Compressor Tech - July 2011

www.compressortech2.com

July 2011

On the Back

Options for Training 2011

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4 CompressorTechTwo

PUBLICATION STAFFCTTwo Founder ........................ Joseph M. KaneEditor and Publisher ..........D. Phillip BurnsideAssociate Publisher .............. Roberto ChelliniManaging Editor ..........................Patrick CrowSenior Editor .......................... Brent D. HaightSenior Editor .................. Michael J. BrezonickRegional Manager/Editor ........... Ian CameronSenior Editor ..........................Dawn M. GeskeAssociate Editor ..........................Kyle KopplinAssociate Editor ...............................DJ SlaterField Editor/ Business Manager ...................... Bo Svensson

Advertising Manager .......... Christa L. JohnsonProduction Manager ............. Marisa J. RobertsGraphic Artist ........................Brenda L. BurbachGraphic Artist .............................Carla D. LemkeGraphic Artist ...........................Amanda J. RyanGraphic Artist ................................Alyssa LoopeCopy Editor ...........................Melissa C. McNultyCirculation Manager ...................Sheila Lizdas

PUBLICATION HEADQUARTERS20855 Watertown Road, Suite 220Waukesha, WI 53186-1873, U.S.A.

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I - 38062 Arco, ItalyTelephone: +39 0464 2430891 Telefax: +39 0464 244529

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Telephone: +46 70 2405369 Telefax: +46 122 14787JAPANESE OFFICE

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Yokohama, 231-0824 JapanTelephone: +81 45 624 3502 Telefax: +81 45 624 3503

CHINESE OFFICES.H. Mok, Branch ManagerRm 1405, Kowloon Building

555 Nathan RoadKowloon, Hong Kong

Telephone: +852 3118 7930 Telefax : +852 3110 3572

Chairman of the Board ............Russell PalmerPresident............................ Michael J. OsengaSenior Vice President ....... Michael J. Brezonick

I put the question mark there be-cause — how do I know what you think? However, as I scan various ex-amples of the media, I detect a blan-ket of doom pervading the thought process of the U.S. public. So, let me pump up your spirits momentarily.

I noticed a couple of weeks ago that natural gas prices jumped to a 10-month high. The main cause was the heat wave that covered the United States in late May, and the fact that many nuclear-fueled power plants were down for inspection and repair. Natural gas accounts for about 25% of U.S. electric power consumption. Also, giving a boost to prices was the Department of Energy’s report that gas in storage was not as abundant as everyone thought it would be. The Energy Department’s Energy Informa-tion Administration (EIA) said that the 83 billion Btu weekly injections in late May was some 10 billion Btu short of what was expected.

The International Energy Agen-cy (IEA) predicts that natural gas is headed toward its golden age. The IEA says that world consumption of this clean-burning fuel could rise by 50% in 24 years. By 2035, it could ac-count for a quarter of the global en-ergy consumption. Because substan-tial reserves are spread all over the world, natural gas represents a great deal of energy security for countries dependent on energy imports from the volatile Middle East. The IEA — as

do many agencies ensconced in Eu-rope — tends to throw a wet blanket over the trend by calling our atten-tion to an emissions problem. Though natural gas is a clean-burning fuel, ac-cording to IEA spokesmen, it is still a fossil fuel and will lead to further global warming.

Now for the gloom. A little over a week ago, I noticed a headline in The Wall Street Journal, “The Economy is Worse Than You Think.” This is the title that gave me my own title. The author of the article, Martin Feldstein, is reading my mind. I wonder how he does that. But I have to say that he is a poor reader or my mind is so jum-bled up that he can’t see a good pic-ture. In any case, his statement is not correct. I think the economy is worse than he thinks.

Feldstein does, however, present four critical items that are worth our concern. He says that each dollar of extra deficit adds much less than that to the GDP. The public is anxious about the possibility of a tax increase. No explicit plan exists to deal with future budget deficits. The real value of the dollar fell some 7% over the past year. Actions directed at bringing these items under control are doable. The economy will continue to suffer, however, until a coherent, favorable economic policy is established.

With all that is going on, may the Lord hold you (and the IEA) in the hollow of His hand. a

Joe Kane

MEMBER OF BPA WORLDWIDE®PRINTED IN THE U.S.A.

Reprints of all articles published in CompressorTechTwo

are available. Please address inquiries to:[email protected]

Tel: 262-754-4147 Fax: 262-754-4177

COMPRESSORTechTwo Dedicated to Gas

Compression Products and Applications

A Member of the Diesel & Gas Turbine Publications Group

Things Are Not as Bad as You Think?

Volume XVI: Issue VI

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GE Oil & GasThe LM6000 Enhanced Package builds on GE’s proven aircraft engine technology to provide a new solution for offshore and onshore applications. It’s designed for reliable operation in remote locations and under extreme conditions, while reducing operating costs and minimizing environmental impact. This integrated package offers a high performance gas turbine coupled with a centrifugal compressor for mechanical drive duty. All optimized for fast installation, high reliability, availability and reduced weight and footprint.

geoilandgas.com

This is Innovation Now

Lateralthinking

15697_Compressor Tech2_203x267_AW.indd 1 20/6/11 11:26:03


GE_OilGas.indd 1 6/24/11 9:20 AM

http://geoilandgas.com


n Volume XVI: Issue VI ................................................................................ 4

n Global Perspective — The Development of Shale Gas in Europe ................ 8

n Market Talk — IEA Foresees “Golden Age” for Natural Gas ..................... 10

n Regional Colleges Help Fulfill Demand for Compressor Professionals ...... 12

n The Rolls-Royce Mantra: No Train, No Gain ............................................ 16

n Fuel! Air! Timing! Spark! ........................................................................ 22

n Wyoming College Delivers Stream of Gas Compressor Technicians ........ 30

n Kobe Steel Buys into Wuxi Compressor Co. ........................................... 32

n Changzhou Compressor Plant Ready for Business ................................. 34

n Options for Training 2011 ..................................................................... 35

n TECHCorner — Understanding Rod Reversal in Reciprocating Compressors .................................................................. 48

n CSI Employee’s Hobby Results in Mobile Simulator ................................. 58

n A Visit to GE’s Qatar Service Center ....................................................... 60

n Natural Gas Optimism Slowly Returns to Western Canada ....................... 62

n Why Training is So Critical ..................................................................... 64

n TECHCorner — Operating with Electronic Pre-Combustion Chamber Check Valves — a Case Study ............................................................... 68

n GE Energy Sees Synergies from Dresser Acquisition .............................. 75

n Atlas Interactive Takes OPITO Training Worldwide .................................. 78

n The Relevance of the National Ambient Air Quality Standards, Part 3 ...... 80

n Dateline ................................................................................................ 11n Product Information Center ................................................................... 28n Featured Products ................................................................................ 32n Industry News ....................................................................................... 66n Planning Ahead ..................................................................................... 67n Scheduled Downtime ............................................................................. 73n Advertisers’ Index ................................................................................. 74n Marketplace ......................................................................................... 75n Recent Orders ...................................................................................... 77n About the Business ................................................................................... 84

p. 16

p. 32

july 2011

p. 12

July 2011 6 CompressorTechTwo

CompressorTechTwo (ISSN 1085-2468) Volume 16, No. 6 — Published 10 issues/year (January-February, March, April, May, June, July,

August-September, October, November, December) by Diesel & Gas Turbine Publications, 20855 Watertown Road, Waukesha, WI 53186-

1873, U.S.A. Subscription rates are $85.00 per year/$10.00 per copy worldwide. Periodicals postage paid at Waukesha, WI 53186 and at

additional mailing offices. Copyright 2011 DIESEL & GAS TURBINE PUBLICATIONS.

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Follow compressortech2 on at www.compressortech2.com

p. 22

Member of...

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www.rolls-royce.com

They may display a proud old name on the outside, but the driving force within the world’s best-engineered, most efficient, pipeline gas compressors is Rolls-Royce. The heritage name, Cooper-Bessemer, still carried by older machines, echoes the engineering excellence that has

earned Rolls-Royce an unparalleled reputation for quality. Today, in a business where productivity and dependability mean so much, the unsurpassed engineering experience of the past makes Rolls-Royce the compressor name of the future.

A proud past leads to a new future

Trusted to deliver excellence

It’s all in the name...

Cooper-Bessemer is a registered trade name of Cameron Corporation, used under license by Rolls-Royce plc


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While in the United States shale gas production has developed to the point of constituting a significant share of total national consumption, in Europe its exploration and produc-tion is still in its infancy. Hydraulic fracturing (fraccing), required to ex-tract natural gas from shale, is a rela-tively new technique and is viewed with suspicion by environmentalists.

Where fraccing water mixed with chemicals ends up is a big question mark. It may reach waters used for drinking or agricultural irrigation, and this is enough to justify the concerns. However, the risk is minimal because of the difference in depth between the high-pressure water injection and the aquifer of potable water. Care-ful monitoring of the potable water bed properties in the fraccing area is, however, mandatory.

Another difference, with respect to conventional natural gas, is the num-ber of wells needed to extract shale gas. Natural gas flows from a con-ventional source at high pressure in great quantity from a limited number of wells, while shale gas needs more wells from which it flows at very low pressure and in small volumes.

All this explains why the impact in a densely populated area such as all of Europe is much greater than in the Unites States where Mother Na-ture has placed shale deposits in less populated areas.

However, economic considerations connected with energy demand and local energy resources are playing an important role in favoring or delaying research for shale gas.

On one side, France — where a large share of energy demand is served by nuclear plants — is banning shale research. At the time of this writing, it is a temporary moratorium. However, the French National Assembly has al-ready passed a bill that would ban the use of fraccing, but the bill has yet to be approved by the Senate.

On the other side, the Eastern

countries, with greater dependence on Russian natural gas imports, are aiming to implement, if possible, a local source of energy in spite of the abovementioned concerns.

The Polish government is deter-mined to reduce its reliance on Rus-sian gas that, in 2010, amounted to 78% of Poland’s gas imports. In 2008-2009, ExxonMobil received the Chelm and Werbkowice concessions located in the Lublin Basin in southeastern Po-land. These sources cover 449 and 384 sq.mi. (1162 and 995 km2), respectively. Poland is believed to hold significant shale gas reserves. Advanced Resources International estimates these reserves at around 106 Tcf (3 x 1012 m3).

However, development of shale re-serves through fraccing is highly contro-versial. Last May, ExxonMobil had passed along 49% of its concession shares to Total to reduce the risk. Considering the potential reserves, the development of shale gas could play a significant role in changing the country’s energy balance. Public protests most likely will not stop the process.

Bulgaria has recently awarded Chev-

ron a E300 million contract to explore the Novi Pazar shale gas field in north-eastern Bulgaria. The field is estimated to hold between 10.6 Tcf and 35.3 Tcf (300 x 109 and 1 x 1012 m3) of gas. Bul-garia’s conventional natural gas produc-tion in 2008 was just 4.0 Bcf (113.3 x 106 m3) while consumption reached 113 Bcf (3.2 x 109 m3) — making the country heavily dependent on imports.

Russia is Bulgaria’s sole gas supplier. As a result, the country was particu-larly hard hit by the supply disruptions that followed the Russia-Ukraine gas dispute in January 2009. Consequent-ly, the development of the Novi Pazar field is strategically important.

For the time being, Poland and Bul-garia seem to be the only two European countries that will use shale gas to sup-plement natural gas in the near future.

Sweden was pioneering European shale gas research, but Shell, after eval-uating the viability of the Alum Shale in southern Sweden, declared that it is not a viable source and abandoned the operation.

Exploration is under way in Austria, where OMV is working on a promising basin near Vienna.

ExxonMobil has leased 1158 sq. mi. (3000 km2) in the Lower Saxon Basin of Germany. Shell also has drilled the first wells for shale gas in the Makó Trough in Hungary.

Last February, Enegi Oil was given an option over 191 sq.mi. (495 km2) in the Clare Basin, in western Ireland. In the U.K.’s Bowland shale deposit, gas was discovered in 2009, close to the coastal resort of Blackpool, Lan-cashire, at a depth of 4000 ft. (1219 m). The extent of the gas field is not yet known. Further wells are to be drilled to determine the size of the field. Production is anticipated in January 2012.

As these activities indicate shale gas as a mature energy source for Europe is still a very long way off and still has to be proved as a viable supplement to imports. A


Roberto Chellini

The DevelopmenT of Shale GaS in europeEnvironmental Concerns and Dependency on Russian Natural Gas Play a

Contrasting Role in the Development of This Unconventional Gas ResourceBy Roberto Chellini, Associate Publisher

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http://www.dcl-inc.com

The International Energy Agency (IEA) has envisioned that the world could be on the verge of “The Gold-en Age of Natural Gas.”

A new IEA report said global natu-ral gas use could jump more than 50% from 2010 levels by 2035 and overtake coal as the second-most-used fuel. That assessment was based on the premise of an abundant supply of gas combined with competitive pricing. Also, there would be more gas use, especially by developing nations, in their growing ef-fort to abate air pollution. And finally, gas use would benefit from the back-lash against nuclear energy caused by plant malfunctions in Japan.

To fulfill this potential, the gas in-dustry has many challenges to over-come. Environmentalists maintain that shifting to natural gas from coal, while decreasing atmospheric pollution, won’t alter the impacts of climate change.

A recent study by Cornell University of Ithaca, New York, U.S.A., supported that theory. It examined ways to make the campus a net-zero emitter of car-bon emissions by 2050 through energy conservation and the use of alternative energy sources and carbon offsets. The Cornell study concluded that the car-bon footprint associated with the pro-duction and transport of natural gas actually exceeded the footprint associ-ated with coal usage.

A major challenge to gas produc-tion continues to be the growing environmental concerns about the potential pollution of ground water from the hydraulic fractur-ing of oil- and gas-bearing geolog-ic zones. France recently declared a moratorium on hydraulic fracturing of shale formations due to water- contamination apprehensions.

Such debates, while prudent, con-tinue to create marketplace uncertainty that ultimately could undermine the po-tential for natural gas use, both in the

United States and in global markets. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency is engaged in a comprehensive analysis of the impacts of hydraulic fracturing — an initiative that could lead to the introduction of new regulations.

At the same time, oil and gas bil-lionaire T. Boone Pickens is pro-moting natural gas as the key to U.S. energy independence. His en-ergy plan has gained some following on Capitol Hill and has been intro-duced as a bill in the House of Repre-sentatives. It would provide tax credits to convert motor vehicles to natural gas, especially heavy-duty trucks and fleet vehicles.

There is little doubt that the combi-nation of horizontal drilling and mas-sive hydraulic fracturing has given the United States — as well as the rest of the world — a shale gas resource po-tential that could meet global energy requirements for years to come.

The U.S. Energy Information Adminis-tration recently projected that U.S. natu-

ral gas production will grow by 4.5% to 64.6 Bcfd (1.8 x 109 m3/d) this year — despite a steady slowdown in gas drilling — due to the surge in shale gas output.

Yet the United States remains mired in an ongoing debate over energy strategies. It is more appar-ent than ever that this country needs to establish an energy plan that will provide some level of certainty for the market. The ongoing hodge-podge of legislation is inefficient, and unfortunately, unproductive.

Obviously no energy solution will be perfect and there are underlying issues and risks that will need to be under-stood. But if given market certainty, the private sector can and will respond.

