde amnesiaRetrograde amnesia

Any soap opera where someone can’t remember who they are, where they live, etc.

Quarterbacks who can’t remember games when they got concussions.


HM: a case studyBicycle accident at age 9After accident: intractable epilepsySurgery in 1953: surgery at age 27During surgery: bilateral damage to hippocampus

and mediotemporal lobesResult: not able to form new memories/does not

know that he has disorder/thinks it is 1953: 27 yrs. old

Milner teststracing stars with mirrorsevery day repeatedevery day “new” to HMbut…he improved! (Long term perceptual motor

memories intact; no conscious recollection of activity)Learning with no conscious memory

Two types: explicit and implicit (or declarative and non-declarative)


HM: AmnesicHM: AmnesicSevere epilepsy, treated with surgery to bilaterally remove medial temporal lobes, including hippocampus

Operation 9/1953, 27 years old

HIPPOCAMPUS MEDIAL TEMPORAL LOBES


HM: AmnesicHM: Amnesic

Mirror tracing task, Milner, 1965


LTMLTM

Consolidation –The process by which short-term memories are changed to long-term memories

Our ultimate goal as students!!!!! We want to remember this stuff on May 2!


How do we How do we consolidateconsolidate??

Make it meaningful. Put notes in your own words. Relate stuff to your own experience.

See it, smell it, taste it, touch it, sing it, make a joke about it (preferably a dirty one).


If decay theory is correct:

a. Information can never be permanently lost from long-term memory

b. Forgetting is simply a case of retrieval failure

c. The principal cause of forgetting should be the passage of time

d. All of the above


Many amnesiacs demonstrate _____ memory, even though their ______ memory is extremely impaired.

a. declarative; procedural

b. Conscious; unconscious

c. Implicit; explicit

d. Semantic; episodic


How Do WeHow Do WeRetrieve Memories?Retrieve Memories?

Whether memories are implicit or explicit, successful

retrieval depends on how they were encoded and how

they are cued


Retrieval CuesRetrieval Cues

Retrieval cues – Stimuli that are used to bring a memory to consciousness or into behavior

Example: hints that a teacher gives you during a test without giving you the answer.


Retrieval CuesRetrieval Cues

What is Priming? – Technique for retrieving memories by providing cues that stimulate a memory without awareness of the connection between the cue and the retrieved memory. Giving hints to remember.


PrimingPriming

If you are presented with the following words:

assassin, octopus, avocado, mystery, sheriff, climate


PrimingPriming

An hour later, you would easily be able to identify which of the following words you had previously seen:

twilight, assassin, dinosaur, mystery


ch_ _ _ _ nk o _ t _ _ _ us _ og _ y _ _ _

_ l _ m _ te

PrimingPriming

However, an hour later, you would also have a much easier time filling in the blanks of some of these words than others:


PrimingPriming

While you did not actively try to remember “octopus” and “climate” from the first list, they were primed in the reading, which made them easier to identify in this task

chipmunk

octopus

bogeyman

climate


Name the Seven Dwarves Name the Seven Dwarves


Remembering off the Remembering off the top of your head is top of your head is recall.recall.


Now pick pick out the seven Now pick pick out the seven dwarves.dwarves.

Grouchy Gabby Fearful Sleepy Smiley Jumpy Hopeful Shy Droopy Dopey Sniffy Wishful Puffy Dumpy Sneezy Pop Grumpy Bashful Cheerful Teach Snorty Nifty Happy Doc Wheezy Stubby Poopy (this is recognition)


Seven DwarvesSeven Dwarves

Sleepy, Dopey, Grumpy, Sneezy, Happy, Doc and Bashful


What is Recall and Recognition?What is Recall and Recognition?

Recall – Technique for retrieving explicit memories in which one must reproduce previously presented information (fill in blank) remember without priming

Recognition – Technique for retrieving explicit memories in which one must identify present stimuli as having been previously presented (multiple choice) remember with priming


Other Factors Affecting RetrievalOther Factors Affecting Retrieval

Encoding specificity principle –The more closely the retrieval clues match the form in which the information was encoded, the better the information will be remembered


Other Factors Affecting RetrievalOther Factors Affecting Retrieval

Mood congruent memory –A memory process that selectively retrieves memories that match one’s mood

A good mood reminds you of good times.

A fight with your boyfriend reminds you of something else he did to piss you off.


TOT (tip of the tongue) phenomenon? –The inability to recall a word, while knowing that it is in memory


What is retroactive interference?

What is proactive interference?


Interference-learning French and Italian Interference-learning French and Italian simultaneouslysimultaneously

Un

Deux

Trois

Quatre

cinq

Uno

Due

Tre

Quattro

cinque


Why do we forget?Why do we forget?

1. Decay theory

2. Repression

3. Amnesia

4. Pseudoforgetting

5. Misinformation effect

6. Interference

7. Lack of mood congruency

8. Bias


Why Does Memory Why Does Memory Sometimes Fail Us?Sometimes Fail Us?

