Copyright © 2004 by Allyn and Bacon 11 Introduction to Social Psychology.

Copyright © 2004 by Allyn and Bacon

1111Introduction to Social

Psychology

Introduction to Social

Psychology


Why do we like some people more than

others?

Why do we like some people more than

others?


How can you tell if another person is attracted to you?

How can you tell if another person is attracted to you?


In most mammalian species, a female

raises offspring with no help from the male.

In most mammalian species, a female

raises offspring with no help from the male.Why is Homo sapiens one of the rare exceptions?


Why are males more physically violent than

females?

Why are males more physically violent than

females?


Space BlasterSpace Blaster

Doomsday Version Doomsday Version 2.52.5

Doomsday Version Doomsday Version 2.52.5

Does playing violent video games increase aggressiveness?


Chapter OutlineChapter Outline

What is Social Psychology?

Major Theoretical Perspectives

Basic Principles of Social Behavior

How Psychologists Study Social Behavior

How Social Psych Fits into the Network of Knowledge



Basic Principles of Social Behavior


How Social Psych Fits into the Network of Knowledge




Social psychology -the scientific study of how people’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by other people

Social psychology -the scientific study of how people’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by other people


Scientific Description and Explanation

Scientific Description and Explanation

Social Psychology, like any science, involves:

Description -careful and reliable observation

Explanation -development of theories that connect and organize observations

Social Psychology, like any science, involves:

Description -careful and reliable observation

Explanation -development of theories that connect and organize observations


Scientific Description & Explanation

Scientific Description & Explanation

Theories are scientific explanations that

Connect and organize existing observations

Suggest fruitful paths for future research

Theories are scientific explanations that

Connect and organize existing observations

Suggest fruitful paths for future research


SocioculturalSociocultural

EvolutionaryEvolutionary

Social LearningSocial Learning

Social Social CognitiveCognitive




Sociocultural Perspective


Sociocultural perspective -a theoretical viewpoint that searches for the causes of social behavior in influences from larger social groups

Sociocultural perspective -a theoretical viewpoint that searches for the causes of social behavior in influences from larger social groups




What drives social behavior?What drives social behavior?

Forces in larger social Forces in larger social groups such as:groups such as:

norms within cultural norms within cultural groupsgroups

social class differencessocial class differences

nationality/ethnicitynationality/ethnicity

fadsfads


Forces in larger social Forces in larger social groups such as:groups such as:

norms within cultural norms within cultural groupsgroups

social class differencessocial class differences

nationality/ethnicitynationality/ethnicity

fadsfads




Sociocultural theorists Sociocultural theorists might ask:might ask:

What are the differences What are the differences in social behavior across in social behavior across cultures?cultures?

For example, women in some For example, women in some societies marry more than societies marry more than one man (polyandry).one man (polyandry).

Sociocultural theorists Sociocultural theorists might ask:might ask:

What are the differences What are the differences in social behavior across in social behavior across cultures?cultures?

For example, women in some For example, women in some societies marry more than societies marry more than one man (polyandry).one man (polyandry).




Social normSocial norm - -a rule or expectation for a rule or expectation for appropriate social behaviorappropriate social behavior

CultureCulture - -the beliefs, customs, the beliefs, customs, habits, and language shared habits, and language shared by the people living in a by the people living in a particular time and placeparticular time and place

Social normSocial norm - -a rule or expectation for a rule or expectation for appropriate social behaviorappropriate social behavior

CultureCulture - -the beliefs, customs, the beliefs, customs, habits, and language shared habits, and language shared by the people living in a by the people living in a particular time and placeparticular time and place


esearesearchchCulture, Choice, andIntrinsic MotivationCulture, Choice, andIntrinsic Motivation

American culture teaches American culture teaches children to cherish their children to cherish their own individual choice and own individual choice and independenceindependence

But Asian culture emphasizes But Asian culture emphasizes more collective values – more collective values – viewing the self as viewing the self as interdependent with family interdependent with family and social group.and social group.

