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Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Chapter 9
Psychological Development
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Developmental Psychology
Developmental psychology –
The study of how organisms change over
time as the result of biological and
environmental influences
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How Do Psychologists
Explain Development?
Development is a process of
growth and change brought
about by an interaction of
heredity and the
environment
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The Nature-Nurture
Interaction
Nature-nurture issue –
Long-standing discussion over relative
importance of nature (heredity) and
nurture (environment) in their influence
on behavior and mental processes
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The Nature-Nurture
Interaction
Twin studies –
Developmental investigations in which
twins, especially identical twins, are
compared in the search for genetic and
environmental effects
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The Nature-Nurture
Interaction
Identical twins–
A pair who started life as a single
fertilized egg which later split into two
distinct individuals
Fraternal twins–
A pair who started life as two separate
fertilized eggs that happened to share the
same womb
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The Nature-Nurture
Interaction
Adoption studies –
Studies in which the adopted child’s
characteristics are compared to those of
the biological family and the adoptive
family
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Gradual versus Abrupt Change
Continuity view vs. Discontinuity view
Age
Pe
rfo
rma
nce
Continuity view
Discontinuity view
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Gradual versus Abrupt Change
Developmental stages –
Periods of life initiated by significant
transitions or changes in physical or
psychological functioning
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Psychological Traits in Your Genes
While psychological traits are formed by
interaction of heredity and the
environment, many traits have a strong
genetic influence
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What Capabilities Does the
Child Possess?
Newborns have innate
abilities for finding
nourishment, interacting with
others, and avoiding harmful
situations; the developing
abilities of infants and
children rely on learning
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Prenatal Development
Prenatal period – The developmental period before birth
• Zygote
• Embryo
• Fetus
Placenta – An organ that develops between the embryo/fetus and the mother
Teratogens – Toxic substances that can damage the developing organism
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Neonatal Period
(from birth to one month)
Sensory abilities
Motor abilities
Postural reflex
Grasping reflex
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Infancy
(from one month to about 18 months)
Babies learn through classical conditioning
Humans apparently have an inborn need
for attachment
• Secure attachment
• Anxious-ambivalent attachment
• Avoidant attachment
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Infancy
(from one month to about 18 months)
Maturation –
The unfolding of genetically programmed
processes of growth and development
over time
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Maturation Timetable for Locomotion
Birth
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Maturation Timetable for Locomotion
Responds to sound
Becomes quiet when picked up
Vocalizes occasionally
Birth 1 mo.
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Maturation Timetable for Locomotion
Smiles socially
Recognizes mother
Rolls from side to back
Lifts head and holds it erect and steady
Birth 1 mo. 2 mo.
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Maturation Timetable for Locomotion
Vocalizes to the smiles and talk of an adult
Searches for source of sound
Sits with support, head steady
Birth 1 mo. 2 mo. 3 mo.
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Maturation Timetable for Locomotion
Gaze follows dangling ring, vanishing spoon, and ball moved across table
Sits with slight support
Birth 1 mo. 2 mo. 3 mo. 4 mo.
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Maturation Timetable for Locomotion
Discriminates strangers from familiar persons
Turns from back to side
Makes distinctive vocalizations
Birth 1 mo. 2 mo. 3 mo. 4 mo. 5 mo.
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Maturation Timetable for Locomotion
Lifts cup and bangs it
Smiles at mirror image
Reaches for small object
Birth 1 mo. 2 mo. 3 mo. 4 mo. 5 mo. 6 mo.
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Maturation Timetable for Locomotion
Makes playful responses to mirror
Sits alone steadily
Crawls
Birth 1 mo. 2 mo. 3 mo. 4 mo. 5 mo. 6 mo.
7 mo.
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Maturation Timetable for Locomotion
Vocalizes up to four different syllables
Listens selectively to familiar words
Pulls to standing position
Birth 1 mo. 2 mo. 3 mo. 4 mo. 5 mo. 6 mo.
7 mo. 8 mo.
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Maturation Timetable for Locomotion
Birth 1 mo. 2 mo. 3 mo. 4 mo. 5 mo. 6 mo.
7 mo. 8 mo. 9 mo.
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Maturation Timetable for Locomotion
Plays pat-a-cake
Birth 1 mo. 2 mo. 3 mo. 4 mo. 5 mo. 6 mo.
7 mo. 8 mo. 9 mo. 10 mo.
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Maturation Timetable for Locomotion
Stands alone
Birth 1 mo. 2 mo. 3 mo. 4 mo. 5 mo. 6 mo.
7 mo. 8 mo. 9 mo. 10 mo. 11 mo.
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Maturation Timetable for Locomotion
Walks alone
Birth 1 mo. 2 mo. 3 mo. 4 mo. 5 mo. 6 mo.
7 mo. 8 mo. 9 mo. 10 mo. 11 mo. 1 year
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What Are the
Developmental Tasks of
Infancy and Childhood?