Whether we like it or not, public policy and the private sector are joined at the hip. The high status of living that this country enjoys today has, in part, resulted from the collabo-ration between government and the private sector. History has shown the success of these collaborations. It is time that we establish another such ef-fort to address the energy requirements of the future and provide certainty for the energy market participants.

This may seem outside the scope of the normal market functioning, but it really is not. The deployment of capi-tal depends on a return for investment. Public policy directly impacts what economic return can be assumed. Lacking this direction, the market is unable — and more likely unwilling — to respond with capital funding.

It is critical that that our political lead-ers give the gas industry some level of certainty that will allow it the means to address the nation’s energy needs. A

IEA ForEsEEs “GoldEn AGE” For nAturAl GAsWill Environmental Attacks, Government Vacillations

Undermine Industry Investments?By Harold Lampe

july 2011 10 CompressorTechTwo

Harold Lampe

Harold Lampe is principal of Energy Re-search Services of Tulsa, Oklahoma, U.S.A., which provides a range of marketing serv ices for the energy industry. He can be reached at [email protected].

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July 21, Pennsylvania Gas Expo 2011 - Koval-chick Convention and Athletic Complex, Indi-ana, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.; Tel: (724) 465-4700 Web: www.pagasexpo.com

Aug 10-11, New Zealand Oil & Gas Exhibi-tion & Conference - TSB Stadium, New Plym-outh, New Zealand; Tel: +61 8 9443 3400; Web: www.nzoilandgasexpo.com.au

Sept. 8, Rocky Mountain GPA Annual Meeting - Denver Athletic Club, Denver, Colorado, U.S.A.; Tel: (918) 493-3872; Web: www.gpaglobal.org

*Sept 12-15, International Pump Users Symposium - George R. Brown Convention Center, Houston, Texas, U.S.A.; Tel: (979) 845-2924; Fax: (979) 845-1835

*Sept 12-15, Turbomachinery Symposium - George R. Brown Convention Center, Hous-ton, Texas, U.S.A.; Tel: (979) 845-7417; Web: www.turbolab.tamu.edu/

Sept 13-15, ChemInnovations 2011 Confer-ence & Expo - George R. Brown Convention Center, Houston, Texas, U.S.A.; Tel: (214) 358-5359; Web: www.cpievent.com

*Sept 14-16, Wyoming Gas Fair 2011 - Snow King Center, Jackson Hole, Wyoming, U.S.A.; Tel: (307) 234-7147; Web: www.wyogasfair.org

Sept 18-20, Arab Oil and Gas - Dubai Inter-national Convention and Exhibition Centre, United Arab Emirates; Tel: +971 4 3355001; Web: www.ogsonline.com

Sept 20-22, Asia Pacific Oil & Gas Conference & Exhibition - Jakarta Convention Center, Ja-karta, Indonesia; Tel: +60 3 2288 1233; Web: www.spe.org/events/apogce/2011

*Sept 27-29, Gas Compression Confer-ence - University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma, U.S.A.; Tel: (405) 325-3891; Web: www.engr.outreach.ou.edu/gascompressor

*Oct 2-5, 2011 Gas Machinery Conference - Renaissance Hotel and Convention Center, Nashville, Tennessee, U.S.A.; Tel: (972) 620-4026; E-mail: [email protected]

Oct 2-5, Baghdad International Oil & Gas Conference & Exhibition - Baghdad Interna-tional Fair Ground, Baghdad, Iraq; Tel: +90 212 356 00 56 Web: www.baghdadoilgas.com

Oct 3-5, 6th Annual LNG Tech Global Summit 2011 - De Doelen Congress Centre, Rotterdam, Netherlands; Tel: +44 (0) 207 202 7690; Web: www.lngsummit.com

Oct 4-6, OTC Brasil 2011 - Rio Centro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; Tel: (281) 491-5908 Web: www.otcbrasil.org

Oct 10-12, 2nd Annual Developing Unconven-tional Gas Eagle Ford Conference & Exhibition - Henry B. Gonzalez Convention Center, San Antonio, Texas, U.S.A.; Tel: (713) 260-5209; E-mail: [email protected]

*Oct 10-13, Argentina Oil & Gas Expo 2011 - La Rural, Buenos Aires, Argentina; Tel: +54 11 43 22 5707; Web: www.aog.com.ar

Oct 11, Houston GPA Annual Meeting - Pine Forest Country Club, Houston, Texas, U.S.A.; Tel: (281) 675-9046; Web: www.houstongpa.org

Oct 11-13, Deep Offshore Technology Interna-tional Conference & Exhibition - Hilton Riverside, New Orleans, Louisiana, U.S.A.; Tel: (713) 963-6256; Web: www.deepoffshoretechnology.com

Oct 17-20, 8th International Seminar on Ro-tordynamics & Bearings - Leonardo Hotel Cologne, Cologne, Germany; Tel: +49 2267 6585-0; Web: www.arla.de

*Oct 25-27, Louisiana Gulf Oil & Gas Ex-position (LAGCOE) - Lafayette Cajundome & Convention Center, Lafayette, Louisiana, U.S.A.; Tel: (337) 235-4055; Web: www.lag-coe.com

Dateline

*Indicates shows and conferences in which CompressorTechTwo is participating.

For a complete listing of upcoming events, please visit our website at www.compressortech2.com

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July Dateline.indd 1 6/23/11 4:02 PM

http://www.pagasexpo.com

http://www.aog.com.ar

http://www.arla.de


http://www.nzoilandgasexpo.com.au

http://www.houstongpa.org

http://www.turbolab.tamu.edu/

http://www.cpievent.com

http://www.ogsonline.com

http://www.spe.org/events/apogce/2011


http://www.baghdadoilgas.com

http://www.lngsummit.com

http://www.otcbrasil.org


http://harscoaxc.com


http://www.gpaglobal.org

http://www.wyogasfair.org

http://www.wyogasfair.org

http://www.engr.outreach.ou.edu/gascompressor

http://www.otcbrasil.org

http://www.deepoffshoretechnology.com

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Significant growth of natural gas production in the United States in the last decade, coupled with the ag-ing of the industry’s workforce, has created a growing need for trained gas compressor operators and main-tenance technicians.

A number of educational institutions have responded to this need with the development of training programs.

The Gas Compressor Association (GCA), an industry organization made up of compressor rental fleet opera-tors, packagers, and major equipment manufacturers and distributors, has worked to promote and support the development of these programs, since the availability of trained compressor operators and maintenance personnel is critical to the industry.

The GCA has partnered with re-gional colleges since 1992. Through 2010, GCA has provided US$290,000 of financial and other support, includ-ing US$45,000 in 2010 alone. Member companies have also donated com-pressors, engines, complete packages, cut-away models and other equipment that the programs use for training. In-dividuals from member companies

serve on college steering committees, help with curriculum development and serve as guest lecturers and trainers.

“A unique quality of the members of the GCA is their ability to set aside their friendly competitiveness for the good of the natural gas industry and their individual companies. Their sup-port of these college partnerships is further testament to their commitment

to the future of the industry,” said Alan Moore, GCA administrative manager.

At its March 2011 Expo and Con-ference in Galveston, Texas, U.S.A., the GCA provided an opportunity for representatives from Oklahoma State University, Panola College, San Juan College and Western Wyoming Com-munity College to meet and share ideas, problems and opportunities with each other as well as with the GCA Advisory Board, while also display-ing their programs to GCA members. The most recent initiative involves the development and promotion of web-based courses and short, on campus, seminars for training personnel who are already in the workforce.

Longest running and most advanced of the group is the Natural Gas Com-pression program at the OSU Institute of Technology in Okmulgee, Okla-homa, U.S.A. Natural gas compression courses have been a part of the cur-riculum since 1979.

Initially, compressor courses were taught in conjunction with other cours-es in the final semester of the generic diesel technology program. In 2000, as a direct response to industry demand, the Natural Gas Compression program was developed as a stand-alone pro-gram within the Heavy Equipment and Vehicle Institute.

The program includes courses in natu-ral gas engines, compressors, instrumen-tation and controls as well as general education courses specifically designed to develop skills in communication, work ethic, teamwork, critical thinking and other important employability skills.

GCA has been involved in supporting the Okmulgee program since the mid-1990s. The six-semester, associate degree program of study is completed in two calendar years. Students attend classes on campus in the fall and spring semes-ters, followed by paid internships in the summer semester. Graduating students

Regional Colleges Help FulFill DemanD FoR

CompRessoR pRoFessionalsGCA Supports Training of Compressor Operators,

Maintenance TechniciansBy Norm Shade

Students work on an Ajax compressor package at Western Wyoming Community College in Rock Springs, Wyoming, U.S.A.


An industry professional from MidCon Compression shows students in the Oklahoma State Uni-versity program how to align a compressor to an engine.

CT731.indd 1 6/23/11 4:47 PM

are awarded an Associate in Applied Science (AAS) degree. Traditionally serv-ing the midcontinent natural gas pro-duction area of the south-central United States, the program has grown significant-ly in recent years to serve the demand for compressor technicians working in the Barnett, Fayetteville, Woodward and other shale plays. The Okmulgee cam-pus has 67 students enrolled and 31 are scheduled to graduate in August.

The Natural Gas Compression pro-gram at San Juan College’s School of Energy in Farmington, New Mexico, U.S.A., has been active since the fall of 2002. The GCA was instrumental in get-ting this program started to help meet the need for compressor technicians for conventional and coalbed methane gas compression in the Four Corners area of the southwestern United States. It is designed to provide technically ori-ented entry-level students with the basic knowledge of gas compression equip-ment and the skills required to efficient-ly and safely maintain, troubleshoot and operate compression packages in their areas of responsibility.

In two semesters, students learn the mechanical and technical aspects of compression technology, specifically related to the natural gas industry. Stu-dents train in a classroom/shop setting, work with a sponsoring company in the field, and return to the shop to complete the program. A two-semester certificate program and a four-semester AAS de-gree program are offered. The compres-sor program accepts up to 16 students each semester. It has graduated more than 60 students so far, with 11 sched-uled to graduate this year.

The San Juan program uses an advi-sory council to stay abreast of changing industry standards, government rules and corporate needs. Advisory coun-cil members also provide internships that give students vital experience in work habits and skill-building. Instruc-tors improve the curriculum based on industry feedback, and students are of-fered a chance to foster future employ-ment opportunities.

Upon request, San Juan Natural Gas Compression instructors also provide advanced training courses to industry employees. These one- and two-day courses include topics such as reading measurement tools, using multimeters, basic engine theory, emissions, com-pressor valve operation, basic electrical theory, compressor skid components, overview of the gas industry, natural gas production, rotary compressor re-build, shaft alignment and oil analysis interpretation.

Panola College’s Petroleum Tech-nology Program has developed with the increased demand for compressor technicians for the Barnett, Fayetteville, Haynesville and other nearby gas plays. The four-semester program is offered at the Panola campus in Carthage, Texas, U.S.A., or at the Shelby Regional Train-ing Center at Center, Texas, U.S.A. Stu-dents follow a curriculum created in co-operation with representatives from the petroleum industry and receive hands-on technical training.

Panola’s flexible program is de-signed so that at the end of every se-mester, students receive a certificate verifying completion of necessary re-quirements. At the completion of the Certification II, students participate in a summer internship, where they have the opportunity to apply their knowl-edge while working with profession-als in oil and gas, pipeline, processing, operating, gas compressor and rental fleet companies. Students then may choose to enter the workforce or con-tinue to earn additional certifications toward a degree. Upon completion of the two-year program, students receive either a Certificate of Completion or an AAS degree. They also can transfer to a university to work toward a Bachelor of Science degree. Forty-one students are enrolled in the program.

The newest program supported by GCA is the Natural Gas Compression Technology curriculum at Western Wyo-ming Community College (WWCC) in Rock Springs, Wyoming, U.S.A. Created at the request of Wyoming companies, it is designed to prepare students for em-ployment in the natural gas compression industry (see related story on page 30).

Students acquire the ability to troubleshoot, repair and maintain compression equipment through a combination of lecture and hands-on training in compression theory, pneumatics, compressor mechanics, gas engine mechanics, electric mo-tors, precision measuring, alignment, vibration analysis, oil analysis, bal-ancing and safety. Training is also re-ceived in related industrial technology


A student at San Juan College’s School of Energy works on an engine at the training facility in Farmington, New Mexico, U.S.A.

Natural Gas Compression students practice setting the valve lash on a gas engine in the training lab on campus in Okmulgee, Oklahoma, U.S.A.

continued on page 14

CT731.indd 2 6/23/11 4:48 PM

courses. One-year certificate or two-year degree programs are offered.

Anadarko Petroleum Corp., Questar Corp., Williams Companies and Exterran offer WWCC students internships and scholarships. GCA and the Gas Proces-sors Association also offer scholarships.

The WWCC program began in the fall of 2007 and had seven graduates in 2010. Its well-equipped training facility has six engines and seven compressors including a Caterpillar 3306/GE-Gemi-ni H302 3-stage package, a Waukesha 7042 gas engine, a Capstone C30 tur-bo-generator, a GE-Gemini H302 four-stage compressor, an Ajax DCP-60, two Superior 6G510s with a Superior reciprocating compressor and three Sullair screw compressors. This equip-ment was donated by companies that include Anadarko, Questar, Stewart & Stevenson, Henry Production and GE.

The three-stage Cat/GE package is fully installed to run on a 30 to 300 psi (2.1 to 20.7 bar) nitrogen closed loop. This unique installation allows stu-dents to start-up, load, shutdown and troubleshoot running equipment in a controlled environment. In addition, the Superior 6G510 sits on a skid with a Superior reciprocating compressor so students can perform dial indicator and laser coupling alignments.

Due to the growing demand for compressor operators and maintenance technicians in the eastern United States, the GCA Education Committee is advis-ing the initiation of a Natural Gas En-gineering Technology Program at Zane State College, which has campuses at Zanesville and Cambridge, Ohio, U.S.A. The Ohio Board of Regents recently ap-proved the two-year program, which is due to begin in the fall of 2011. Gradu-ates will receive an AAS degree. a


(Top) Students reassemble a small compressor at the training facility at the San Juan College School of Energy. (Bottom) An OSU Institute of Technology Natural Gas Compression instructor demonstrates a compressor package training panel.

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A combination of economic austerity matched with changes in the way new technology can deliver information more effectively has had a dramatic impact on the world of training — not least in the oil and gas industries and power generation.

Almost gone are the days when

cash-rich conglomerates would deploy their staff around the world for class-room-headquartered training courses with little regard to the cost.

Today the world of training has changed dramatically. Oil and gas com-panies demand much greater value for their money from those supplying the

learning packages. That often means it’s a case of “have laptop, will travel” for the tutors.

By their nature, power stations or gas compression plants are usually in remote areas. Trainers often must travel extensively to give on-site, face-to-face instruction to personnel who will work on equipment such as com-pressors, gas turbines, gearboxes or advanced control systems.

Rolls-Royce is one of the more expe-rienced training providers with a large department spread over a variety of locations worldwide and provides tu-toring in its three key business areas — energy, marine and aerospace.

Within the energy sector of the U.K.-headquartered company, there are eight full-time trainers and three sup-port staff. Between them, the trainers have 175 years of Rolls-Royce experi-ence. The energy business has under-gone significant expansion in the last year and been restructured into five customer-focused regions. Accompa-nying this recruitment campaign, inter-nal product training has become a key focus to the organization. In 2010, a to-tal of 627 delivery days were recorded — training 590 Rolls-Royce staff and 1151 customer personnel.