American culture teaches American culture teaches children to cherish their children to cherish their own individual choice and own individual choice and independenceindependence

But Asian culture emphasizes But Asian culture emphasizes more collective values – more collective values – viewing the self as viewing the self as interdependent with family interdependent with family and social group.and social group.


esearesearchchCulture, Choice, andIntrinsic MotivationCulture, Choice, andIntrinsic Motivation

In one study, researchers In one study, researchers asked Anglo-American and asked Anglo-American and Asian-American children to Asian-American children to solve word puzzles that were solve word puzzles that were either:either:

Chosen by the child (Personal Chosen by the child (Personal Choice)Choice)

Chosen by the experimenterChosen by the experimenter

Chosen by the child’s momChosen by the child’s mom

In one study, researchers In one study, researchers asked Anglo-American and asked Anglo-American and Asian-American children to Asian-American children to solve word puzzles that were solve word puzzles that were either:either:

Chosen by the child (Personal Chosen by the child (Personal Choice)Choice)

Chosen by the experimenterChosen by the experimenter

Chosen by the child’s momChosen by the child’s mom


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55

00

Personal Choice Personal Choice

Iyengar & Lepper, 1999

Experimenter ChoiceExperimenter Choice

But Asian-American

children were more motivated when their mothers had chosen the

task

But Asian-American

children were more motivated when their mothers had chosen the

task

Number of Word Puzzles Completed

Number of Word Puzzles Completed

Anglo AmericanAnglo American Personal

choice enhanced motivation for Anglo-American children

Personal choice enhanced motivation for Anglo-American children

Asian AmericanAsian American

Mom ChoiceMom Choice


Evolutionary Evolutionary PerspectivePerspectiveEvolutionary Evolutionary PerspectivePerspective

Evolutionary perspectiveEvolutionary perspective - -a theoretical viewpoint a theoretical viewpoint that searches for the that searches for the causes of social behavior causes of social behavior in the physical and in the physical and psychological psychological predispositions that predispositions that helped our ancestors helped our ancestors survive and reproducesurvive and reproduce

Evolutionary perspectiveEvolutionary perspective - -a theoretical viewpoint a theoretical viewpoint that searches for the that searches for the causes of social behavior causes of social behavior in the physical and in the physical and psychological psychological predispositions that predispositions that helped our ancestors helped our ancestors survive and reproducesurvive and reproduce




Genetic predispositions Genetic predispositions inherited from our ancestors inherited from our ancestors that promoted their survival that promoted their survival and reproduction, such as:and reproduction, such as:

The tendency to The tendency to automatically recognize an automatically recognize an angry faceangry face

The tendency for mothers to feel The tendency for mothers to feel protective of their childrenprotective of their children


Genetic predispositions Genetic predispositions inherited from our ancestors inherited from our ancestors that promoted their survival that promoted their survival and reproduction, such as:and reproduction, such as:

The tendency to The tendency to automatically recognize an automatically recognize an angry faceangry face

The tendency for mothers to feel The tendency for mothers to feel protective of their childrenprotective of their children



Natural selectionNatural selection - -the process by which the process by which characteristics that characteristics that help animals survive and help animals survive and reproduce are passed on reproduce are passed on to their offspringto their offspring

Natural selectionNatural selection - -the process by which the process by which characteristics that characteristics that help animals survive and help animals survive and reproduce are passed on reproduce are passed on to their offspringto their offspring


Natural SelectionNatural SelectionNatural SelectionNatural Selection

Animals with features suited Animals with features suited to the demands of the to the demands of the environment will survive environment will survive better than those with less better than those with less well-adapted features.well-adapted features.

Those well-adapted animals Those well-adapted animals will reproduce more will reproduce more successfully.successfully.

Animals with features suited Animals with features suited to the demands of the to the demands of the environment will survive environment will survive better than those with less better than those with less well-adapted features.well-adapted features.

Those well-adapted animals Those well-adapted animals will reproduce more will reproduce more successfully.successfully.



AdaptationAdaptation - -a characteristic well a characteristic well designed for survival designed for survival and reproduction in a and reproduction in a particular environmentparticular environment

AdaptationAdaptation - -a characteristic well a characteristic well designed for survival designed for survival and reproduction in a and reproduction in a particular environmentparticular environment



Evolutionary theorists might Evolutionary theorists might ask:ask:

Are there Are there similaritiessimilarities in social in social behavior behavior across species?across species?

What are the What are the similaritiessimilarities in in social behavior social behavior across cultures across cultures and historical periods?and historical periods?

Evolutionary theorists might Evolutionary theorists might ask:ask:

Are there Are there similaritiessimilarities in social in social behavior behavior across species?across species?