Most of our memory problems arise from

memory’s “seven sins” – which are really by-products

of otherwise adaptive features of human memory


TransienceTransience Absent-Absent-MindednessMindedness BlockingBlocking

MisattributionMisattribution SuggestibilitySuggestibility

BiasBias PersistencePersistence

Memory’s Memory’s “Seven Sins”“Seven Sins”


TransienceTransience

The impermanence of a long-term memory; based on the idea that long-term memories gradually fade in strength over timeForgetting curve –

A graph plotting the amount of retention and forgetting over time for a certain batch of material


Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting CurveEbbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve

Recall decreases rapidly, then reaches a plateau, after which little more is forgotten

Pe

rce

nt r

eta

ined

60

50

40

30

20

10

0Days

5 10 15 20 25 30


Absent-MindednessAbsent-Mindedness

Forgetting caused by lapses in attention


BlockingBlocking

Forgetting that occurs when an item in memory cannot be accessed or retrieved• Proactive interference• Retroactive interference• Serial position effect


MisattributionMisattribution

Memory fault that occurs when memories are retrieved, but they are associated with the wrong time, place, or person


SuggestibilitySuggestibility

Process of memory distortion as a result of deliberate or inadvertent suggestionMisinformation effect –

The distortion of memory by suggestion or misinformation


Factors Affecting the Accuracy of Factors Affecting the Accuracy of Eyewitnesses:Eyewitnesses:

Recollections are less influenced by leading questions if possibility of memory bias is forewarned

Passage of time leads to increase in misremembering information (JFK assassination)

Age of the witness matters

Confidence in memory is not a sign of accuracy


What is repressed memory controversy?What is repressed memory controversy?

Elizabeth Loftus studied how false memories are planted into people’s minds.


BiasBias

An attitude, belief, emotion, or experience that distorts memoriesExpectancy bias –

A tendency to distort recalled events to make them fit one’s expectations

Self-consistency bias –Idea that we are more consistent than we actually are


PersistencePersistence

Memory problem in which unwanted memories cannot be put out of mind


Improving Everyday MemoryImproving Everyday Memory

Engage in adequate rehearsal

Distribute practice and minimize interference

Emphasize deep processing and transfer-appropriate processing

Organize information

Encoding specificity – vary location of studying

Use verbal mnemonics – narrative stories

Use visual mnemonics – method of Loci


Let’s review.Let’s review.

1. The three stages of Atkinson-Shiffrin process of memory are:

a) iconic, echoic, encoding

b) sensory, short term, long term

c) shallow, medium, and deep processing

d) semantic, episodic, procedural


2. Which of the following examples best illustrates episodic memory?

a) telling someone how to tie a shoe

b) answering correctly that the Battle of Hastings was in 1066

c) knowing that the word for black in French is noir

d) remembering that a clown was at your fifth birthday party


When Sue memorized her shopping list, she got to the store and forgot many items from the middle of the list. This is due to the

a. Inappropriate encoding

b. Retrograde amnesia

c. Proactive interference

d. The serial-position effect


3. Doug wrote a grocery list of 10 items, but leaves it at home. The list included in order: peas, corn, squash, onions, apples, pears, bananas, flour, milk, and eggs. If the law of primacy holds, which of the following is Doug most likely to remember when he gets to the store?

a) peas, pears, eggs

b) banana, flour, peas

c) apples, pears, bananas

d) peas, corn, squash


4. Mnemonic devices

a) can only be used to remember concrete words

b) have existed since ancient times

c) are generally ineffective and are unnecessary in modern times

d) are the main element for improving everyday memory


5. According to the levels of processing theory of memory

a) we remember items that are repeated again and again

b) maintenance rehearsal will encode items into our long-term memory

c) deep processing involves elaborative rehearsal, ensuring encoding into long-term memory

d) input, output, and storage are the three levels


6. Which of the following brain structures plays a key role in transferring information from short-term memory to long-term memory?

a) hypothalamus

b) thalamus

c) hippocampus

d) frontal lobe


7. Dan was drunk, so his girlfriend convinced him to get out of his car, and she drove him home in her car. He could not remember where his car was parked when he got up the next morning, but after drinking some liquor, Dan remembered where he left his car. This phenomenon best illustrates:

a) the misinformation effect

b) mood-congruent memory

c) the framing effect

d) state-dependent memory


8. Which of the following terms is synonymous with “motivated forgetting”?

a) regression

b) repression

c) sublimation

d) rationalization


9. A retrieval cue is

a) a brain structure stimulus used to locate a particular memory

b) the same thing as an elaboration encoding variable

c) a stimulus associated with a memory that is used to locate that memory

d) always based on the mood you were in when a memory was first encoded


10. Focusing awareness on a narrow range of stimuli or events involves

a) encoding

b) attention

c) elaboration

d) clustering


11. If you were attempting to recall a memory, the memory process you would be using is

a) encoding

b) storage

c) retrieval

d) acquisition


12. A memory code that emphasizes the meaning of the verbal input is called

a) a structural code

b) a phonemic code

c) a semantic code

d) an episodic code


13. Which level of processing should result in the longest lasting memory codes?

a) structural encoding

b) mnemonic encoding

c) semantic encoding

d) phonemic encoding


14. Pseudoforgetting is viewed as a function of

a) interference effects

b) lack of attention

c) hippocampal damage

d) insufficient retrieval cues


15. Overlearning material will

a) not improve retention

b) improve retention

c) improve retention for nonsense syllables, but not much else

d) result in “burnout”


Chapter 7 Answer KeyChapter 7 Answer Key

1. B

2. D

3. D

4. B

5. C

6. C

7. D

8. B

9. C

10. B

11. C

12. C

13. C

14. B

15. B

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Chapter 7 Memory. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Human memory is an...

Documents

Transcript of Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Chapter 7 Memory. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Human memory is an...