The Rolls-Royce power engineering sets supported by the trainers are pri-marily the Avon, RB211, Trent and 501 industrial packages with training focus-ing on familiarization, operation and first line maintenance. (Rolls-Royce also has the capability to support its fleet of legacy units: Spey, Olympus and Proteus.) The courses can be cus-tomized depending on the customer’s package and are classroom and/or workshop based with simulator sup-port if needed. Most training courses conclude with individual exams.

Driven equipment training focuses on both Rolls-Royce and non-Rolls-Royce pipeline and barrel compres-sors, AC generators and water pumps. For electronic controls, the systems covered are FT100, FT110, FT55, FT125 and FT125 upgrade and include famil-iarization, operation and faultfinding, and also fuel control.

“The training scenario has changed significantly over the past few years,” said Tom Doyle, principal technical trainer, Rolls-Royce Energy. “We used to do a lot more classroom-based training at the Rolls-Royce facility in Ansty, Eng-land, in previous years when customers had larger budgets and were less con-cerned about the number of their people traveling. Today they are much choosier and want the training to be more cost-effective and local to them. Eighty per-cent of our training is delivered on-site.”

THE ROLLS-ROYCE MANTRA: NO TRAIN, NO GAIN

Training Sector Undergoes Major Adjustments as Economic Times Change

By Ian Cameron

Rolls-Royce training is not limited to classroom work.



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Dean Blazye, Rolls-Royce’s custom-er and training manager, added, “Some training contracts for customers can be very specific and more extensive than five days — for example we have just been dealing with a customer, who re-quired 33 consecutive weeks training — which we can provide.”

In recent years, Rolls-Royce has also developed relationships with several universities around the world to provide input into student courses, often at the request of a customer near to the univer-sity who plans to recruit graduates.

But training within the energy/com-pressor sector is not restricted to ex-ternal customers. Rolls-Royce is now involved in its largest ever internal staff training program. It is undertaking large recruitment in line with its global position to support in service activi-ties. It is not just dedicating training to technical engineering staff, but also for people working in administrative roles such as secretaries, administrators, hu-

That means time on the road for the Rolls-Royce trainers. Courses have been offered recently as far afield as Sibe-ria; Australia; Argentina; Brazil; Alaska, U.S.A; and Russia’s Sakhalin Island. The traveling logistics are eased slightly by the fact that Rolls-Royce has corporate training centers with bases in Derby and Bristol, U.K.; Alesund, Norway; In-dianapolis, Indiana, U.S.A.; and a newly opened facility in Singapore.

For external training to customer staff, the courses last from two to five days and are targeted at people with diverse levels of technical knowledge including maintenance staff, techni-cians and managers. They all typically undergo a common five-day “founda-tion course” followed by extra days of training that is individually tailored to a person’s job. For example, for main-tenance staff the extra training will in-clude tutoring on relevant aspects such as faultfinding, oil analysis, on-site re-pairs and borescoping.

Hands-on training is part of the process.

Training is personalized as much as possible.

man relations specialists and finance personnel, the company said.

Doyle said, “It is important that our people know what various compo-nents make up our packages — espe-cially the larger items. They need to know what they look like, what they are called and what they do.”

He added, “An accountant may be involved in an issue with a customer relating to a component, so he or she needs to be aware of what is involved and the importance and value of the part under discussion.”

Rolls-Royce has also invested in significantly developing its online E-learning packages aimed initially at providing a suite of learning packages for Rolls-Royce students, but with the intention of eventually rolling out the service for customers’ staff.

Blazye said, “The ability for people to come to classrooms is not always there, so we have developed blended training which is delivered partly on line and partly classroom based. Once Rolls-Royce personnel have access to the site, there is a large amount of educational material on there for them backed up by good graphics and video material from on-site situations. Our staff can also book training courses online themselves.”

Blaze said the service is currently only available for Rolls-Royce staff, but the company is working on develop-ing a portal so that customers can get access for training. A customer trial in the marine business is under way through a plan that may be expanded to a wider base of customers.

“It may become desirable for cus-tomers’ staff to do some basic E-learn-ing arranged by us before they attend our courses, so that all of the people in the class have the same basic level of knowledge when they start, but that means that a five-day course can be carried out on-site in four days,” Blazye said.

The company also brings in external tutors if specialized training is needed. “For example, if we need to incorpo-rate training on dry gas seals, we bring in a specialist tutor from John Crane, or from Rockwell if it’s about controls. We also have good relationships with Dresser-Rand and often work with them on large training programs,” Doyle said.

“But we also pay a lot of attention to making sure that whoever we use for training has the ability to get their stu-dents to engage with them and learn — pure technical knowledge needs to be backed up with good teaching skills,” he said. a


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Ignition in spark-ignited internal combustion engines requires four ma-jor components: fuel, air, timing and spark. Fuel and air have been man-aged primarily through mechanical systems that are familiar and widely understood. Even the development of electromechanical air-fuel ratio con-trollers has not changed their basic na-ture because, in the end, they function as mechanical components.

Timing and spark, on the other hand, are provided electrically and are generally not as well understood even among experienced technicians. Sev-eral familiar manufacturers supply the ignition control boxes used to control engine timing, but there are only a few manufacturers that specialize in one of the engine’s key components, which is the ignition coil that supplies the high-voltage energy necessary to create a dependable ignition spark.

In 1946, Andover Coils LLC was founded in Lafayette, Indiana, U.S.A.,

where it began manufacturing high-voltage ignition coils for automotive, large industrial engines, motorcycles, aircraft and small stationary engines. The company also manufactured mag-netic contactors and transformers for medical X-ray equipment.

Ten years later, in 1956, the compa-ny developed proprietary epoxy resin formulations to meet the extreme re-quirements of advancing high voltage in industrial engine and other applica-tions. The company became the sole supplier of coils for one of the indus-try’s leading industrial ignition system manufacturers in the 1960s and contin-ues to produce aftermarket coils for all industrial engine ignition applications.

The company was purchased in 2007 by Kurt Walterhouse and Mike Coyle, a pair of experienced engineers who have committed themselves to the development and production of high-quality products for the coil and trans-former industry.

There are two types of ignition systems that may be found in a typical industrial engine. Capacitive Discharge (CD) sys-tems operate on electrical energy gener-ated by a stator and magnets attached to the engine crankshaft. As that energy accumulates, it is stored in a capacitor in-side the control box. At the correct time, the control box releases a measured amount of low-voltage energy into the ignition coil.

In an inductive ignition system, the electrical energy is generally drawn from a battery. At the correct time, the control box allows low-voltage energy to flow from the battery through the coil and then switches the current off.

For both types of systems, the ig-nition coil contains a magnetic core, a primary winding and a secondary winding. The ignition coil transforms the low-voltage energy into high- voltage energy. The transformed en-ergy must be of sufficient voltage to

Fuel! Air! Timing! SpArk!Ignition Coil Design Affects Spark-Ignited Engine Performance

Established in 1946, Andover Coils LLC is a major manufacturer of high-voltage ignition coils for automotive, large industrial engines, motorcycles, aircraft and small stationary engines.



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UNDERSTANDING CATALYSTSA Handbook for the User Part 5 – Precious Metals and More

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A scheduled series from Catalytic Combustion’s “Catalyst 101”

The development of catalytic converters for cars teaches us that the precious metals platinum, palladium and rhodium outperform other catalytically active elements in performance and durability, and offer a wide range of versatility for controlling engine exhaust pollutants.

Which ones to use?

For 3-way catalysts used in rich burn engines, rhodium is used for NOx control while platinum and palladium function for converting carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrocarbons. So a typical 3-way catalyst is composed of platinum or palladium, in combination with rhodium.

An oxidation catalyst for lean burn engines will often be a combination of platinum and palladium, since CO and hydrocarbons (including hazardous air pollutants (HAPs), i.e. formaldehyde) are what is required.

The choices made also take into account the susceptibility of the each metal to poisoning, and their interaction with the washcoat and its role in the chemical reaction.

What is the loading?

At the low end of the spectrum is having the minimum amount of metal needed to get the reaction going. On the opposite extreme is the point where adding more metal does not improve performance. In between lies the optimized loading that gives the conversion efficiencies required for an acceptable lifespan. Performance is also affected by the amounts of the metals in the coating relative to each other. A complete coating description will give you the total metal loading and the ratio between the metals.

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The loading and ratios can vary greatly from one catalyst manufacturer to another, and many don’t share that information. Whether this is a good policy or not is for you to decide, but either way, it does have an impact on performance.

How these decisions affect you

Consider this example as how it all works: You have two catalysts of the same size, cell pattern and precious metal ratio installed in two identical engines. One catalyst has a loading of 25 g/ft3 and the other is at 50 g/ft3. Initially they both may reach the needed control efficiencies, but what happens as ash begins to build up on the catalyst’s face or if cell openings get bent over?

During manufacturing, the precious metals were distributed into the pores of the washcoat and on its surface all along the walls of the cells, where they are found in the form of metal crystals containing a few atoms to several hundred atoms.

Thus a heavier loaded catalyst will have many more crystals along the walls of each cell than the more lightly loaded catalyst. As cells are blocked off, it retains a greater opportunity for the pollutants to be converted. This durability translates into the heavier loaded catalyst lasting longer before it requires either washing or replacing.

So how do you evaluate what you are getting? The best answer is to ask the catalyst vendor what the loading is. Given the volatility in the global precious metals market, lighter loadings or ratios using lower priced metals are strategies used to keep prices down but may not necessarily be the best solution for performance or longevity.

Price versus frequency of replacement, in conjunction with the expense of additional elements, plus the costs of labor time and lost production during the change out, must all be considered when evaluating catalyst purchases. So is making sure your engines comply with regulations, as fines and/or shut-downs can make a lower price an expensive alternative to quality.

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jump the gap of the spark plug located inside the engine cylinder.

The basic design principles of the ignition coil are the same regardless of whether it is intended for use on an engine equipped with a CD or induc-tive ignition system. Implementation of those principles — final configuration — varies only slightly for optimal per-formance in each type of ignition sys-tem and for each brand of control box.

Inside the coil, the primary wind-ing consists of a few turns of large-diameter wire. The secondary winding contains many turns and uses a much smaller-diameter wire. Faraday’s Law dictates that the voltage gain, or step-up, within the coil is approximately the ratio of the number of turns contained by each winding. Typical designs in-volve 80 to 100 secondary windings to each primary winding.

For users of industrial ignition coils, performance and longevity are of para-mount importance because a coil fail-ure takes down the engine and results in downtime and the consequent loss of productivity and expense of unsched-uled maintenance. If a coil is not oper-ating properly, it can result in increased engine exhaust emissions. Andover said the importance of that potential increase in emissions can’t be overestimated in today’s regulatory environment and the real potential punitive fines for an op-erator running bad coils. It is clear that superior ignition coil performance and longevity can substantially reduce costs.

According to Andover, typical ignition coil failures in the field generally fall into one of two categories: low-voltage out-put or loss of electrical continuity.

Low-voltage output can often be traced to the quality of the low voltage or current provided from the control

box, or to flashover within the sec-ondary winding of the coil. Flashover occurs when the insulation within the secondary winding assembly allows the high voltage to jump from one spot to another in the secondary winding. Flashover results in some number of turns being skipped, which reduces the effective ratio of primary to sec-ondary winding turns.

Loss of electrical continuity could occur if the connections between the primary or secondary windings to the outside of the coil break loose, or if the small gauge wires in the second-ary winding burn through because of excessive heat build-up within the coil.

Andover said its customers often re-port that their Andover ignition coils maintain voltage output more reliably and deliver a longer lifespan than coils from other manufacturers regardless of

the brand of ignition control box being used. To find out what distinguished its own coils from others, Andover undertook a comparative analysis of available coils.

The company suspected that each product’s insulation properties would be a major factor, as proper insulation of the secondary coil windings is criti-cal for ignition coil performance and longevity. Wires used for secondary coils have a thin layer of insulation that must conform to industry standards, but Andover said that every insulation specification allows a small number of pinholes to be present in the insulation.

Andover ignition coils are con-structed with additional insulation in the form of their proprietary epoxy formulation to withstand the high volt-age present in the winding during op-eration. Quality epoxy insulation also serves to dissipate heat and protect the coil windings against shock and vibra-tion, according to the company.

For the comparison, Andover chose coils from three different coil manu-facturers at random and sliced each in half with a water jet cutter. The wires within a secondary coil have a diam-eter smaller than a human hair, so An-dover contacted a local resource, the Birck Nanotechnology Center at Pur-due University, to help examine the windings with a Hirox KH-7700 Digital Microscope System, which recorded 3-D image, and 2-D measurements.

The first coil dissected was a bobbin model, a design that is well known in the industry. It utilizes a plastic bob-bin around which the secondary coil is wound. As can be seen in photo A, which was taken at 140x magnification, the bobbin bundles multiple wind-ings into segments. The wire-wrapped


Photo A. The bobbin wound coil secondary windings shown at 140x magnification illustrate windings surrounding one another with little effective insulation between them.

Photo B. At 140x magnification, this paper wound secondary coil shows minimal and inconsis-tent insulation between windings.


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bobbin is set into a housing that is then filled with epoxy to provide extra insulation. The magnified view shows that the windings within each seg-ment are surrounded by one another on multiple sides and with very little insulating material in between, thereby increasing the likelihood of flashover within the secondary winding.

Bobbin wound coils can exhibit poor adhesion of the insulating materi-al to the plastic material of the bobbin. If the adhesion is poor, which can hap-pen due to vacuum process variations or by long usage, voltage breakdown occurs through the interface between bobbin and winding.

The bobbin coil design is common in the automotive industry because it in-volves low manufacturing costs in terms of materials and labor. Andover said while an increasing number of bobbin coils are being offered to the market, the design may not be the best choice in demanding industrial environments.

The second coil dissected was a paper wound model. As shown by photo B, taken at 140x magnification, the design uses paper to separate and space each layer of the secondary coil winding. After the winding process is completed, the wire and paper assem-bly is impregnated with an epoxy for-mulation while in a vacuum chamber. Rather than having a high number of windings bundled into few segments as in a bobbin coil, a smaller num-ber of windings comprise each paper coil layer. Therefore, in the event of a flashover within a layer of a paper coil, the potential coil output voltage drop will not be as great.

Andover said while the paper coil design is intended to space each layer of wire far apart from the other, thereby

maximizing insulation in between, the spacing between rows in this example appears to be inconsistent. While a pa-per wound coil tends to offer superior insulation for the secondary windings than a bobbin coil does, consistent spacing is critical for best performance.

Finally, Andover examined one of its own paper wound coils. As can be seen by photo C, also taken at 140x magnification, the secondary coil wire layers are spaced much farther apart and more consistently than those of the other paper coil, and thus provide a great deal of insulation. Andover said the extra insulation is a primary rea-son users report excellent performance and longevity in the field.

The company also credits the proprie-tary epoxy formulations it tailors to each coil’s intended application for its perform-ance. In the coil shown in the illustration, the epoxy formulation impregnates the paper and fills all spaces throughout the windings, thus delivering outstanding heat dissipation characteristics.