What are the What are the similaritiessimilarities in in social behavior social behavior across cultures across cultures and historical periods?and historical periods?


esearesearchch

Age PreferencesAge Preferencesin Matesin Mates

Age PreferencesAge Preferencesin Matesin Mates

One example of a seemingly One example of a seemingly universal feature of social universal feature of social behavior is the difference behavior is the difference between men and women in between men and women in the preference for younger the preference for younger versus older partnersversus older partners

The next slide shows the The next slide shows the minimum and maximum ages minimum and maximum ages specified in singles ads in specified in singles ads in the U.S.the U.S.

One example of a seemingly One example of a seemingly universal feature of social universal feature of social behavior is the difference behavior is the difference between men and women in between men and women in the preference for younger the preference for younger versus older partnersversus older partners

The next slide shows the The next slide shows the minimum and maximum ages minimum and maximum ages specified in singles ads in specified in singles ads in the U.S.the U.S.


-20-20

10s10s

00

-10-10

10s10s

2020

1010

00

-10-10

20s20s 30s30s 40s40s 50s50s 60s60s

2020

1010

-20-20

20s20s 30s30s 40s40s 50s50s 60s60s

MALE'S AGEMALE'S AGE FEMALE'S AGEFEMALE'S AGE

DIFFERENCE FROM

DIFFERENCE FROM

TARGET'S AGE

TARGET'S AGE

Oldest preferredOldest preferred

Youngest preferredYoungest preferred

Kenrick & Keefe, Behavioral & Brain Sciences, (1992).

Young men show no Young men show no particular particular preference for preference for younger partners, younger partners, but older men but older men prefer partners prefer partners younger than younger than themselvesthemselves

Women of all ages Women of all ages ask for men ask for men around their own around their own age or olderage or older


-20-20

10s10s

00

-10-10

10s10s

2020

1010

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-10-10

20s20s 30s30s 40s40s 50s50s 60s60s

2020

1010

-20-20

20s20s 30s30s 40s40s 50s50s 60s60s


DIFFERENCE FROM

DIFFERENCE FROM

TARGET'S AGE

TARGET'S AGE

Oldest preferredOldest preferred


Kenrick & Keefe, Behavioral & Brain Sciences, (1992).

MarriagesMarriages show a show a similar patternsimilar pattern


2020

1010

00

-10-10

-20-2020s20s 30s30s 40s40s >50>50


10s10s 20s20s 30s30s 40s40s >50>5010s10s

DIFFERENCE FROM

DIFFERENCE FROM

TARGET'S AGE

TARGET'S AGE

Oldest preferred Oldest preferred


Phoenix Singles AdsPhoenix Singles Ads

The same pattern The same pattern was found on a was found on a remote island in remote island in the Philippines the Philippines throughout the throughout the century century

PORO - 1913 - 1929PORO - 1913 - 1929


Social Learning Social Learning PerspectivePerspective


Social learning Social learning perspectiveperspective - -a theoretical viewpoint a theoretical viewpoint that focuses on that focuses on past past learning experienceslearning experiences as as determinants of a determinants of a person’s social person’s social behaviorsbehaviors

Social learning Social learning perspectiveperspective - -a theoretical viewpoint a theoretical viewpoint that focuses on that focuses on past past learning experienceslearning experiences as as determinants of a determinants of a person’s social person’s social behaviorsbehaviors





Classically conditioned Classically conditioned preferencespreferences

For example, the feeling of For example, the feeling of fear at sight of person who fear at sight of person who hit you.hit you.

Habits rewarded by other peopleHabits rewarded by other people

For example, a boy who fights For example, a boy who fights frequently after his father frequently after his father praised him for winning fight praised him for winning fight with neighborhood bully.with neighborhood bully.


Classically conditioned Classically conditioned preferencespreferences

For example, the feeling of For example, the feeling of fear at sight of person who fear at sight of person who hit you.hit you.

Habits rewarded by other peopleHabits rewarded by other people

For example, a boy who fights For example, a boy who fights frequently after his father frequently after his father praised him for winning fight praised him for winning fight with neighborhood bully.with neighborhood bully.




Imitating the rewarded Imitating the rewarded behavior of othersbehavior of others

For example, buying a gun For example, buying a gun after seeing a movie in after seeing a movie in which the hero wins true which the hero wins true love after shooting half the love after shooting half the people in his girlfriend’s people in his girlfriend’s neighborhood.neighborhood.