Infants and children face
especially important
developmental tasks in the
areas of cognition and social
relationships – tasks that lay a
foundation for further growth in
adolescence and adulthood
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Cognitive Development
Cognitive development –
The process by which thinking changes
over time
Schemes –
Mental structures or
programs that guide a
developing child’s thoughts
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Accommodation –
Mental process that
restructures existing
schemes so that new
information is better understood
Cognitive Development
Assimilation –
Mental process that modifies new
information to fit it into existing
schemes
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Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive
Development
Sensorimotor
Preoperational
Concrete Operational
Formal Operational
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Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive
Development
Sensorimotor
Preoperational
Concrete Operational
Formal Operational
• Birth to about age 2
• Child relies heavily on
innate motor
responses to stimuli
• Sensorimotor
intelligence
• Mental representations
• Object permanence
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Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive
Development
Sensorimotor
Preoperational
Concrete Operational
Formal Operational
• About age 2 to age 6 or 7
• Marked by well-developed mental representation and the use of language
• Egocentrism
• Animalistic thinking
• Centration
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Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive
Development
Sensorimotor
Preoperational
Concrete Operational
Formal Operational
• About age 7 to about age 11
• Child understands conservation but is incapable of abstract thought
• Conservation
• Mental operations
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Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive
Development
Sensorimotor
Preoperational
Concrete Operational
Formal Operational
• From about age 12 on
• Abstract thought
appears
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Social and Emotional Development
Theory of Mind –
An awareness that other people’s
behavior may be influenced by beliefs,
desires, and emotions that differ from
one’s own
Temperament –
An individual’s characteristic manner of
behavior or reaction
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Social and Emotional Development
Zone of proximal development – The difference between what a child can do with help and what the child can do without any help or guidance
Socialization – The lifelong process of shaping an individual’s behavior patterns, values, standards, skills, attitudes and motives to conform to those regarded as desirable in a particular society
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1. Authoritarian parents
2. Authoritative parents
3. Permissive parents
4. Uninvolved parents
Social and Emotional Development
Most approaches to child rearing fall into
one of the following four styles:
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Social and Emotional Development
Other factors influencing a child’s
development may include:
• Effects of day care
• School influences
• Leisure influences
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Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages
Age/Period Principal Challenge
0 to 1 1/2 years Trust vs. mistrust
1 1/2 to 3 years Autonomy vs. self doubt
3 to 6 years Initiative vs. guilt
6 years to puberty Confidence vs. inferiority
Adolescence Identity vs. role confusion
Early adulthood Intimacy vs. isolation
Middle adulthood Generativity vs. stagnation
Late adulthood Ego-integrity vs. despair
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What Changes Mark the
Transition of Adolescence?
Adolescence offers new
developmental challenges
growing out of physical
changes, cognitive changes,
and socioemotional changes
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The Transitions of Adolescence
Adolescence –
Developmental period beginning at
puberty and ending at adulthood
Rites of passage –
Social rituals that mark the transition
between developmental stages,
especially between childhood and
adulthood
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Physical Maturation in Adolescence
Puberty –
Onset of sexual maturity
Around puberty, boys and girls become
more aware of their physical
attractiveness
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Cognitive Development in
Adolescence
Formal operational stage –
Piaget’s final stage of cognitive growth
(abstract and complex thought)
Hormones rise to high levels
The frontal lobes undergo a “remodel”
This leads to sensation seeking and risk
taking, and preoccupation with body
image and sex
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The increasing influence of peers
Common social problems in
adolescence
Delinquency
Social Identity in Adolescence
Identity crisis
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• Masturbation
• Same-sex orientation
• Heterosexual behavior
Sexual Issues in Adolescence
Sexual issues in adolescence often include
the following:
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Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral
Reasoning
I. Preconventional morality
Stage 1: Pleasure/pain orientation
Stage 2: Cost/benefit orientation; reciprocity
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II. Conventional morality
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral
Reasoning
• Stage 3: “Good child” orientation
• Stage 4: Law-and-order orientation
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III. Postconventional (principled) morality
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral
Reasoning
• Stage 5: Social contract orientation
• Stage 6: Ethical principle orientation
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Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Reasoning
Culture and morality
Gender and morality
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What Developmental
Challenges Do Adults Face?
Nature and nurture continue
to produce changes
throughout life, but in
adulthood these changes
include both growth and
decline
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The Developmental Challenges of
Adulthood
Love and work
Intimacy versus isolation
Generativity versus stagnation
Generativity –
A process of making a commitment beyond
oneself to family, work, society, or future
generations
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The Last Developmental Problems
You Will Face
Ego-identity –
The ability to look back on life without
regrets and to enjoy a sense of
wholeness
According to Erikson, the final crisis
involves ego-identity vs. despair
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The Last Developmental Problems
You Will Face
Some of the most obvious changes that
occur with age affect physical abilities
such as
• Vision
• Hearing
• Thinking, learning, and problem solving
• Memory
• Sexual functioning
• Social interaction
• Emotions
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End of Chapter 9