Andover said the particular epoxy formulation used on the test coil, while an excellent choice for this product, is not optimal in others. For example, while Andover has developed several options that work well with embed-ded electronic circuits, this formulation would not be appropriate for such use because it is not optimized to accom-modate the different thermal expansion rates of the materials comprising the circuit. Options that would work well with embedded electronic circuits in-clude separating the components from the epoxy with a cover, applying a con-formal coating to the circuit or using a different epoxy formulation. a


26 CompressorTechTwo

Photo C. This Andover paper wound coil at 140x magnification shows thick, evenly distributed insulation between winding layers.

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Product Information Center CompressorTechTwo

Compressor Packages

Compass Compression has created a brochure on its compressor packages. The company has three standard compressor packages as well as custom packages in the 5 to 5000 hp (3.7 to 3728 kW) range. Its standard packages include standard screw, stan-dard reciprocating and stan-dard vane compressor units.


TurboCool Coupling

Voith Turbo Inc. has pub-lished literature on TurboCool, a new coupling designed to adapt fan speeds to tempera-ture conditions. The literature contains a list of benefits with the coupling, along with dia-grams and technical data.


CP Valves

Hoerbiger has published a brochure on its CP valve, which is rated for speeds as high as 2800 rpm, according to the company. The brochure lists the features of the CP valve, which has wide ports to resist liquids, a spring plate to resist permanent deformation and a MT cushion plate. The brochure also lists the valve’s specification.




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Production And Processing Services

A brochure on the oil and natural gas production and processing services at Enerflex Energy Systems Inc. is now available from the company. While known for its presence in the compressor market, the company also provides natu-ral gas processing products, as well as refrigeration systems, CO2 processing systems and production modules.


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Vibration Sensor

Boss Packaging Inc., located in Calgary, Alberta, Canada, has published a document on the BossPac Bluebox vibration sensor. Included are the 3-D vi-bration sensor’s specifications and features, which include three-axis vibration measuring and its digital signal processor, and its suitable applications, such as blowers, centrifuges, fans, motors and pumps.


Automatic Lubrication Systems

Lionoil, a manufacturer of cen-tralized and automatic lubrica-tion systems, has published a brochure on its three types of automatic lubrication systems for reciprocating compressors. The brochure also contains a section on hyper compressors and the company’s history.


Compressor Controls

Kilowatts Design Co. Inc. has published data sheets on its GX, GM and GC series of con-trols for electric- or engine-driven screw or reciprocating compressors. The controls, which are suited for medium to large horsepower applica-tions or panel retrofits, con-tain nonproprietary hardware and software and have user- friendly operating screens.


Vulastik L Couplings

A product brochure about the Vulastik L series of couplings is now available from Vulkan Couplings. The brochure con-tains a summary of the series, characteristics and descrip-tions of the couplings and a list of technical data, as well as the dimensions of each coupling in the series.



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Western Wyoming Community Col-lege (WWCC) in Rock Springs, Wyo-ming, U.S.A., is in an area that contains numerous natural gas wells.

The college offers a Natural Gas Compression Technology (NGCT) pro-gram that prepares students for a ca-reer in the gas compression industry, and educates gas industry employees who want to expand their knowledge. The primary goal of the program is to train workers for the local gas industry.

“To reinforce the skills that students need to be successful in the natural gas compression industry, our program of-fers opportunities for learners to apply the theoretical concepts they learn in the classroom to real-life situations,” said Joe Uriarte, compression technology instruc-tor at WWCC.

“For instance, in the equipment alignment course, students actually align an engine and compressor that

are mounted on a skid. Through the use of six lasers from four different manufacturers and other specialized alignment equipment, students show their proficiency by applying the theo-ry they learned in the classroom to the physical equipment,” he said.

The NGCT program offers two levels of studies, a one-year certificate and a two-year Associate of Applied Science (AAS) degree. Students completing the two-year program can apply their col-lege credits toward a four-year Bach-elor of Science degree at a number of U.S.-based universities. Most university programs are offered online, which al-lows students to complete their degree studies while they work.

“We believe it is important that techni-cians working in the industry understand how to operate, troubleshoot, repair and maintain gas compression equipment, as well as know what the equipment does,”

Uriarte said. “That is why the three core technology courses for compression are mandatory in both the one- and two-year programs,” he said.

These courses, as well as the other courses in the NGCT program, can be taken individually — students do not have to be enrolled in either program to benefit.

The first technology course intro-duces natural gas compressors and the various drivers that are used in the industry, and covers the complete op-eration of a compressor package. This includes scrubbers, PSVs, pulsation bottles, coolers, control panels — ev-erything that is mounted on a package. Students learn the physics and math of the compression process along with the precise measuring and rigging pro-cedures required by the equipment. Safe work practices are extensively covered in all technology courses.

To simulate the operation of a compressor package (see July 2010, COMPRESSORTechTwo), the college has developed a working compres-sion system that uses a closed-loop process. Two working control pan-els have been installed on the sys-tem, an older Murphy panel and an Altronic digital panel with air-fuel ratio (AFR) control. As part of their studies, students learn common op-erating processes such as controlled start-ups and shutdowns, along with the troubleshooting of equipment and process operations. By using both panels, students learn how older-style units differ from newer digital panels.

The second course is dedicated to drivers, with a focus on the operation and maintenance of natural gas inter-nal combustion engines. Topics include detonation, pre-ignition, lean and rich burning, and engine timing. Two- and four-stroke cycle theory and engine con-figurations are addressed, along with emission theory and its control and mea-surement. The course also covers other drivers, such as electric motors.

An added feature in the second technology course is the GE Energy Waukesha Gas Engines factory-certified Gas Engine Technology (GET) course. Through the NGCT curriculum, stu-dents receive the content they need to complete both the NGCT and GET courses. Upon successful completion of the GET exam, students receive cer-tification from GE Energy Waukesha Gas Engines. This, along with comple-tion of the NGCT program, enhances their prospects for employment.

The final technology course involves the operation and maintenance of com-pressors, including the operating theory of reciprocating, centrifugal and screw machines. Topics include horsepower,

Wyoming College Delivers stream of gas Compressor teChniCians

Western Wyoming Community College ProgramStresses Hands-On Instruction

By Neil Purslow

Students spend half of their time working on equipment.


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pressure-volume curves, capacity con-trol, discharge temperature and multi-stage compression. Most of the course is spent on reciprocating compression, since recips are the most commonly used compressors in the area. Packing, rod load/reversal, cylinder lubrication and compressor valves are covered.

Courses two and three are divided between the classroom and lab. “Stu-dents spend a considerable amount of time tearing down and re-assembling equipment in these two courses,” Uriarte said. “To develop a well-round-ed graduate, we cover all the different types of equipment that are used in the industry. However, the ability to offer hands-on training is limited to what we can buy through our fundraising activi-ties and what we receive as donations from industry,” he said.

Uriarte said Ignition Systems and Con-trols of Denver, Colorado, U.S.A., do-nated the Murphy and Altronic control panels and helped install the equipment on the simulation system. Most of the equipment in the lab is older and has ex-perienced some type of failure, which is why it can no longer be used in the field. “This provides a great teaching aid for us. We incorporate these failures into the troubleshooting portion of the program and show students firsthand what can happen under certain operating condi-tions,” Uriarte said.

The program has six engines and eight compressors, along with a Cap-stone C30 turbogenerator, for students to work on. Most of the engines and compressors have been donated by companies. “We have Waukesha, Cat-erpillar and Superior engines, and GE/Gemini, Ajax, Superior, Sullair and

Ingersoll Rand compressors,” Uriarte said. “The mix of reciprocating and screw compressors with accompany-ing drivers mounted on skids provides students with the opportunity to expe-rience the fundamentals of natural gas compression,” he added.


Hands-on training is a mainstay of the Western Wyoming Community College compression technology lab.

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see directlink at www.compressortech2.com

The closed-loop compression sys-tem is the only working equipment in the lab. It contains two receivers, a meter run, manifold and cooler that compress nitrogen from 30 to 300 psi (2.1 to 20.7 bar). The Murphy and Al-tronic control panels are mounted on this system.

Exterran, a local service company, supports students with scholarships and paid internships. It awards them toolboxes upon graduation.

WWCC plans to expand the NGCT program by offering additional certifi-cation courses such as the GE Energy Waukesha Gas Engines VHP Engine Technology and VGF Technology courses. It also is offering suppliers and manufacturers the use of college facilities for training.

Uriarte said the NGCT program offers students better prospects for employment, hands-on training with industry-specific equipment and tools, small class sizes, industry-experienced faculty, competitive tuition for both in- and out-of-state students, and readily available campus housing.

More information on the program is available at www.wwcc.wy.edu/ academics/compressiontech. a


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Kobe Steel Ltd. has acquired a 44.3% equity share in Wuxi Compressor Co. Ltd., based in Wuxi, Jiangsu Province, China, after reaching agreement with parent company Wuxi Victor Group Co. Ltd.

The Japanese steelmaker said its in-vestment will help it meet rising de-mand for process gas, nonstandard compressors in China. The purchase price was not disclosed.

The acquisition was made through Kobelco (China) Holdings Co. Ltd., which is Kobe Steel’s China headquar-ters. This was Kobelco (China) Hold-ings’ first investment after starting op-erations in April.

Wuxi Victor Group now has a 51.5% share in Wuxi Compressor, Kobe Steel has 44.3% and other investors hold 4.2%. Established as a state-run enter-prise in 1955, Wuxi Compressor was privatized in 1992 and had 716 em-ployees at the end of 2010.

Kobe Steel said its investment in Wuxi Compressor will enable the two parent companies to expand their process compressor businesses centered on oil refineries, petrochemical plants and liquefied natural gas applications in the energy and chemical fields.

Kobe Steel will supply Wuxi with its technology for process gas com-pressors (screw, centrifugal and re-ciprocating), in which sales to China have been low. The technology trans-fer will enable Wuxi Compressor to make compressor systems in China from locally procured parts and mar-ket them through Wuxi’s sales net-work. Kobe said it expects its Chinese sales will double by 2015, compared to 2010 levels.

Kobe Steel currently makes nonstan-dard and standard compressors in Ja-pan, the United States and China. a


Kobe Steel buyS into Wuxi CompreSSor Co.

Japanese Firm Expects to Double its Sales in Chinese Compression Market

By Ian Cameron

Wuxi Compressor will make this Kobe GTB-KS19MNB screw compressor in China.


universal locking Device

Netherlocks has released the NL-H Hy-brid Lock, which is designed to provide secure lockout for all types and sizes of manual valves, the company said. The NL-H can secure valves in every position, and its universal compatibility eliminates the need for maintaining an inventory of assorted lockout products for each type of valve on-site, Netherlocks said.

The universal NL-H uses a flexible steel cable to immobilize a valve’s handwheel or lever. The unit secures to the valve with a padlock to ensure the valve can-not be operated. The NL-H is made from corrosion-resistant 316 stainless steel for operation in harsh environments, such as in offshore or chemical applications.

see directlink Atwww.compressortech2.com

HTA Honing System

The new all-electric HTA hone from Sunnen Product Co. brings increased part capacity and stroker torque to applica-tions such as bore resurfacing of hydraulic cylinders, extruder barrels and die-casting shot tubes, or the manufacture of gas flow meter tubes and repair of actuators for construction, mining, farming and forestry equipment. The HTA hone is designed for resurfacing and repair work where light-duty stock removal up to 0.030 in. (0.76 mm) is needed to oversize deeply scratched bores.

It is also designed for optimum per-formance with Sunnen ANR275 tooling and abrasives, sold with matching cool-ants and gauging as part of the machine package. An electronically controlled 3 hp (2.24 kW) AC gear motor powers the spindle at 20 to 300 rpm, while the servo-driven stroking system has a speed range of 5 to 90 ft./min (1.52 to 27.4 m/min). The all-electric machine eliminates the noise, leaks, valve adjustments and per-formance variability inherent to hydraulic systems, Sunnen said.


Featured Products CompreSSorTechTwo

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Think industrial gas engines – think BERU industrial spark plugs. Since 1912 BERU has stood for innovative ignition technologies made in Germany. In the field of industrial applications we have more than 20 years of experience – and we offer a broad range of spark plugs to sophisticated customers all over the world. Whether digester, biogas or natural gas: BERU Systems ensures high performance, high reliability and high cost effectiveness in all gas engines. More information at ++49 7141 132-728 or [email protected].

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MAN Diesel & Turbo inaugurated the second phase of its compressor produc-tion plant at Changzhou, Jiangsu Prov-ince, China, in a ceremony on May 18.

The German company has invested E34 million in the project to provide turbomachinery to the rapidly expand-ing Chinese steel, air separation, natu-ral gas, refinery, chemical and petro-chemical industries.

MAN has a relationship with China that dates to the end of the 19th cen-tury, and, in 2010, the Chinese mar-ket accounted for 12% of its E15 bil-lion turnover. MAN is directly present in China in several locations and has granted 20 licenses to Chinese ship-yards for the construction of its two- and four-stroke diesel engines.

The Chinese shipbuilding industry is the world’s largest, with a 45% share of the vessels contracted globally. Eighty percent of the Chinese vessels with a two-stroke propulsion system feature MAN-designed diesel engines while 30% of the four-stroke propulsion sys-tems are of MAN design.

In the turbomachinery sector, MAN Diesel & Turbo‘s oil and gas and pro-cess industries divisions exported 42% of their production to China in 2010, similar to the share they supplied the European market. Plans are to increase this percentage by localizing the pro-duction of compressors and steam tur-bines in China to cover the demand of the rapidly expanding economy.

MAN’s Changzhou plant, about 110 mi. (180 km) from Shanghai on the road to Nanjing, will be the strategic hub for the MAN power engineering business in China. The MAN turbocharger divi-sion, now in Shanghai, will move its turbocharger production and service to Changzhou, as well as MAN’s Systems Automation and MAN PrimeServ. Also, the sister company Renk (in which MAN SE holds a majority stake) will start to produce bearings at Changzhou.

The Changzhou plant is built on

an 800,000 sq.ft. (75,000 m2) site and has 215,000 sq.ft. (20,000 m2) of halls plus the office block. The shop has six computer numerical control ma-chining centers and three more have been ordered. A compressor testing facility is being built and will be op-erational in early 2012. It will allow compressor testing with an electric motor or a steam turbine drive with powers up to the double-digit mega-watt range.

Isothermal compressors, mainly

Changzhou Compressor plant ready for BusinessMAN Completes Second Expansion of Chinese Plant

By Roberto Chellini

(Left) Seen from above, an Isothermal compressor lower casing with rotor in place. (Above) This is the assembly stand for iso-thermal compressors.


personnel training in Changzhou A recent discussion with Dr. Martin Wilderer, head of the Changzhou,

China, MAN plant, highlighted ways in which the company trains the local turbomachinery production personnel.

The Chinese education system gives young people a good theoretical ba-sis, but no practical experience. Therefore, workers have to be acquainted with the main international standards (ISO, DIN, API, etc.) as the base of quality production.

After detection of the missing competences, the workers have to be trained individually to perform a specific job. This training is performed by specialized European MAN personnel for each individual worker.