Imitating the rewarded Imitating the rewarded behavior of othersbehavior of others

For example, buying a gun For example, buying a gun after seeing a movie in after seeing a movie in which the hero wins true which the hero wins true love after shooting half the love after shooting half the people in his girlfriend’s people in his girlfriend’s neighborhood.neighborhood.

What drives social behavior?What drives social behavior?What drives social behavior?What drives social behavior?


Learning Violence From Learning Violence From Video GamesVideo Games


One team of One team of researchers researchers hypothesized violent hypothesized violent video games may make video games may make aggression aggression rewarding, by rewarding, by allowing person to allowing person to win points for win points for killing & maiming killing & maiming human-like opponents human-like opponents (Anderson & Dill, 2000).(Anderson & Dill, 2000).

One team of One team of researchers researchers hypothesized violent hypothesized violent video games may make video games may make aggression aggression rewarding, by rewarding, by allowing person to allowing person to win points for win points for killing & maiming killing & maiming human-like opponents human-like opponents (Anderson & Dill, 2000).(Anderson & Dill, 2000).




In an experiment, students first In an experiment, students first played a violent video game played a violent video game (Wulfenstein) or a nonviolent (Wulfenstein) or a nonviolent game (Tetrix).game (Tetrix).

They then played a competitive They then played a competitive game in which they could game in which they could retaliate against real retaliate against real opponents by delivering opponents by delivering unpleasantly loud blasts of unpleasantly loud blasts of noise.noise.

In an experiment, students first In an experiment, students first played a violent video game played a violent video game (Wulfenstein) or a nonviolent (Wulfenstein) or a nonviolent game (Tetrix).game (Tetrix).

They then played a competitive They then played a competitive game in which they could game in which they could retaliate against real retaliate against real opponents by delivering opponents by delivering unpleasantly loud blasts of unpleasantly loud blasts of noise.noise.


8585

8080 Nonviolent Nonviolent

Anderson & Dill, 2000

ViolentViolent

Retaliatory Aggression (unpleasant noise level)

Retaliatory Aggression (unpleasant noise level)

Students who played a violent video game demonstrate

d significantly higher levels of retaliatory aggression

Students who played a violent video game demonstrate

d significantly higher levels of retaliatory aggression

Type of Videogame Type of Videogame


Social Cognitive Social Cognitive PerspectivePerspective


Social cognitiveSocial cognitive perspectiveperspective --a theoretical viewpoint a theoretical viewpoint that focuses on the mental that focuses on the mental processes involved in processes involved in paying attention to, paying attention to, interpreting, and interpreting, and remembering social remembering social experiencesexperiences

Social cognitiveSocial cognitive perspectiveperspective --a theoretical viewpoint a theoretical viewpoint that focuses on the mental that focuses on the mental processes involved in processes involved in paying attention to, paying attention to, interpreting, and interpreting, and remembering social remembering social experiencesexperiences





What we pay attention toWhat we pay attention to

How we interpret and judge How we interpret and judge social situationssocial situations

What we retrieve from memoryWhat we retrieve from memory

People notice the behaviors of People notice the behaviors of group members who are in a group members who are in a minority, and exaggerate the minority, and exaggerate the significance of the things significance of the things they do.they do.


What we pay attention toWhat we pay attention to

How we interpret and judge How we interpret and judge social situationssocial situations

What we retrieve from memoryWhat we retrieve from memory

People notice the behaviors of People notice the behaviors of group members who are in a group members who are in a minority, and exaggerate the minority, and exaggerate the significance of the things significance of the things they do.they do.


From Chump to ChampFrom Chump to ChampFrom Chump to ChampFrom Chump to Champ

Research on social cognition Research on social cognition suggests that our memory suggests that our memory processes are often biased to processes are often biased to make ourselves feel goodmake ourselves feel good

For example, Anne Wilson and For example, Anne Wilson and Michael Ross (2001) asked Michael Ross (2001) asked students to:students to:Describe yourself as you are Describe yourself as you are now, ornow, or

As you were several years ago.As you were several years ago.

Research on social cognition Research on social cognition suggests that our memory suggests that our memory processes are often biased to processes are often biased to make ourselves feel goodmake ourselves feel good

For example, Anne Wilson and For example, Anne Wilson and Michael Ross (2001) asked Michael Ross (2001) asked students to:students to:Describe yourself as you are Describe yourself as you are now, ornow, or

As you were several years ago.As you were several years ago.


