Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Chapter 9 Psychological Development Copyright © Allyn & Bacon...

Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006

Chapter 9Psychological Development

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

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Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006

Developmental Psychology

• Developmental psychology –The study of how organisms change over time as the result of biological and environmental influences



How Do PsychologistsExplain Development?


Development is a process of growth and change brought about by an interaction of

heredity and the environment


The Nature-NurtureInteraction

• Nature-nurture issue –Long-standing discussion over relative importance of nature (heredity) and nurture (environment) in their influence on behavior and mental processes




• Twin studies – Developmental investigations in which twins, especially identical twins, are compared in the search for genetic and environmental effects




• Identical twins– A pair who started life as a single fertilized egg which later split into two distinct individuals

• Fraternal twins– A pair who started life as two separate fertilized eggs that happened to share the same womb




• Adoption studies – Studies in which the adopted child’s characteristics are compared to those of the biological family and the adoptive family



Gradual versus Abrupt Change

• Continuity View: the perspective that development is gradual and continuous-as opposed to the discontinuity view.

• Discontinuity view: the Perspective that development proceeds in an uneven (discontinuous) fashion-as opposed to continuous. ( a series of steps or stages)




• Continuity view vs. Discontinuity view


Age

Per

form

ance

Continuity view

Discontinuity view



• Developmental stages – Periods of life initiated by significant transitions or changes in physical or psychological functioning



Psychological Traits in Your Genes

• While psychological traits are formed by interaction of heredity and the environment, many traits have a strong genetic influence



What Capabilities Does theChild Possess?


Newborns have innate abilities for finding

nourishment, interacting with others, and avoiding harmful

situations; the developing abilities of infants and

children rely on learning


Prenatal Development

• Prenatal period –The developmental period before birth (conception to birth)• Zygote (fertilized egg)• Embryo (developing organism during the

1st 8 weeks of life)• Fetus (after about 8 weeks)

• Placenta –An organ that developsbetween the embryo/fetusand the mother

• Teratogens –Toxic substances that can damage the developing organism (nicotine, alcohol, virus like AIDS)



Neonatal Period(from birth to one month)

• Sensory abilities-can respond to stimulation from all of their senses.

• Motor abilities-provide a platform for later development.– Postural reflex– Grasping reflex



Infancy• Brain focusing on branching. Axons and

dendrites grow and connect increasing the neural tissue in the brain. (50% in the 1st 2 years).

• By 4 years of age, brain has doubled in size.

• Synaptic Pruning: Connections in the brain that are not used are lost. Stimulation is necessary to make them permanent and functional.

• Post natal brain growth: by 11 years of age the brain attains its ultimate mass.



Infancy

• Learning: Babies learn through classical conditioning (one event signals another like with Pavlov’s dogs)

• Newborns were taught to anticipate sweet sensations by first stroking the babies foreheads then giving them sugar water.

• Social skills development: Use learning to expand social interactions:

• -mother’s voice• -crying gets attention



Social Abilities• Infants are built for social

interaction! • Close coordination between the

gazing , vocalizing, touching and smiling of mothers and their infants.

• Facial interactions reveal how feeling of and infants are coordinated

• Face Experiment with Edward Tronick.



Attachment

• Attachment: the enduring social-emotional relationships between a child and parent or other regular caregiver

• Lays the foundation for all other relationships!

• Imprinting: A primitive form of learning in which some young animals follow the first moving object they see and hear. (Konrod Lorenz)



Attachment

• Humans apparently have an inborn need for attachment • Secure attachment-felt safe, close to

moms, more independent. • Anxious-ambivalent attachment-

clingy, showed fear and anger when separated.

• Avoidant attachment-indifferent to mothers, avoid intimacy.

– Strange Situation- Mary Ainsworth– Attachment Styles



Contact Comfort

• Cupboard theory: Infants become attached to those who provide the food supply.

• Harry and Margaret Harlow challenged it using infant monkey’s. They concluded that infants need contact comfort to survive.

• Contact comfort: Stimulation and reassurance derived from the physical touch of a caregiver.