The target is to gradually increase workers’ capabilities so that after rep-etition of the same project 10 times, the worker will reach the requested quality and productivity standards. Chinese workers are very talented and ambitious, and they must be given the proper tools for growth within the company. The local manpower market offers many possibilities to talented workers looking for future growth. To qualify these workers and meet com-pany expectations is a real challenge, according to Wilderer. A

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used for oxygen production in steel plants, are in great demand in China. They were the products that prompt-ed MAN’s investment in the Chang-zhou plant. These compressors have a casing that incorporates the inter stage and aftercoolers placed at the discharge of each radial impeller. This casing, made out of welded steel, is bulky and expensive to trans-port, so it was the first component to be made in China. The compressor, rotor and diaphragm bundle is — for the time being — made at the Zurich, Switzerland, plant.

Industrial-type steam turbines will be the next product to be made and as-sembled at Changzhou. Those turbines are used as mechanical compressor drivers and building them in Chang-zhou will allow MAN to supply the Chi-nese steel and air separation industries with complete compressor trains.

Hans-Otto Jeske, the CEO of MAN Diesel & Turbo, said the latest plant expansion builds on the original Changzhou facility. The construction began in January 2007 and concluded in November 2008.

Jenske said, “Now we have to fill in the halls with orders. If the Chi-nese economic growth of the past five years continues at the same level, as expected, the present staff of 240 will grow to 400 in 2012. Our policy is to grow step-by-step, ‘or Ivo-Ivo-Ivo‚’ as the Chinese say. We will see and invest according to the local market demand.

“The Changzhou plant is intended to produce local-to-local goods and thus is very much tied to the Chinese economy. We intend to maintain a strategic position in the Chinese mar-ket, not only in the steel and air sepa-ration industry. The gas-to-liquids and coal-to-liquids businesses and the chemical and petrochemical industries are going to grow and will require a great number of turbomachines. To supply this marketplace is our task,” Jeske said. a


(Left) On the Changzhou floor, half of an isothermal compressor casing is in the foreground with its rotor in the back. (Right) A MAN axial/radial compressor rotor is in the front and an isothermal compressor rotor in the background.

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http://www.bgservice.com


The possible number of reasons not to participate in con-tinuing career training is large enough that only in the form of scientific notation would it have any meaning at all.

For employers, training costs money, is inconvenient, af-fects work schedules and availability of staff, puts pressure on wage scales, introduces unfamiliar ideas and protocols, allows employees to network with competitors and gain a broader understanding of the current job market. Why bother?

For employees, participating in training can imply a lack of confidence or even competence, can challenge one’s routine methods, can uncover personal weaknesses and can seem like punishment. Training takes one from one’s job, reminds one of past school days, can be boring (even frightening), is inconvenient, is a waste of time, is not applicable to the real world and is damn hard work. Best avoid all that, eh?

But those who deal daily with gases of any kind should understand that it’s not just the product they handle that is a fluid humming with Brownian motion and forever adapt-ing to its surroundings. That description also applies to the constantly shifting flow of technology and the resulting need for those who work with it to update and refresh their own skills on a continuous basis.

It used to be that a journeyman was someone who had completed the trek and mastered a clearly defined realm of knowledge and skill. In that sense, journeyman status re-ferred to an objective reached in the past. Today’s journey-man seeks no endpoint. The objective today must be to con-tinue the quest wherever it may lead, not end it.

Advancing technology never stops to rest and the employ-ee determined to keep pace with change on its own terms is the closest thing to an indispensible asset that any employer can desire.

Training is worthwhile because it results in smarter, more efficient talent on the ground. It results in lower downtime and higher productivity. It helps keep companies and the people who work for them more engaged and more com-petitive. It increases margins.

There are plenty of reasons to avoid investing time, sweat and money on training, but the sum of those arguments can-not outweigh the virtues of a smart manager employed by a smart company that considers ongoing training fundamental to its success.

Managers who refuse to support meaningful training may be managers who will abruptly find themselves transitioning to the exciting world of freelance consulting. Likewise, in today’s environment, an employee who stubbornly evades ongoing learning begins to atrophy, can quickly become technically senile and of little value.

The Science of Compliance™

ACI Services Inc. ACI Services Inc., Cambridge, Ohio, U.S.A., provides

training for its eRCM reciprocating compressor perform–ance software. ACI’s technical training facility accommo-dates up to 20 attendees and also offers on-site software training services worldwide. Technical sessions cover both the fundamentals of compressor performance and how to model a variety of new and legacy reciprocat-ing compressors. Topics include unit geometry, unit stag-ing, gas analyses, load step sequencing, incorporation of measured data into unit tuning, PLC algorithm formation, unit performance reviews across entire operating maps, effective report generation and more. Courses are target-ed to operators, automation, engineers, gas control and procurement workers. For more information, go to www.aciservicesinc.com.

Alltite The Alltite Training Institute has four bolting-specific

training courses available to industry professionals. The four courses are as follows: Course 1 is a two-hour class that con-sists of safe use and operation of bolting equipment. Course 2 is a four-hour class that includes the first course, plus two hours of bolting theory education. Course 3 is an eight-hour course that serves as an expanded version of course 2, and includes testing and certification. Course 4 is a two-day train-ing session on the pending Appendix A to ASME PCC-1. Graduates of this course become Alltite-certified bolting as-semblers. The classes are available on-site and in Alltite’s training facility in Wichita, Kansas, U.S.A. All graduates re-ceive a certificate and a hard-hat sticker. Call Scott Hamilton at 1-800-498-6721 for more information.


AltronicAltronic will be offering offers its central distributors and

dealers a number of Service Schools 2011. A prerequisite for participation includes completion of Altronic’s Introductory Service School or suitable industry or product experience

Advanced Ignition and Instrumentation School, Sept 12-15, Altronic, Girard, Ohio, U.S.A. Focusing on digital igni-tion systems, safety-shutdown and monitoring instrumenta-tion, this course is ideal for midlevel and senior sales and service personnel.

Advanced Engine and Compressor Control System School, Oct. 17-20, Altronic, Girard, Ohio. This course fo-cuses on air-fuel ratio controls, fuel control, compressor con-trols and engine starting systems. It is deal for midlevel and senior sales and service personnel.

Compressor Control Panel Operation and Trouble-shooting School for Technical Personnel, Oct. 11-14,


“Learning is like rowing upstream: not to advance is to drop back.” — Chinese Saying.

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equipment as well as the company’s process systems and centrifugal compression equipment.

Cameron group offers free workshops that include class-room lecture, group discussion and hands-on training de-signed to improve staff performance, minimize downtime, reduce overall operating costs and promote a safer opera-tion, the company said. Participants learn the inner workings of Cameron reciprocating compression equipment, including Superior engines and compressors, Ajax and Cooper-Besse-mer integral gas engine compressors, and TSI turbocharg-ers. The free workshops are offered throughout the year in two- to five-day sessions at Cameron’s U.S. facilities in Hous-ton, Texas; Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, U.S.A.; and Salina, Kansas, U.S.A. Custom on-site training with curriculum struc-tured to meet specific needs is also available. For the current schedule and registration information, visit www.c-a-m.com/cs or call the Learning Center at 1-713-354-1296.

Compass Compression Services Ltd.Compass Compression Services Ltd., a manufacturer of en-

gineered natural gas compression packages, provides techni-cal screw and reciprocating compression sessions. Sessions last three to four hours each, are recognized by APEGGA and qualify for Professional Engineer Development Hours.

The technical sessions cover topics including; history, appli-cations, mechanical overview, main components, operation, P&ID design and review, oil requirements, compression pack-age subsystems, subsystem failures (cause and effect) and troubleshooting. The reciprocating compression session also covers rod load, rod reversals and volumetric efficiencies. For more information, contact [email protected] or visit www.compasscompression.com.

Compressor Products International (CPI) Compressor Products International (CPI) offers a range of

training programs from its manufacturing, service center and technical support locations or at the customer’s plant. The CPI training programs encompass product design, applica-tion, reconditioning, compressor monitoring and component development. Training programs can also be customized for specific customer requirements and are available in a num-ber of languages. For more information, contact CPI by e-mailing [email protected] or visiting www.c-p-i.com.

CPI Lubrication Group (formerly CC Technology, Premier and Progressive Equipment)

The CPI Lubrication Group provides hands-on training classes, technical support and design on its divider block and pump to point lubrication systems. Classes cover instal-lation, maintenance and troubleshooting.

Altronic Controls, Garland, Texas, U.S.A. Presented by both Altronic Controls and Altronic personnel, this school focuses on gas compressor operation and troubleshooting appropri-ate controls and end devices. It is ideal for beginner to mid-level field or support personnel.

International Training Session (New For 2011), July 25-29, Souer Company Training Center, Phitsanulok, Thai-land. This course offers an in-depth training session for the entire Altronic and GTI Bi-Fuel product range.

ARLAARLA Maschinentechnik, Wipperfuerth, Germany, will be

hosting its sixth international seminar at the Leonardo-Hotel in Cologne, Germany, Oct. 17–20, 2011. Covering rotordy-namics and bearings technologies, subtopics for the seminar include lateral vibrations (stability analysis, shaft dynamics and response, modeling of bearings, considering unbalanc-es), torsional vibrations (simulation of complete drivelines in rotating machinery), fluid-film bearings (journal, thrust, conical bearings; fixed and tilting pad geometries), and a workshop on software applications and discussing practical case studies. To register online, visit www.arla.de.

THE 5 TH EDITION

The 5 th edition of API 618 has new, more stringent requirementsfor pulsation and mechanical vibration analysis including

dynamic pressure drop, shaking forces, forced response studies,and complete range of operating conditions.

Beta’s data mining softwareenables easy interpretationacross a wide range ofoperating conditions

Csuperior accuracy ofmechanical vibrationanalysis

Field proven scrubbermodeling using proprietarytechniques

N on-linear Time Domainpulsation analysissoftware is necessaryto meet 5th editionrequirements (includingdynamic pressure drop)

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Beta Machinery Analysis Providing pulsation (acoustical) analysis, mechanical vibra-

tion solutions, structural dynamics, foundation design and monitoring solutions since 1967, Beta conducts technical seminars in Houston, Texas, U.S.A.; Calgary, Alberta, Canada; Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia; and China and collaborates with credible organizations such as the GMRC and Unistrategic to reach a wider audience. An example of that collaborative ef-fort would be a Compressor Station Vibration course, August 2011, offered by industry experts at GMRC, Beta Machinery, Ariel, El Paso and ACI Services (Visit http://www.gmrc.org/compressor-station-vibration). Beta also offers customized seminars at customers’ offices. Training includes free technical support tools for compressor packagers, engineering consul-tants, and maintenance, operations and rotating equipment specialists. Seminars are interesting and informative, using a combination of video animations, case studies and theory. Webinars are also available. Topics include pulsation and vi-bration in reciprocating compressors, with impacts of API 618 5th Edition; skid, structural and foundation design for recip-rocating compressors; torsional vibration analysis; and moni-toring and optimizing compressors, engines, turbines, motors and other production assets. Find out more online at www.betamachinery.com, or call 1-800-561-2382.

Cameron Cameron offers free workshops throughout the year in

two- to five-day sessions that include classroom lectures, group discussions and hands-on training. Participants learn the inner workings of Cameron reciprocating compression continued on page 38

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The CPI Lubrication team of instructors has over 70 years of combined knowledge and hands-on field experience for design, operation and maintenance of lubrication sys-tems. Their team is available around the world for on-site, hands-on training classes. Divider Block Lubrication Sys-tem and Pump to Point training classes cover installation, maintenance and troubleshooting of the systems from the oil supply to the injection check valves on the compressor. The format of the lube class is hands-on, offering real-time experience and the opportunity for students to handle and inspect actual parts, current and obsolete, from numerous manufacturers. For more information, contact CPI Lubrica-tion Group by phone at 1-800-664-4033 or by e-mailing [email protected].

Cummins Inc.Cummins offers a wide variety of technical training cours-

es for customers. Cummins provides training for natural gas engines for the gas compression market as well as many oth-er markets the company serves. Cummins-certified training is offered at central training facilities in the United States and Singapore, as well as at select distributor locations. For more information regarding course content and training schedules, contact a local Cummins distributor, which can be found at www.cumminsoilandgas.com.

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Detechtion TechnologyDetechtion’s compressor schools provide a broad base

of understanding of reciprocating and rotary screw com-pressors. The schools are appropriate for both those new to compression, as well as those who have many years’ experience looking to build a deeper understanding of compressor fundamentals. Detechtion has trained over 4000 operators, mechanics, field supervisors and engineers since 1998. We offer a full-day (eight-hour) reciprocating compressor school, and a half-day (five-hour) rotary screw compressor school. Our instructors are experts in compres-sor operations and optimization and high-quality training professionals. “In 20-plus years of working in the natural gas industry, I have never attended a compressor training course that even comes close to yours,” said one area su-pervisor. Register at www.detechtion.com. Call 1-800-780-9798 or e-mail [email protected]. For a 10% dis-count mention Promo Code: CT2111.

Dresser-RandDresser-Rand offers effective instructor-led training pro-

grams for reciprocating compressors, steam turbines, tur-bomachinery and control systems that are designed for a wide range of client operation, maintenance and engineer-ing personnel. Program offerings include machinery-specific training, hands-on training, open registration and client- hosted regional classes.

Web-based training courses covering steam turbines and reciprocating and centrifugal compressors are also

available. Designed for the intermediate- to advanced-lev-el student, these courses incorporate learning interactivi-ties that will enhance knowledge retention. We have an established business relationship with DuPont Sustainable Solutions (formerly Coastal Training Technologies Corp.) to deliver these courses via the web. The Training Solu-tions practice of DuPont Sustainable Solutions is recog-nized as a global leader in blended learning solutions. It delivers the Dresser-Rand interactive online courses via the DuPont eLearning Suite.

Elliott GroupElliott training programs range from basic operation

to engineer-level topics for rotating equipment including steam turbines, centrifugal and axial compressors, expand-ers, lube systems and controls. Elliott instructors with en-gineering and service experience regularly train operators, mechanics, engineers and instrumentation personnel in the proper operation and maintenance of Elliott equipment. El-liott training provides the knowledge and confidence that result in a safer work environment, reduced operating and maintenance costs, and extended equipment life. Elliott of-fers seminars throughout the year at its training facilities in the United States and Switzerland and at customer sites worldwide. For information about Elliott Technical Train-ing, call 1-724-600-8521 or visit http://www.elliott-turbo.com/new/service_train.html.

Whether it takes place in a classroom, shop or in the field, today’s em-ployees can only thrive by continually seeking to learn new technology and new skills.

European Forum for Reciprocating CompressorsEvery two years, the European Forum for Reciprocating

Compressors (EFRC) offers a Students’ Workshop. In the past, the group has invited students to join workshops in Germany, Poland, Italy, Austria, Switzerland, Netherlands and U.K.

The Students’ Workshop Spring 2012 will take place in Normandy, France.

Up to 30 students from different universities, faculties and countries are invited to attend the workshop. Participation costs the student nothing at all, as the invitation includes provisions for complimentary accommodation and travelling expenses.

During the workshop, students will see presentations about such topics as pulsation and other subjects in order to introduce the students to several topics regarding reciprocat-ing compressor technology.


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The workshop also includes tours of interesting com-pressor manufacturing production facilities, universities, institutes and sites such as underground storage facilities and petrochemical plants where piston compressors are in use.

In addition, students will be presented with a homework task that, when completed, qualifies each for attractive prizes awarded to three outstanding students.