44

00

PastPast

Wilson & Ross, 2001

NowNow

Frequency of Self-Descriptions

Frequency of Self-Descriptions

Students described their present selves as champs, with more positive and fewer negative features than the

chumps they used to be

Students described their present selves as champs, with more positive and fewer negative features than the

chumps they used to be

Self-Description Self-Description

22

(+)(+)

(-)(-)


Sociocultural

Perspective

Evolutionary

What Drives Social Behavior?

Social Learning

Social Cognitive


Forces in larger Forces in larger social groups such social groups such as: norms, fads, as: norms, fads,

social class, ethnic social class, ethnic identity, identity,

Sociocultural

Perspective

Evolutionary


Social Learning

Social Cognitive


Genetic Genetic predispositions that predispositions that

promoted our promoted our ancestors’ survival ancestors’ survival and reproduction, and reproduction, such as: the bond such as: the bond between parent and between parent and

child child

Sociocultural

Perspective

Evolutionary


Social Learning

Social Cognitive


Classically Classically conditioned conditioned

preferences; preferences;

Habits rewarded by Habits rewarded by others;others;

Imitation of Imitation of behavior we have behavior we have seen rewarded in seen rewarded in

othersothers

Sociocultural

Perspective

Evolutionary


Social Learning

Social Cognitive


What we pay What we pay attention to; attention to;

How we interpret and How we interpret and judge social judge social situations; situations;

What we retrieve What we retrieve from memoryfrom memory

Sociocultural

Perspective

Evolutionary


Social Learning

Social Cognitive


Basic Principles of Basic Principles of Social BehaviorSocial Behavior

Basic Principles of Basic Principles of Social BehaviorSocial Behavior

Social behavior is Social behavior is goal goal oriented.oriented.

Social behavior represents Social behavior represents a continual a continual interaction interaction between the person and between the person and the situation.the situation.

Social behavior is Social behavior is goal goal oriented.oriented.

Social behavior represents Social behavior represents a continual a continual interaction interaction between the person and between the person and the situation.the situation.


Social Behavior is Goal Social Behavior is Goal OrientedOriented

Social Behavior is Goal Social Behavior is Goal OrientedOriented

At the surface level, we At the surface level, we have many day-to-day have many day-to-day goals.goals.

Go shoppingGo shopping

Study for a testStudy for a test

Get a date for Saturday Get a date for Saturday night.night.

Etc.Etc.

At the surface level, we At the surface level, we have many day-to-day have many day-to-day goals.goals.

Go shoppingGo shopping

Study for a testStudy for a test

Get a date for Saturday Get a date for Saturday night.night.

Etc.Etc.


To establish social tiesTo establish social tiesTo understand ourselves and To understand ourselves and

othersothersTo gain and maintain statusTo gain and maintain statusTo defend ourselves and To defend ourselves and

those we valuethose we valueTo attract and retain matesTo attract and retain mates

Social Behavior is Goal Oriented

Social Behavior is Goal Oriented

At the broadest level, we can categorize social goals into fundamental motives-

At the broadest level, we can categorize social goals into fundamental motives-


The Interaction between The Interaction between the Person and the the Person and the

Situation Situation

The Interaction between The Interaction between the Person and the the Person and the

Situation Situation By By personperson psychologists mean the psychologists mean the features or characteristics that features or characteristics that individuals carry into social individuals carry into social situations.situations.

By By situationsituation psychologists mean psychologists mean the environmental events or the environmental events or circumstances outside the circumstances outside the person.person.

Persons and situations influence Persons and situations influence one another in a number of ways.one another in a number of ways.

By By personperson psychologists mean the psychologists mean the features or characteristics that features or characteristics that individuals carry into social individuals carry into social situations.situations.

By By situationsituation psychologists mean psychologists mean the environmental events or the environmental events or circumstances outside the circumstances outside the person.person.

Persons and situations influence Persons and situations influence one another in a number of ways.one another in a number of ways.


The Interaction Between the Person and the

Situation


Situation1. Different Situations Activate Different Parts of the Person

Example: Around your professor, you may show your intellectual side;

around an old friend who did not go to college; you may suppress it.

1. Different Situations Activate Different Parts of the Person

Example: Around your professor, you may show your intellectual side;

around an old friend who did not go to college; you may suppress it.



Situation


Situation

2. Persons Choose Their Situations

Example: Violence-prone people choose to watch violent films; less violent people do not.

2. Persons Choose Their Situations

Example: Violence-prone people choose to watch violent films; less violent people do not.