• Harry Harlowe •



Infancy(from one month to about 18

months)• Maturation –

The unfolding of genetically programmed processes of growth and development over time (sitting, crawling and walking)

• Interaction with environment• Saltation: discontinuous bursts in

infants. (growth spurts)



Maturation Timetable for Locomotion


BirthBirth



• Responds to soundResponds to sound• Becomes quiet when Becomes quiet when

picked uppicked up• Vocalizes occasionallyVocalizes occasionally


Birth 1 mo.1 mo.



• Smiles sociallySmiles socially• Recognizes motherRecognizes mother• Rolls from side to backRolls from side to back• Lifts head and holds it Lifts head and holds it

erect and steadyerect and steady


Birth 1 mo. 2 mo.2 mo.



• Vocalizes to the smiles Vocalizes to the smiles and talk of an adultand talk of an adult

• Searches for source of Searches for source of soundsound

• Sits with support, head Sits with support, head steadysteady


Birth 1 mo. 2 mo. 3 mo.3 mo.



• Gaze follows dangling ring, Gaze follows dangling ring, vanishing spoon, and ball vanishing spoon, and ball moved across tablemoved across table

• Sits with slight supportSits with slight support


Birth 1 mo. 2 mo. 3 mo. 4 mo.4 mo.



• Discriminates strangers Discriminates strangers from familiar personsfrom familiar persons

• Turns from back to sideTurns from back to side• Makes distinctive Makes distinctive

vocalizationsvocalizations


Birth 1 mo. 2 mo. 3 mo. 4 mo. 5 mo.5 mo.



• Lifts cup and bangs Lifts cup and bangs itit

• Smiles at mirror Smiles at mirror imageimage

• Reaches for small Reaches for small objectobject


Birth 1 mo. 2 mo. 3 mo. 4 mo. 5 mo. 6 mo.6 mo.



• Makes playful Makes playful responses to mirrorresponses to mirror

• Sits alone steadilySits alone steadily• CrawlsCrawls


Birth 1 mo. 2 mo. 3 mo. 4 mo. 5 mo. 6 mo.

7 mo.7 mo.



• Vocalizes up to four Vocalizes up to four different syllablesdifferent syllables

• Listens selectively to Listens selectively to familiar wordsfamiliar words

• Pulls to standing Pulls to standing positionposition



7 mo. 8 mo.8 mo.





7 mo. 8 mo. 9 mo.9 mo.



• Plays pat-a-Plays pat-a-cakecake



7 mo. 8 mo. 9 mo. 10 mo.10 mo.



• Stands Stands alonealone



7 mo. 8 mo. 9 mo. 10 mo. 11 mo.11 mo.



• Walks Walks alonealone



7 mo. 8 mo. 9 mo. 10 mo. 11 mo. 1 year1 year


What Are theDevelopmental Tasks ofInfancy and Childhood?


Infants and children face especially important

developmental tasks in the areas of cognition and social

relationships – tasks that lay a foundation for further growth in

adolescence and adulthood


Cognitive Development

• Cognitive development –The process by which thinking changes over time

• Schemas –Mental structures orprograms that guide adeveloping child’s thoughts. They form and change as we grow and develop.



Cognitive Development

• Assimilation – Mental process that modifies new information to fit it into existingschemes


Accommodation –Mental process thatrestructures existingschemes so that newinformation is better understood


Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development


SensorimotorSensorimotor

PreoperationalPreoperational

Concrete Concrete OperationalOperational

Formal Formal OperationalOperational




SensorimotorSensorimotor

Preoperational

Concrete Operational

Formal Operational

• Birth to about age 2

• Child relies heavily on innate motor responses to stimuli

• Sensorimotor intelligence

• Mental representations

• Object permanence




Sensorimotor

PreoperationalPreoperational


Formal Operational

• About age 2 to age 6 or 7

• Marked by well-developed mental representation and the use of language

• Egocentrism

• Animalistic thinking

• Centration




Sensorimotor

Preoperational

Concrete Concrete OperationalOperational

Formal Operational

• About age 7 to about age 11

• Child understands conservation but is incapable of abstract thought

• Conservation

• Mental operations




Sensorimotor

Preoperational


Formal Formal OperationalOperational

• From about age 12 on

• Abstract thought appears


Beyond Piaget

• Other perspectives suggests that transitions from one stage to another is more continuous.