First prize in 2012 is a free, one-week trip to Mount Vernon, Ohio, U.S.A. to attend the Ariel Compressor School and free admittance to the 8th EFRC conference in Düsseldorf, Germany.

Second prize is US$500 in cash and free attendance at the EFRC conference. Third prize is free attendance at that conference.

For further information, contact the chairman of EFRC’s Education Committee Dr. Siegmund Cierniak at [email protected].

FW Murphy FW Murphy offers training programs to operate and main-

tain Murphy products. The Murphy courses include training on instrumentation and end devices, the Centurion and Mil-lennium controllers, air-fuel ratio control and ignition sys-tems and controls. Murphy also provides training on custom control systems. Training covers uses in hazardous areas, industry standards, plus installation and maintenance of con-trol panels. The training is targeted to fit a group’s expertise, and customers can choose product topics to fit their needs.

Sessions can be held at Murphy’s headquarters in Tulsa, Oklahoma, U.S.A.; the Control Services & Solutions location in Rosenberg, Texas, U.S.A.; or a local office upon request. Most sessions are free when scheduled in advance. For more information, visit www.fwmurphy.com.

GE Energy’s Waukesha gas engines GE Energy’s Waukesha gas engines Product Training

Services has expanded its field school offerings in re-sponse to customer needs for more on-site technical op-eration and maintenance training opportunities. This year the training team has already presented field schools in Dubai and Tunisia for the first time, and requests for train-ing are pending from Angola, Vietnam and Iraq.

Waukesha also operates three strategically located factory-authorized training centers — Waukesha, Wisconsin, U.S.A.; Porto Alegre, Brazil; and Phitsanulok, Thailand — that pro-vide comprehensive hands-on training for service technicians. Classes cover Waukesha’s key engine families and control technology. The curriculum is updated regularly and new technical training courses and online training offerings are be-ing developed.

To learn more about Waukesha factory-certified train-ing programs, contact Stacey Young, product training and technical publications, at 1-262-549-2819 or [email protected].





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GE Oil & Gas - Technical TrainingGE Oil & Gas provides a comprehensive portfolio of tech-

nical training courses either standard or fully customized for a wide range of products and technologies.

These courses can be conducted at the customer’s site, in our Florence Learning Center, Florence, Italy, or in one of our Training Facilities located throughout the world work-ing closer to our customers.

We continue to expand our local footprint through sev-eral other training facilities, including new training centers in Algeria and Qatar already in operation, as well as one in Australia currently under construction.

As part of our offering there is also an innovative hands-on training for aeroderivative technologies, which offers the unique opportunity to gain in-depth knowledge of this specialized GE equipment, including start-up of an LM2500 gas generator installed in a dedicated test cell.

For more information, visit www.ge.com/oilandgas or e-mail [email protected].

GE imagination at work

GE Oil & Gas UniversityHeadquartered in Florence, Italy, the GE Oil & Gas Uni-

versity offers a six-month-long course to junior oil and gas engineers. Programs cover four disciplines: leadership, en-ergy, rotating machinery and oil and gas processes. Since its founding in 2005, 158 students have been trained from 28 different countries and 65 companies.

A secondary program provides concentrated courses at customer sites — most recently with 57 students in Abu Dha-bi, UAE, and 37 in Doha, Qatar. The tailored, seven-week program included core modules for leadership skills, rotating machinery and oil and gas processes. Additional new, local-ized courses in Qatar and Abu Dhabi are planned for 2011.

Apart from expanding knowledge, experience and invest-ing in their careers, students in these programs improve their communication skills by interacting with people of different cultures and management styles.

GMRCGas Machinery Research Council (GMRC) workshops and

conferences provide professionals of all levels the opportu-nity to gain knowledge that can be used immediately, ac-quire skills to help you work safer and smarter, and keep up with the latest industry regulations. They include:

Introduction to Gas Turbines and Centrifugal Gas Com-pressors, Aug. 23–24, 2011, at the Hyatt Tech Center, Denver, Colorado, U.S.A. A two-day seminar for gas turbine and gas compressor users who are interested in acquiring an under-standing of basic gas turbine and gas compressor working prin-ciples. http://www.gmrc.org/intro-gas-turbines-compressors


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Factors in Compressor Station Design, Aug. 22–24, 2011, at the Hyatt Tech Center in Denver. Provides engi-neers and design professionals practical information on how to design and integrate the various parts of a compressor station into an effective and efficient system, and provides information on how to design a new compressor station or evaluate the design of an existing compressor station. http://www.gmrc.org/factors-compressor-station-design

Compressor Station Vibration and The Impact on Per-formance, Cost & Reliability, Aug. 30–31; Sept. 1, 2011, at Pan-handle Energy in Houston, Texas, U.S.A. Provides attendees with the knowledge and tools to better identify, specify, address and resolve vibration issues affecting reciprocating compres-sors. http://www.gmrc.org/compressor-station-vibration

GMRC Gas Machinery Conference, Oct. 2–5, 2011, in Nashville, Tennessee, U.S.A. Includes short courses, techni-cal papers and technology updates, presented by the indus-try’s leading subject matter experts, plus a vendor exhibit with over 100 companies showcasing the latest equipment, technology and services. Educational sessions and network-ing opportunities are valuable for design engineers, facility engineers, technicians and others, with an emphasis on the operation, maintenance, and testing of gas compression ma-chinery. http://www.gmrc.org/gmc-conference-2011

Contact Patrick Downey or LaRhonda Mays ([email protected] or 1-972-620-4014) or visit www.gmrc.org or http://www.gmrc.org/gmrc-training.

Governor Control SystemsWoodward and Schaller authorized training facility, Gover-

nor Control Systems Inc. (GCS), offers practical and theoretical classes. Our training program is designed to provide an under-standing of product operation, maintenance, troubleshooting and repair of Woodward and Schaller products and includes demos in a closed-loop environment. Subjects range from ba-sic governing and mechanical governors to advanced digital controls. Continuing Education Units and Professional Develop-ment Hours are offered. Special Spanish classes scheduled July 26-28, 2011, for Woodward 723 control and Sept. 6-8, 2011, for Woodward 505 control. Scheduled and custom classes offered in GCS’ Florida training facility with state-of-the-art Wi-Fi and multiple computer hookups. Custom classes are also available at customers’ site, tailored to specific requirements. Most classes are available in English and Spanish. For a complete training schedule, visit www.govconsys.com/training.htm.

Hoerbiger Hoerbiger offers training on its HydroCOM and RecipCOM

products at its plant in Vienna, Austria, or at a customer’s location. The HydroCOM is a stepless capacity control sys-tem for reciprocating compressors, while the RecipCOM is a machinery protection and online monitoring system for reciprocating compressors. The courses cover the design as-pects of the products, as well as the system installation and service-related issues. Hoerbiger’s customers typically come from the refining, chemical and natural gas processing indus-try. For more information, visit www.hoerbiger.com.

Ipsen Inc. Thermal processing equipment company Ipsen Inc. offers

regularly scheduled courses as well as on-site classes de-signed to build and refresh knowledge of thermal proc essing equipment. Ipsen U offers practical, personalized, hands-on training courses designed for all levels of expertise in a casu-al, open-forum atmosphere that encourages attendees to ask questions on specific equipment and proc esses. Registration is now open for August and October 2011 Ipsen U classes.

With more than 60 years of thermal processing expertise, Ipsen manufactures reliable, energy and cost-efficient prod-ucts supported by manufacturing and service locations world-wide, 24-hour service, aftermarket support, retrofits, upgrades, and thermal processing and furnace maintenance training. Visit http://www.ipsenusa.com for more information.

Ludeca Ludeca offers hands-on courses, taught by experts, in a

small class size to promote one-on-one interaction and per-sonalized attention. From basics to the most advanced appli-cations, everything is covered in-depth. Training courses are offered in English and Spanish, and are scheduled through-out the year at the training center or can be scheduled on-site at customers’ facilities. Ludeca’s training center features large classrooms equipped with the very latest in interactive audio-visual training systems and training simulators for ma-chinery alignment, condition monitoring and balancing, all with dedicated laser alignment, vibration analysis and bal-ancing systems. They also offer courses for other measure-ment applications such as bore alignment, flatness, straight-ness and leveling. For more information, visit www.ludeca.com/training or contact Mary Ann Kluthe, training coordina-tor, at [email protected] or 1-305-591-8935.

Machine Dynamics Machine Dynamics Inc. is a professional engineering firm

offering services and training in machinery vibration analysis based on McGraw-Hill textbooks by MDI’s Founder, President and Principal Instructor Victor Wowk, P.E. Machine Dynamics Inc. will conduct three public seminars, which include Basic Vi-bration Analysis, from Sept. 19-21, 2011; Balancing, Oct. 24-25, 2011; and Alignment, Nov. 7-8, 2011. All seminars will be held at the Marriott Pyramid North conference center in Albuquer-que, New Mexico, U.S.A. The company is offering early registra-tion discounts this year only. Details of this training can be ac-cessed at www.machinedyn.com, or by calling 1-505-884-9005.

NEACFor several years, NEAC Compressor Service has applied la-

ser technology in parallel with traditional methods to measure, assess and align reciprocating compressors. After sufficient ex-perience and an accumulation of proof and checks, NEAC


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decided two and one-half years ago to incorporate laser tech-nology into its core competence. It can be successfully utilized as part of a major equipment revision, for troubleshooting or for frame removal in the run of a foundation revamp.

NEAC’s laser equipment was exhibited at the international NEA Compressor Day in May 2011 in Uebach-Palenberg, Germany, at an open crankcase in the recently extended NEAC Training Center. End users and other customers ex-pressed vital interest in the technology.

Depending on the situation, NEAC offers 2-D or 3-D laser equipment.

In a 2-D system, the transmitter and detector define a la-ser beam reference line that is utilized to perform accurate checks of relative positions along that optical axis. The rec-tangularity of parts can be verified, as can surface planarity.

In contrast to the 2-D laser, which is a relative measure-ment tool, 3-D laser technology consists of a tracker system that can scan objects and create true digital models. The equipment is highly technical and is manufactured with tight tolerances in the range of a few microns.

Laser applications require education and practical exercise prior to the work in the field. NEAC can provide professional training for personnel interested in obtaining those skills. For upcoming courses and registration forms, visit the “Training” page at www.neac.de.

Oklahoma State University Institute of TechnologyOklahoma State University Institute of Technology boasts

one of the industry’s leading natural gas compression pro-grams featuring:

• faculty with solid industry experience; • support from the leading natural gas compression pro-

ducers and suppliers; and • paid internships that strengthen learning and pave the

way for employment. From engines and compressors to electronic controls,

the curriculum is focused around hands-on instruction. The classroom and lab learning is then reinforced during internships offered primarily by Gas Processor Association (GPA) member companies who may also provide scholar-ships or other means of educational assistance. The Gas Compressor Association (GCA) also provides scholarships and program support.

Students are welcome from across the country because the university offers residence hall living. Qualified students may also receive out-of-state tuition waivers to help make learning affordable.

There is nearly a 100% job placement rate among students who have earned an AAS Degree in Natural Gas Compres-sion from OSU Institute of Technology.

Graduates are prepared to understand new systems and components as they are introduced. They are also able to effectively communicate technically both verbally and in writing and understand accepted business prac-tices so they can advance in position as opportunities develop.

OSUIT also provides incumbent worker training for companies who need to upgrade the skills of their work-force. Courses are available either on campus or at the company’s location.

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For more information, contact Roy Achemire at 1-918-293-4724 or visit the website at www.osuit.edu.

Robt. L. Rowan & Assoc. Inc. Robt. L. Rowan & Assoc. Inc. offers free training for pipeline

and refinery owners, operators, inspectors and contractors on the installation, grouting and anchoring of skid-mounted equip-ment, such as high-speed separable compressors, rotating or re-ciprocating equipment, pumps, turbines and generator sets. All aspects are covered, such as design review, pre-job planning, la-bor and equipment planning, concrete curing, foundation prep-aration, hot or cold weather issues, material storage and condi-tioning, expansion joint placement, forming, mixing and placing epoxy or cement grouts, curing and finishing. The company also provides a free, two-hour training course for engineers and operators based on the American Concrete Institute Commit-tee 351. The course covers foundation design for dynamically loaded foundations, bolting and grouting for all types of equip-ment, such as compressors, pumps, turbines, skid equipment and wind-loaded tower foundations. For more information on these offerings, call Charlie Rowan at 1-713-681-5811 or e-mail [email protected] or visit www.rlrowan.com.

SoftInWay Inc.SoftInWay Inc. is an innovative engineering company provid-

ing software products, CFD and FEA services and training in the areas of research, design and retrofitting of turbomachinery.

SoftInWay offers a wide range of turbomachinery flow path design, analysis and optimization courses as well as courses on their flagship product, AxStream, a suite of tur-bomachinery design software for design, analysis, multidisci-plinary optimization and retrofitting of axial, radial, counter-rotating and mixed-flow configurations of the flow path of turbines and compressors.

The power of the AxStream solvers is to maximize engi-neering productivity, reducing the turbomachinery design cycle from months to weeks and from weeks to days. As a result, engineers successfully overcome the challenges of per-formance, innovation, time-to-market and development costs.

The courses last from three to eight days and can be taken online, in a classroom and for larger groups on the client site. They are taught by senior engineers with extensive experi-ence in designing and operating turbomachinery worldwide.

While there are general course outlines that cover axial, radial, mixed flow and counter rotating turbines and com-pressors, each course is tailored to the desires and objectives of the specific attendees, and special topical breakout ses-sions are often scheduled.

To learn more about our courses, please go to www. softinway.com/EDU, e-mail us at [email protected] or call us at 1-781-685-4942.

Solar Turbines Inc.Solar Turbines Inc. offers a complete suite of training

options to meet its customers’ operational and mainte-nance needs. The company’s worldwide technical training programs will enable students to improve equipment per-formance and reliability, drive down maintenance costs and maximize production. Solar’s experienced training staff is dedicated to providing the highest quality stan-dards, utilizing state-of-the-art, hands-on training equip-ment combined with proven learning techniques. Courses are available at the San Diego, California, U.S.A., technical training center, regional locations or at a customer site. Complete information about course overviews, schedules and registration can be found at the customer services technical training section of www.solarturbines.com, or from the technical training registrar at training_tech@ solarturbines.com, 1-858-715-2070.

SSE-Sirio Sistemi ElettroniciSSE specializes in the design, software development,

production and commissioning of controls and supervi-sory systems for rotating machinery used by the oil and gas industry.

Training is an essential element of control solutions and service packages. SSE instructors are engineers who, on top of their academic credentials, also have experience and com-munication skills on specific topics.

SSE courses on rotating machinery controls are addressed to operation and maintenance specialists, engineers, senior technical managers, etc.

Standard or tailor-made courses are offered at SSE prem-ises or at customer’s site with the aid of educational tools and simulators. Remote learning with video-conferencing or other communication systems is also provided.

All courses are backed up with accompanying technical training literature.

T.F. Hudgins Machinery Diagnostics and Training (MDT)T.F. Hudgins MDT offers training in diagnostics and op-

timization of engines, compressors and rotating equipment. The curriculum provides continuing education for plant maintenance and process personnel in all disciplines, includ-ing managers, engineers and technicians.