Situation


Situation3. Different persons respond differently to the same situation

Example: You may see a party as a welcome chance to make new friends; another person may see the same party at an unbearable ordeal.

3. Different persons respond differently to the same situation

Example: You may see a party as a welcome chance to make new friends; another person may see the same party at an unbearable ordeal.



Situation


Situation4. Situations Choose the Person

Not everyone gets to enter every situation they would like.

Example: A tall person is more likely to be encouraged to play basketball; a short person to be a jockey.

4. Situations Choose the Person

Not everyone gets to enter every situation they would like.

Example: A tall person is more likely to be encouraged to play basketball; a short person to be a jockey.



Situation


Situation5. Persons Change The Situation

Example: A highly extraverted person can change a boring party into the social event of the season.

5. Persons Change The Situation

Example: A highly extraverted person can change a boring party into the social event of the season.



Situation


Situation6. Situations Change the Person

Example: After four years of college, your intellectual inclinations will probably be more prominent.

6. Situations Change the Person

Example: After four years of college, your intellectual inclinations will probably be more prominent.




Hypothesis -a researcher’s prediction about what he or she will find

Hypothesis -a researcher’s prediction about what he or she will find




Descriptive methods involve attempts to measure or record behaviors, thoughts, or feelings in their natural state.

Experimental methods uncover causes of behavior by systematically varying some aspect of the situation.

Descriptive methods involve attempts to measure or record behaviors, thoughts, or feelings in their natural state.

Experimental methods uncover causes of behavior by systematically varying some aspect of the situation.


Naturalistic Naturalistic ObservationObservationNaturalistic Naturalistic ObservationObservationCase StudiesCase StudiesCase StudiesCase Studies

ArchivesArchivesArchivesArchives

SurveysSurveysSurveysSurveys

Psychological TestsPsychological TestsPsychological TestsPsychological Tests

Descriptive MethodsDescriptive MethodsDescriptive MethodsDescriptive Methods

Social psychologists use five major Social psychologists use five major types of descriptive methods-types of descriptive methods-

Social psychologists use five major Social psychologists use five major types of descriptive methods-types of descriptive methods-


Descriptive Methods: Naturalistic Observation

Descriptive Methods: Naturalistic Observation

Naturalistic observation involves observing behavior as it unfolds in its natural setting.

Advantages:

Behaviors are spontaneous.

Doesn’t rely on people’s ability to report on their own experiences.

Naturalistic observation involves observing behavior as it unfolds in its natural setting.

Advantages:

Behaviors are spontaneous.

Doesn’t rely on people’s ability to report on their own experiences.


Descriptive Methods:Naturalistic Observation

Descriptive Methods:Naturalistic Observation

Disadvantages:

Researcher may interfere with ongoing behavior.

Some interesting behaviors are very rare.

Observer bias -the researcher may selectively attend to certain events and ignore others

This method is time consuming.

Disadvantages:

Researcher may interfere with ongoing behavior.

Some interesting behaviors are very rare.

Observer bias -the researcher may selectively attend to certain events and ignore others

This method is time consuming.


Descriptive Methods: Case studies


Case studies involve intensive examination of a single person or group.

Advantages:

Rich source of hypotheses

Allows studies of rare behaviors

Case studies involve intensive examination of a single person or group.

Advantages:

Rich source of hypotheses

Allows studies of rare behaviors




Disadvantages:

Observer bias.

Difficult to generalize findings from a single case.

Impossible to reconstruct causes from complexity of past events.

Disadvantages:

Observer bias.

Difficult to generalize findings from a single case.

Impossible to reconstruct causes from complexity of past events.


Researchers can also examine archives, or public records of social behaviors.

Advantages:

Easy access to large amounts of pre-recorded data.

Disadvantages:

Many interesting social behaviors are never recorded.

Researchers can also examine archives, or public records of social behaviors.

Advantages:

Easy access to large amounts of pre-recorded data.

Disadvantages:

Many interesting social behaviors are never recorded.

Descriptive Methods: Archives

Descriptive Methods: Archives


Descriptive Methods: The Survey Method


The survey method involves asking people questions about their beliefs and behaviors.

Advantages:

Allows cost-effective study of difficult-to-observe behaviors, thoughts, and feelings.

The survey method involves asking people questions about their beliefs and behaviors.

Advantages:

Allows cost-effective study of difficult-to-observe behaviors, thoughts, and feelings.