• Kids are more “intellectually sophisticated” than Piaget thought.

• Not as rigid but more flexible• May be due to inability to express

thoughts; they may actually understand but have trouble saying it.

• Piaget review



Social and Emotional Development

• Theory of Mind –An awareness that other people’s behavior may be influenced by beliefs, desires, and emotions that differ from one’s own

• Temperament –An individual’s characteristic manner of behavior or reaction




• Zone of proximal development –The difference between what a child can do with help and what the child can do without any help or guidance

• Socialization –The lifelong process of shaping an individual’s behavior patterns, values, standards, skills, attitudes and motives to conform to those regarded as desirable in a particular society




• Most approaches to child rearing fall into one of the following four styles:


1. Authoritarian parents

2. Authoritative parents

3. Permissive parents

4. Uninvolved parents



• Other factors influencing a child’s development may include:


• Effects of day care• School influences• Leisure influences


Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages


Age/PeriodAge/Period Principal ChallengePrincipal Challenge

0 to 1 1/2 years0 to 1 1/2 years Trust vs. mistrust

1 1/2 to 3 years1 1/2 to 3 years Autonomy vs. self doubt

3 to 6 years3 to 6 years Initiative vs. guilt

6 years to puberty6 years to puberty Confidence vs. inferiority

AdolescenceAdolescence Identity vs. role confusion

Early adulthoodEarly adulthood Intimacy vs. isolation

Middle adulthoodMiddle adulthood Generativity vs. stagnation

Late adulthoodLate adulthood Ego-integrity vs. despair


What Changes Mark theTransition of Adolescence?


Adolescence offers new developmental challenges

growing out of physical changes, cognitive changes, and socioemotional changes


The Transitions of Adolescence

• Adolescence – Developmental period beginning at puberty and ending at adulthood

• Rites of passage – Social rituals that mark the transition between developmental stages, especially between childhood and adulthood



Physical Maturation in Adolescence

• Puberty – Onset of sexual maturity; ability to reproduce

• Around puberty, boys and girls become more aware of their physical attractiveness

• Primary Sex characteristics: sex organs and genitals.

• Secondary sex characteristics: growth of breasts, deepening of voice for males, wider hips for girls etc.



• Primary task of adolescence is to accept one’s body image which is tied to physical development.

• Cultural influences play a major part in a teen’s self esteem and self concept.



Cognitive Development in Adolescence

• Formal operational stage – Piaget’s final stage of cognitive growth (abstract and complex thought)

• Hormones rise to high levels• The frontal lobes undergo a

“remodel”• This leads to sensation seeking and

risk taking, and preoccupation with body image and sex



Social Identity in Adolescence

• Identity crisis


The increasing influence of peers

Common social problems in adolescence

Delinquency


Sexual Issues in Adolescence

• Sexual issues in adolescence often include the following:


• Masturbation

• Same-sex orientation

• Heterosexual behavior


Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Reasoning

• I. Preconventional morality– Stage 1: Pleasure/pain orientation– Stage 2: Cost/benefit orientation;

reciprocity




• II. Conventional morality


• Stage 3: “Good child” orientation• Stage 4: Law-and-order orientation



• III. Postconventional (principled) morality


• Stage 5: Social contract orientation• Stage 6: Ethical principle orientation



• Culture and morality• Gender and morality



What DevelopmentalChallenges Do Adults Face?


Nature and nurture continue to produce changes throughout life, but in

adulthood these changes include both growth and

decline


The Developmental Challenges of Adulthood

• Love and work– Intimacy versus isolation– Generativity versus stagnation– Generativity –

A process of making a commitment beyond oneself to family, work, society, or future generations



The Last Developmental Problems You Will Face

• Ego-identity –The ability to look back on life without regrets and to enjoy a sense of wholeness

• According to Erikson, the final crisis involves ego-identity vs. despair



The Last Developmental Problems You Will Face

• Some of the most obvious changes that occur with age affect physical abilities such as• Vision• Hearing• Thinking, learning, and problem

solving• Memory• Sexual functioning• Social interaction• Emotions


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