Classes are presented at the T.F. Hudgins MDT training center in Houston, Texas, U.S.A., regional locations or cus-tomer sites. Courses are conducted in English or Spanish, with detailed documentation provided.

MDT training addresses three primary areas: Analysis Interpretation: Helps non-analyst personnel

understand and utilize analysis reports, while improving knowledge of machinery design and operation.

Compressor Fundamentals and Principles: Builds knowledge of compressor design and applications, in-cluding lubrication, valve design, capacity control and material options.

Analytical Training: Provides hardware and software training for personnel needing in-depth knowledge of en-gine and compressor analysis.

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Editor’s Note: The following article is based on a technical paper presented at the 2010 Gas Machinery Conference, Phoe-nix, Arizona, U.S.A., Oct. 4-6, 2010. The author wishes to ac-knowledge, with many thanks and much gratitude, the many individuals who have contributed to this presentation: Kyle S. Smith, product development engineer, Dresser-Rand, for provid-ing technical information with D-R sizing program; Ed Frazzi-ni, technical service manager, Dresser-Rand, for providing technical operational input on D-R product lines; Dave Pears-all, product manager, Dresser-Rand, for providing technical de-tails about D-R sizing program and D-R packaging standards; Dwayne A. Hickman, director – software development, ACI Ser-vices, for providing technical information on various compressor manufacturers; Kyle Sembera, manager – compressor and valve NPD, Cameron Compression Systems, for providing technical information with C-A-M Compass Sizing program; Bruce Chris-man, manager – Ajax, for providing technical information on Ajax product line; David Smoot, sales manager, Cameron Com-pression Systems, for technical information on Cooper product lines; Kriss McDonald, vice president of technical services, Ariel Corp., for providing Ariel PowerPoint presentation slides, insight to Ariel sizing program and encouraging me to do this paper; Travis Sixel, operations manager, GE Oil & Gas, for providing information on GE high-speed reciprocating compressors; and Mike Honea, assisting with the preparation of the material. For additional information or answers to questions, contact the au-thor at his e-mail address: [email protected].

IntroductionEvery compressor has speed and load-carrying limitations.

Primarily, the load-carrying capacity of a compressor frame involves power and rod loading. Rod load specifications tell the compressor package operator the limits of static, inertial and dynamic loads that can be borne by the crankshaft, con-necting rod, frame, piston rod, bolting and bearing surfaces. This knowledge and how it is applied can make the differ-ence between downtime and runtime.

Mechanics of Principal Moving PartsThe forces acting on the principal moving parts of a recip-


Understanding rod reversal in reciprocating compressors

By Hasu Gajjar

Hasu Gajjar is a graduate mechanical engineer with a BE – Mechanical Engineering from University of Bombay, an MS – Mechanical Engineering from Stanford University and an MBA from Clarion State University. He is also a member of ASME and SPE. He began his career in 1967 with Rotoflow Corp. as an analytical engineer, followed by work at Chicago Pneumat-ic, where he was a natural gas compressor design engineer for 11 years. Then, for the next 22 years, he served as manager, director and finally vice president of Technical Services for ma-jor gas compression companies. In 2001, Gajjar founded Hasu Gajjar & Associates Inc., an engineering consulting company providing international and domestic natural gas compression technical services for end users, gas compressor manufacturers and packagers.

rocating compressor are: gas pressure forces, inertia forces of the reciprocating parts, dynamic forces of the reciprocating parts and centrifugal forces of the rotating parts.

All forces, except centrifugal forces, will be addressed in this article. The gas pressure forces are the principal forces, but the inertia, dynamic and centrifugal forces become consid-erable at higher speeds. The gas pressure and inertia forces of the reciprocating parts result in a net force on the piston. The net result is a force along the connecting rod, which resolves itself from the turning effort, or torque, on the crankshaft.

Gas Pressure Forces

The gas being compressed exerts its pressure against the piston and acts along the axis of the cylinder. The total load exerted is found by a simple multiplication of the pressure times the piston area. If the piston is double-acting, an alge-braic sum of the loads on head end and crank end of the pis-ton must be taken. Static rod load is the force exerted on the piston, piston rod and bearings during the compression cycle, and is determined by multiplying the differences between the inlet and discharge pressures by the piston’s face area.

The combined effect of static and inertia loads is referred to as dynamic rod load. In general, static load calculation is sufficient when sizing a compressor unless quite large pis-tons at maximum speed and/or low compression ratios are involved. Inertia load also becomes important at very high speeds with little or no pressure differential.

Double-Acting CylinderIn the case of double-acting pistons, two static load factors

exist: compression load and tension load. Compression load is the calculated load on the piston rod as the piston moves toward the head end of the cylinder. Compression loading tends to make the piston rod bend, as illustrated in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Compression rod load.

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Answers for energy.

Innovative compressor trains from Siemens boost production and preserve the environment.

After 50 years of operation, the Groningen gas field in the Netherlands is now, and also for the next decades, fit to secure the supply of its clients. The facilities are fully modernized. One key success factor was the long-term relationship of the operating company NAM and its contractors. Siemens has advanced the compression and variable speed drive technologies to ensure the adaptation of the gas supply to fluctuating demand, to slash maintenance requirements, and to maximize environmental performance. Highest availability and low power consumption of all units are the best basis for an eco-friendly and successful operation. Learn more: www.siemens.com/energy

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Tension load is the calculated load on the piston as the piston moves toward the crank end of the cylinder. Tension load tends to stretch the piston rod as shown in Figure 2. Tension load is normally less than the compression load be-cause the area of the piston is reduced by the area occupied by the piston rod.

Figure 2. Tension rod load.

Look in more detail at the gas load when a compressor is double-acting. When the piston is at top dead cen-ter, gas has been released from the head end discharge valve and the suction valves are closed. The head end of the piston sees the discharge pressure. The crank end of the piston sees the suction pressure as the suction valves have just closed in the crank end. The effective gas load at this point is in compression. When the same piston is at bottom dead center, the head end side of the piston sees the suction pressure while the crank end sees the discharge pressure. At this point, the effective gas load changes from compression to tension throughout the cy-cle (Figures 3 and 4).

Figures 3 and 4. Double-acting loading — static rod load.

Single-Acting Head End LoadingThis loading option is an easy option for capacity con-

trol. In this option, suction valves are removed from the crank end and the head end of the compressor is doing the work. When the piston is at top dead center, the pressure on the head end side of the piston is at the discharge pres-sure, while the crank end sees the suction pressure. The effective gas load is in compression. But when the piston is at bottom dead center, both sides of the piston see the suction pressure. Since the head end area of the piston is larger than the crank end area, the effective gas force is in compression. During single-acting head end operation, the static gas load will be in compression throughout the cycle (Figures 5 and 6).

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Figures 5 and 6. Single-acting head end loading — static rod load.

Single-Acting Crank End LoadingThis loading option is also a capacity control option. In this

option, suction valves are removed from the head end and the crank end of the compressor does the work. When the piston is at top dead center, both sides of the piston see the suction pressure. Because the head end area of the piston is larger than the crank end area, the effective gas force will be in compres-sion. When the piston is at bottom dead center, the head end side of the piston sees the suction pressure, while the crank end sees the discharge pressure. At this point the effective gas load is in tension. During single-acting crank end operation, the static gas load will be in compression and tension, but tension will be higher than compression (Figures 7 and 8). With this loading op-tion, it is difficult to add clearance. These three loading options are important, and we will refer to them in our reversal section.

Figures 7 and 8. Single-acting crank end loading — static rod load.

Inertia Forces of Reciprocating PartsIn double-acting compressors, the reciprocating parts

would be the piston, piston rod, crosshead assembly, cross-head pin and a portion of the connecting rod. The portion of the connecting rod, which is assumed to reciprocate, is determined by weighing the crosshead end of the connect-ing rod when the rod is supported in a horizontal position on knife edges located in the center line of the bearings. Normally, one-third of the connecting rod is reciprocating weight. Since force is equal to mass times acceleration, the reciprocating inertia force of any given crank, angle or piston position is calculated using Eq. (A-1).

Inertia Rod Load

The inertia rod load is proportional to the square of com-pression speed. This type of rod load decreases faster than the speed decreases.

Dynamic Force DiagramWhen analyzing forces in a compressor, constructing

a dynamic force or piston load diagram is usually conve-nient. This is a force versus crank angle diagram and has


CT740.indd 2 6/27/11 9:11 AM

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a length equal to one compression cycle. Forces acting toward the crankshaft are usually plotted as positive and vice versa.

Gas pressure forces are plotted from an indicator diagram. Indicator diagrams are plotted on a pressure volume scale, and it will be necessary to convert the volume scale to crank angles. Net piston load can be determined and plotted.

When working with double-acting pistons, plot a gas load curve for the crank end and also one for the head end. The same result can be obtained by combining the crank end and head end indicator diagrams first (see Figure 9).

Figure 9. P-V diagram inertia rod load.

Reciprocating inertia forces are calculated with Eq. (A-1) and plotted. The net force acting along the cylinder axis is the algebraic summation of the gas pressure and inertia force.

The combined effect of static and inertia load is referred to as the dynamic rod load (see Figure 10). In general, the static load calculation is sufficient when sizing a compres-sor, unless quite large pistons are at maximum speed and/or low compression ratios are involved. Inertia load also becomes important at very high speeds with little or no pressure differential.

Figure 10. Internal gas load, inertia load and combined rod load.

Figure 10a. Internal load.

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Figure 10b. Internal rod load.

Lubrication in Reciprocating CompressorsLubrication in reciprocating compressors is of utmost im-

portance. The compressor frame has three major points of lu-brication requirement — main bearings, crank pin bearings and crosshead bushings. The oil flows through these points in sequence — from the main bearing through a passage in the crankshaft to the crank pin bearing, then from the crank pin bearing through a rifle-drilled hole in the connecting rod to the crosshead bushing. The crosshead bushing and the crosshead shoes are the last points of lubrication. The crosshead bushing lubrication is extremely important. Fig-ures 11, 12, 13 and 14 show the lubrication system of a reciprocating compressor.

A Typical Frame Lubrication System The primary components of the frame lubrication system include:

1. Oil sump (capacity ranges from 2.5 gallons for the JGP to 210 gallons for the JGV/6)

2. Strainer with 40 mesh screen3. Pump (gear type)4. Lube oil cooler (thermostatic valve supplied by packager)5. Oil filter (Spin-on 5 micron or Nugent 1 micron)6. Oil gallery end block (under pump)7. Oil gallery tube8. Holes drilled into oil gallery tube to lubricate main bearings9. Holes drilled into side of frame10. External oil tubes to the crossheads

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CT740.indd 3 6/27/11 9:11 AM

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Figures 11 (previous page), 12, 13 and 14. Lubrication in reciprocating compressors.

Crosshead Bearing LoadThe net piston force is exerted in a direction along the

cylinder axis. The angularity of the connecting rod causes the net force to be divided into components — one produc-ing crosshead side thrust against the guides, the other acting along the axis of the connecting rod.

The load on the crosshead pin bearing depends on the gas pressure in the cylinder and the inertia force of the recipro-cating parts. Both of these forces — gas pressure and inertia force — act along the cylinder axis, but the load on the pin bearing is always in the direction of the connecting rod center line. Judging the crosshead pin bearing load from the alge-braic sum of the gas pressure and inertia load is customary.

Let us look at the dynamic piston load in double-acting cylinders. The effective dynamic piston rod load changes direction from compression to tension. This change in direc-

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)tion allows clearance between the crosshead bushing and the crosshead pin in the area of the point of lubrication. Sim-ilarly, in single-acting crank end loading, direction of loading along the cylinder axis changes.

On the contrary, in single-acting head end loading, the dynamic piston rod load is in compression most of the time through the cycle. This kind of loading blocks the crosshead bushing lubrication as shown in Figures 15, 16 and 17.

Figures 15, 16 and 17.

This lack of change of direction of the dynamic piston rod load starves the crosshead bushing for oil and heat is gener-ated between the crosshead bushing and the crosshead pin. The heat causes the seizing of the pin with the crosshead

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CT740.indd 4 6/27/11 9:12 AM

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bushing, resulting in catastrophic failure, as shown in Figures 18, 19 and 20.

Figure 18. Crosshead pin under nonreversal loading.

Figures 19 and 20. Connecting rod bushing under nonreversal loading.

Conclusion This lack of change of direction is also referred to as lack of

reversal in reciprocating compressors. Therefore, it is critical to check this lack of reversal.

Compressor manufacturers have their own minimum require-ments for this reversal. Checking with the compressor manufac-turer is essential as to which end of the cylinder you can safely overload and the minimum and maximum speeds at which the compressor will run safely. The gas load and inertia load play important roles in dynamic loading and in reversal. A

Equation A-1

In reference to above formulae.

ReferencesBeven, Thomas, The Theory of Machines. A Text-book for

Engineering Studies, third edition. The English Language Book Society and Longmans Green & Co. Ltd., London, Eng-land (1962), 100.

Baumeister, Theodore; and Marks, Lionel S.; Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers, seventh edition, Mc-Graw-Hill Book Company, New York, New York, U.S.A. (1967), Section 14-44.

CT740.indd 5 6/27/11 9:13 AM

Components A La Carte

MFC NET has created a bro-chure on the group’s capabili-ties as well as the components they manufacture. MFC NET is made up of Centro Alesatura, Czech Precision Forge, Lin-coln Crankshaft & Machine, Officina Meccanica di Mara G. Mario & C. S.r.l., VDP and Sanborn. The collaboration provides ready to assemble components, such as crank-shafts and counterweights.


Tailor-Made Services

SCFM, a compressor consult-ing company, has published a pamphlet that emphasizes the company’s four primary services to customers. Those services consist of consulting, fabrication, engineering and field services, according to the pamphlet. The pamphlet pro-vides details of each available service and a list of the com-pany’s core values.


Vertical Clamp Coupling

Coupling Corporation of Amer-ica has released a brochure on its vertical clamp coupling, which eliminates all keys and “clam shells” while allowing the user to change the shaft position and the amount of pump rotor lift, according to the company. The brochure includes a diagram of the cou-pling’s anatomy, dimensions and engineering, data and a list of ideal applications.


Oil Mist Detection System

Heinzmann GmbH & Co. KG has released a brochure on its Triton I oil mist detection system for diesel engines. The brochure comes with a section on the Triton’s capa-bilities, such as being pipeless and suction free, as well as its system components. Techni-cal data is also provided in the brochure.



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Gary Hobbie, a Compressor Systems Inc. (CSI) technical training manager, has modified Caterpillar’s Adem A3 natural gas engine control system into a portable teaching tool that simulates actual field operating conditions.

The Adem A3 (pronounced like the name Adam) is actually an engine sim-ulator designed to troubleshoot vari-ables in natural gas used in the field as fuel, and it functions on all 3500 and 3600 series natural gas engines that CSI receives from Caterpillar.

Hobbie said there are always vari-ables that must be checked on all makes of engines that operate many thousands of hours in the field. Among the variables this portable device can troubleshoot are oil pressure, engine speed, exhaust and water tempera-tures, along with voltage and wiring.

The Adem A3 teaching device is a fully functioning system with all the inputs and outputs working identically as they would on a natural gas engine operating in the field. The major dif-ference is that CSI’s portable Adem A3 simulator is easily transported in the back of a pickup truck to different classroom locations.