Disadvantages:

People who respond may not be representative.

Social desirability bias -tendency for people to say what they believe is appropriate or acceptable

Disadvantages:

People who respond may not be representative.

Social desirability bias -tendency for people to say what they believe is appropriate or acceptable


Descriptive Methods:Psychological Tests Descriptive Methods:Psychological Tests

Psychological tests involve attempts to assess an individual’s abilities, cognitions, motivations, or behaviors.

Advantages:

Allows measurement of characteristics that are not always easily observable

Psychological tests involve attempts to assess an individual’s abilities, cognitions, motivations, or behaviors.

Advantages:

Allows measurement of characteristics that are not always easily observable


Descriptive Methods:Psychological TestsDescriptive Methods:Psychological Tests

Disadvantages:

Tests may be unreliable (yielding inconsistent scores).

Tests may be reliable, but not valid (not measuring the actual characteristics they are designed to measure).

Disadvantages:

Tests may be unreliable (yielding inconsistent scores).

Tests may be reliable, but not valid (not measuring the actual characteristics they are designed to measure).


Descriptive MethodsDescriptive Methods

The descriptive methods are useful in determining correlation.

Correlation -extent to which two or more more variables are associated with one another

Correlation coefficient -a mathematical expression of the relationship between two variables

The descriptive methods are useful in determining correlation.

Correlation -extent to which two or more more variables are associated with one another

Correlation coefficient -a mathematical expression of the relationship between two variables



If we know two variables are highly correlated (e.g., ice cream sales are up on days when drowning incidents are highest), can we determine the causal relationship between them?

If we know two variables are highly correlated (e.g., ice cream sales are up on days when drowning incidents are highest), can we determine the causal relationship between them?


Variable Variable AA

(ice cream)(ice cream)



Variable B

(drowning)

Variable B

(drowning)


Variable A could cause Variable B.

(Eating ice cream could cause cramps, which could lead to drowning)

Variable A could cause Variable B.

(Eating ice cream could cause cramps, which could lead to drowning)


Variable B

(drowning)

Variable B

(drowning)






Variable B could cause Variable A.

(Parents could buy kids more ice cream to console them after their friends drown)

Variable B could cause Variable A.

(Parents could buy kids more ice cream to console them after their friends drown)


Variable B

(drowning)

Variable B

(drowning)





Variable C

(heat)

Variable C

(heat)


Or a third variable could cause A and B.

(Heat leads people to eat ice cream and to swim, but the two aren’t directly linked)

Or a third variable could cause A and B.

(Heat leads people to eat ice cream and to swim, but the two aren’t directly linked)


Experimental MethodsExperimental Methods

To determine To determine causalitycausality we we must turn to experimental must turn to experimental methods.methods.

To determine To determine causalitycausality we we must turn to experimental must turn to experimental methods.methods.



An experiment is a research method in which the researcher sets out to systematically manipulate one source of influence while holding others constant.

An experiment is a research method in which the researcher sets out to systematically manipulate one source of influence while holding others constant.



Independent variable -the variable manipulated by the experimenter

Dependent variable - the variable measured by the experimenter

Independent variable -the variable manipulated by the experimenter

Dependent variable - the variable measured by the experimenter



Random assignment -assigning participants so that each person has an equal chance of being in any experimental condition

Random assignment -assigning participants so that each person has an equal chance of being in any experimental condition



Internal validity -the extent to which an experiment allows confident statements about cause and effect

External validity -the extent to which the results of an experiment can be generalized to other circumstances

Internal validity -the extent to which an experiment allows confident statements about cause and effect

External validity -the extent to which the results of an experiment can be generalized to other circumstances



Confound - a variable that systematically changes along with the independent variable, potentially leading to a mistaken conclusion about the independent variable

Confound - a variable that systematically changes along with the independent variable, potentially leading to a mistaken conclusion about the independent variable



Social psychologists use two major types of experimental methods:

Laboratory experiments

Field experiments

Social psychologists use two major types of experimental methods:

Laboratory experiments

Field experiments


Experimental Methods:Laboratory ExperimentsExperimental Methods:Laboratory ExperimentsLaboratory experiments involve the direct manipulation of (independent) variables and the observation of their effects on the behavior of other (dependent) variables.

Laboratory experiments involve the direct manipulation of (independent) variables and the observation of their effects on the behavior of other (dependent) variables.


Experimental Methods:Laboratory ExperimentsExperimental Methods:Laboratory Experiments

Advantages:

Allows cause-effect conclusions

Allows control of extraneous variables

Advantages:

Allows cause-effect conclusions

Allows control of extraneous variables


Experimental Methods:Laboratory ExperimentsExperimental Methods:Laboratory Experiments

Disadvantages:

Artificial situations may not represent relevant events as they naturally unfold (subjects’ responses may not be natural, since they know they are being observed).

Disadvantages:

Artificial situations may not represent relevant events as they naturally unfold (subjects’ responses may not be natural, since they know they are being observed).


Experimental Methods:Field Experiments


Field experiments involve the manipulation of independent variables using unknowing participants in natural settings.

Field experiments involve the manipulation of independent variables using unknowing participants in natural settings.




Advantages:Allow cause-effect conclusions.

Subjects give more natural responses.

Disadvantages:Although participants don’t know they’re being observed, situation still unusual.

Less control of extraneous factors than in laboratory experiments.

Advantages:Allow cause-effect conclusions.

Subjects give more natural responses.

Disadvantages:Although participants don’t know they’re being observed, situation still unusual.

Less control of extraneous factors than in laboratory experiments.



Demand characteristics -cues that make subjects aware of how the experimenter expects them to behave

Demand characteristics -cues that make subjects aware of how the experimenter expects them to behave


Ethical IssuesEthical Issues

The American Psychological Association’s ethical guidelines for research includes:

1. Obtaining informed consent.

Informed consent - research subject’s agreement to participate after being informed of any potential risks and his or her right to withdraw at any time without penalty

The American Psychological Association’s ethical guidelines for research includes:

1. Obtaining informed consent.

Informed consent - research subject’s agreement to participate after being informed of any potential risks and his or her right to withdraw at any time without penalty



2. Fully debriefing subjects after the research is completed.

Debriefing -discussion of procedures, hypotheses, and subject reactions at the completion of the study

2. Fully debriefing subjects after the research is completed.

Debriefing -discussion of procedures, hypotheses, and subject reactions at the completion of the study



3. Institutional Review Board evaluates the costs and benefits of the research procedures.

3. Institutional Review Board evaluates the costs and benefits of the research procedures.


How Does Social Psychology Fit into the Network of Knowledge?

How Does Social Psychology Fit into the Network of Knowledge?Social psychology is closely connected to other sub-disciplines of psychology, including developmental, personality, clinical, cognitive, and physiological psychology.

Social psychology is closely connected to other sub-disciplines of psychology, including developmental, personality, clinical, cognitive, and physiological psychology.


DevelopmentalDevelopmental

Area of Area of PsychologyPsychology

PersonalityPersonality

ClinicalClinical

Example of Common Example of Common QuestionQuestion

NeuroscienceNeuroscience

EnvironmentalEnvironmental

CognitiveCognitive


Does early exposure Does early exposure to televised to televised

violence lead to violence lead to increased increased

aggressiveness in aggressiveness in later years?later years?





ClinicalClinical



CognitiveCognitive


What individual What individual differences predict differences predict success in marital success in marital

relationships?relationships?





ClinicalClinical



CognitiveCognitive


How do social How do social dilemmas contribute dilemmas contribute to overpopulation to overpopulation and environmental and environmental

destruction?destruction?





ClinicalClinical



CognitiveCognitive


Can we improve Can we improve unhappy unhappy

relationships by relationships by studying how happy studying how happy couples interact? couples interact?





ClinicalClinical



CognitiveCognitive


How do attention-How do attention-demanding demanding

distractions distractions contribute to our contribute to our ability to resist ability to resist

persuasive messages?persuasive messages?





ClinicalClinical



CognitiveCognitive


How do different How do different brain mechanisms brain mechanisms

influence influence aggression?aggression?





ClinicalClinical



CognitiveCognitive


How Does Social Psychology Fit into the Network of Knowledge?

How Does Social Psychology Fit into the Network of Knowledge?Social psychology also connects to other disciplines, including basic research sciences like biology and anthropology as well as applied fields like organizational behavior and education.

Social psychology also connects to other disciplines, including basic research sciences like biology and anthropology as well as applied fields like organizational behavior and education.

Copyright © 2004 by Allyn and Bacon 11 Introduction to Social Psychology.

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Transcript of Copyright © 2004 by Allyn and Bacon 11 Introduction to Social Psychology.