Keith Kunkel, CSI field service su-pervisor in Weatherford, Texas, U.S.A., oversees 145 compressors and five field technicians. He said, “Hobbie takes the Adem A3 simulator anywhere and sets it up on two tabletops. The simula-

tor uses the same transformers, spark plugs, magnetic pick-ups for timing and other sensors used on actual engines in the field. That means he can ‘bug the system’ with problems that duplicate what actually occurs in the field.”

Hobbie said the mobile unit allows him to go to CSI students rather than require them to travel to a central loca-tion for one of his classes.

“Because it is a complete functioning system, we can simulate actual events so students will see with the Adem A3 various issues that they might also encounter in the field,” he said. “That provides a more realistic ‘systems ap-proach’ to learning rather than just

focusing on teaching about individual components. It offers a unique expe-rience for the members of the class — a perspective they can’t get with a Power Point presentation.”

Hobbie further explained that the Adem A3 Simulator is a live system. It has an oil pressure sensor and an elec-tronic control module (ECM), which is the computer/brain of the engine that regulates ignition, engine speed and fuel (or air-fuel ratio). The simulator re-quires various inputs in order to do its job. The entire class is hands-on, and students learn such processes as mea-suring the voltage to the ECM and de-termining the engine jacket water cool-ant temperature.

“I’ve built in a lot of intricacies that students wouldn’t otherwise know about,” Hobbie said. “I’m able to flip a switch in the back of the Adem A3 to create various problems in the system. Also, I’ve engineered problems such that students have to use their trouble-shooting manual to figure out the an-swers. This helps ensure students are unafraid to try different solutions in the field because in my class they have be-come comfortable with engines.”

Among the “defects” built into the Adem A3 simulator are replications of faulty wiring and components requiring the use of Caterpillar’s Electronic Tech-nician software program and trouble-shooting using “trouble codes.” He said students learn other useful information, for example, that associated gas has some oil in it, which can cause the en-ergy content of the gas to vary.

Hobbie had thought about this transportable system, and tried to build it on his own over a six-year pe-riod. During the summer of 2010, CSI agreed to procure the necessary parts and allowed Hobbie to build the tool at home and focus on this project.

“CSI thought enough of my ability to also give me the opportunity to teach,” he said.

CSI EmployEE’S Hobby RESultS In mobIlE SImulatoR

Device Helps Technicians Troubleshoot Caterpillar Natural Gas Engines

By Ellen Hopkins

A laptop is used to change the engine sim-ulator operation.


Left to right, CSI em-ployees Daniel Luna, Stony Goad and Keith Kunkel at the Adem A3 Simulator.

CT732.indd 1 6/23/11 5:06 PM

An alternative to a trainer like this one would require a company to spend tens of thousands of dollars purchasing an engine and load bank, and the use of a semi-trailer truck for transport to training locations.

“Over the years, I’ve had opportuni-ties to see what others are using. One company used a 3600 model for train-ing, but it was not an active system like our 3500 model,” Hobbie said. “It just hung on the wall and didn’t react to changing conditions.

“I sure don’t have problems with students falling asleep in my class,” Hobbie added. “We’re always getting up and down, checking and measuring various inputs.”

All of the classes Hobbie has taught with this simulator have been for CSI technicians.

“A Caterpillar engine seems over-whelming at first, but Gary broke it down by components and made sense of it all,” explained Daniel Luna, a CSI field service technician in Quinton, Oklahoma, U.S.A.

Stony Goad, a CSI field service technician in Independence, Kansas, U.S.A., said that over the years he has taken several Adem A3 classes taught by distributors that were not hands-on.

“They basically just explained how to look at things if we had a problem in the field, and we looked at blueprints,” Goad said. “But Gary’s class was dif-ferent because we could simulate start-up, troubleshoot different parts and learn ‘by doing’ exactly which values change. In other words, the engine re-sponded to whatever we did. This has helped in the field because every situa-tion is different and timing varies.”

Goad added that obviously some of the knowledge learned with the train-ing system won’t be used by every technician every day; some problems might occur only once every three to six months.

“But we know just how to begin

fixing each problem,” he continued. “We’ve gone through the wiring, know where to hook up the meter, and when we compare that to the book we see right away what the reading should be. It could take years for someone to learn as much about engines as we did with the simulator, or to learn it as fast as we did using hands-on.”

The wiring schematics Hobbie uses in training are color-coded, which class participants say is a tremendous help in troubleshooting. Most primary wire colors are black, red, white and green.


The two smaller boxes are the fuel and throttle actuators. The screen in the upper right displays water, exhaust tempera-ture and various other engine status indicators.

Hobbie built the Adem A3 replica with the same wire colors that Caterpillar uses for their engines, duplicating what technicians would see in the field.

Kunkel said some people read a book or service manual and absorb it right away. For others, it may take two or three readings to completely understand the book, so Hobbie’s hands-on class is perfect for them. He believes that when people can actually put their hands on the simulator to operate it, most of them absorb the knowledge quicker.

“Gary has put tremendous time and effort into designing and teaching,” Kunkel said. “Students shouldn’t ques-tion that what they learn is exactly what they need to know. As a supervisor, I sometimes experience that in my em-ployees. There’s a difference between practicing what they learned and trust-ing it. We want students to be confi-dent enough to use tools properly and to trust the results of tests they run.”

“The best way I’ve found to get stu-dents to learn is to make the various natural gas engine conditions respond to the students’ input,” Hobbie said. “They also pay more attention if the system not only works well but looks good, too.” A

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In order to provide its customers with on-site maintenance and service, in 2007 GE Oil & Gas opened a large service shop in an industrial park near Ras Laffan Industrial City, 43 mi. (70 km) from Doha, Qatar.

Although the primary scope of this facility is to serve the maintenance needs of the turbocompressor units installed at the liquefied natural gas (LNG) plant of QatarGas in Ras Laffan, it also complements other GE repair fa-cilities in the region.

The leased area of 376,000 sq.ft. (35,000 m2) hosts 32,300 sq.ft. (3000 m2) of buildings where the workshop and offices are located. The 5400 sq.ft. (500 m2) office area has also space for training of in-house and customer personnel. Investments so far total around US$70 million, but the size of the leased land will enable GE to build additional service shop and stor-age space, should demand increase in future years as anticipated.

The main pieces of equipment seen during our visit to the shop were five MS5002 gas turbines from a 5.0 tpy (4.5 T/yr) LNG train installed at QatarGas, a

rotor from a 3MCL Pignone centrifugal compressor and several components from GE gas turbines installed in Ku-wait, the United Arab Emirates and Saudi Arabia.

The center provides the primary re-pair scope of a newly established joint

venture between GE Oil & Gas and Al Shaheen Holding -– a wholly owned subsidiary of Qatar Petroleum. This JV — Al Shaheen GE Service Co. — also provides field service capabilities to all customers in Qatar.

The line of five MS5002 gas turbines

A Visit to GE’s QAtAr sErVicE cEntErShop Maintains Turbocompressors for Ras Laffan LNG Plant

By Roberto Chellini

A rotor is balanced at the Al Shaheen GE Service Co. facility near Ras Laffan Industrial City, Qatar.


Nozzle segments are inserted in a plasma-coating furnace.

CT724.indd 1 6/23/11 5:21 PM

completely assembled after major over-haul was particularly impressive. Qatar-Gas has purchased a set of spare gas turbines from GE Oil & Gas for a com-plete LNG train so as to shorten plant downtime for general maintenance. The conventional period of time required to perform on-site maintenance of this equipment averages between a few days to over a month.

Mohammed Alwan, general manag-er of the Al Shaheen GE JV, explained that the replacement of complete heavy-duty turbine modules can take 15 to 16 days, but has been performed in as little as 14 days. This benefits the customer because it takes 30 days to do the work on-site.

According to QatarGas, any plant stoppage entails a loss of LNG pro-duction in excess of several million dollars per day, thus the reduction of over two weeks of this stoppage justi-fies the investment in a spare train. In fact, Ras Laffan deploys four LNG trains using MS 5002 gas turbines, and the next train undergoing mainte-nance will be fitted with the upgraded units in a four-year cycle.

During the summer, weather con-ditions in Qatar do not allow plant maintenance in the open, so the dis-mantling and replacement job on-site is performed during the spring. The turbines are dismantled and serviced in the shop, one at a time, during the summer months and put aside in clean storage until the next spring.

GE stores the turbines in the shop or in the warehouse inside containers filled with nitrogen, as part of its five-year preventive maintenance contract with QatarGas.

This rotation system has proved so

successful that QatarGas and GE are discussing the possibility of extending it to the four 8.6 tpy (7.8 T/yr) LNG mega train. Should this idea be final-ized and the MS9001E undergo a major overhaul, due to the size, it would be necessary to build a new hall, larger than the present ones and provided with adequate crane capacity.

Presently, the service shop is equipped with two 44 ton (40 tonne) traveling cranes, a low-speed rotor balancing machine, two nondestruc-tive testing work stations, one vacuum furnace, one thermal barrier (plasma) coating furnace, a metallurgic lab as well as a set of welding stations and machine tools.

The only gas turbine parts not refur-bished in the shop are the fuel nozzles and the buckets. However, GE has au-thorized an investment to equip the shop

with all necessary tools to repair the noz-zles in-house. The buckets will continue to be repaired at Gulf Turbine Services in Abu Dhabi and in Florence, Italy, which will remain the main repair center.

In June, GE began offering training in the office space of the main build-ing, including tailored courses held for customer personnel and relevant to a specific job. A Mark VI gas turbine con-trol panel will be available to simulate machine control during plant operation. All personnel hired to work in the shop will undergo safety and operative train-ing before starting in their new jobs.

GE said its goal is to provide cus-tomers with speedy and qualified as-sistance. Technicians and engineers are available on short notice to visit the plant and advise customers upon re-quest. When necessary, the local per-sonnel can call on specialists at GE’s Oil & Gas headquarters in Florence.

The company said for the time be-ing, maintenance has been restricted to GE’s product line, but in the future it may provide maintenance for ma-chines from other makers, depending on customer demand.

The Qatar project is only one of a number that GE has enthusiasti-cally pursued in the Middle East. For example, the company recently an-nounced the grand opening of its GE Energy Manufacturing Technology Center in Dammam, Saudi Arabia. Its intention is to invest an additional US$150 million for its new energy equipment manufacturing hub. The 108,000 sq.ft. (10,000 m2) will serve as High Technology Service, Manu-facture and Training Hub. The proj-ect, in which GE will have invested US$250 million, is a joint venture with Ali A. Tamimi Co. and will serve Saudi Arabia, the wider Middle East region, Europe and Africa. A


A metallurgical technician performs tests at the Al Shaheen GE Service Co. center.

An employee operates a horizontal lathe.

CT724.indd 2 6/23/11 5:21 PM

The year started with a bang. At Al-berta, Canada first drilling rights auction in 2011, producers spent Ca$155 million on conventional licenses and leases. This was the highest opening auction in at least 15 years and was more than three times the Ca$46 million spent at the same auction the previous year.

It continued a trend that saw the high-est payout ever — Ca$2.4 billion — to the Alberta government in 2010. And that trend continues, with Ca$775 mil-lion spent through April of this year.

The auctions show that a number of producing companies are moving away from dry natural gas opportu-nities. They are instead pursuing gas resource plays that are rich in associ-ated hydrocarbon liquids, as well as oil plays. Given that prices are currently strong for oil and natural gas liquids (NGLs), coupled with continued low prices for natural gas, it is an under-standable strategy. Even though the focus for oil and gas exploration has shifted, land sales continue to be a key indicator of future drilling activity.

Drilling in Western Canada is up this year from 2010. The Petroleum Services Association of Canada (PSAC) revised its forecast in April to 12,950 holes

drilled for the year, 700 higher than its original estimate. Alberta, which contin-ues to be the center of oil and gas drill-ing in Canada, will see the lion’s share of the increase. Alberta’s gain has been partially offset by a 15% drop in drill-ing in British Columbia Canada, where poor natural gas prices and a surplus of supply have caused land sales to slide. Saskatchewan and Manitoba, Canada essentially will stay the same.

So what does this change in drilling focus mean to Western Canada?

The natural gas that is burned in homes and industrial applications is a dry sweet gas that consists primar-ily of methane. When gas is produced, it can also contain other hydrocarbon components, such as ethane, propane, butane and pentanes, as well as other longer-chained hydrocarbons. As a group, these components are known as hydrocarbon liquids or NGLs. If significantly large quantities of these components are in the produced gas, considerable value can be realized.

NGLs are often referred to as C1, C2, C3 and so on, with the number indi-cating how many carbon molecules are in that component. For example, methane is C1 and contains one car-

bon molecule. Each of the NGL com-ponents has a different use, and hence, a different market value. Ethane (C2) is used almost exclusively by the pet-rochemical industry in Alberta to pro-duce ethylene. Propane (C3) is sold as winter heating fuel, while butane (C4) is sold to refineries for gasoline blending. Pentanes plus (C5+) is often called condensate and is mixed with bitumen in Western Canada to reduce viscosity so that the bitumen will flow through pipelines. When condensate is used for this purpose, it is referred to as diluent.

Market demand for natural gas prod-ucts is changing in Alberta. One change is the increase in bitumen production and the resulting need for more diluent to ship the bitumen to upgraders and refineries for processing. Currently, a limited supply has meant that conden-sate is often priced at a premium to light oil. Similarly, in the petrochemical industry, a major Alberta manufacturer has had to import ethane from outside Alberta for the first time since the plant was built in the 1970s.

With oil projected to average more than US$100/barrel during 2011, it is easy to see why producers are interest-ed in oil plays. And with strong pric-es and a supply shortage forecast for some NGL products, it is understand-able that producers want to shift their focus to gas opportunities that are rich in hydrocarbon liquids.

The onslaught of shale gas and the resulting reduction in prices because of oversupply may have closed the door for some conventional natural gas opportunities, but it has opened the door for others. a

Natural Gas Optimism slOwly returNs tO westerN CaNada

Positive Events Indicate a Rebound in Conventional Gas Production

By Neil Purslow

Natural gas liquids are re-moved from gas streams at extraction facilities (“straddle plants”) such as this one near Cochrane, Alberta, Canada.


CT745.indd 1 6/23/11 5:22 PM


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The natural gas industry continues on the path of change. FERC Order 636 was a monumental paradigm shift from regulated gas transmission to the current model of open access trans-portation. The Environmental Protec-tion Agency’s RACT, BACT, MACT, JJJJ and ZZZZ have transformed power across the country from slow-speed, two-stroke-cycle, piston-scavenged engines to high-speed, four-stroke,

turbocharged engines with NSCR, oxi-dation and even SCR post-combustion catalytic emission reduction devices, not to mention the increased use of electric motor-driven and turbine-driven compression.

Mechanical fuel injection is rapidly being upgraded by electronic and hy-draulic high-pressure fuel injection. Ignition systems, electronic governors, and an amazing array of state-of-the-art control systems are no longer the exception to the rule. Pressures and temperatures recorded for years on handwritten logs have been displaced by SCADA systems that monitor a plethora of information not even rec-ognized just 20 years ago. Continuous

emissions monitoring (CEM) in some states includes NOx, CO and O2 in exhaust systems real-time, while Fast Fourier Infrared Mass Spectroscopy or other equally complex systems are re-quired to monitor hazardous air pollut-ants (HAPs) that have to be measured in concentrations as small as one part per billion. And that’s just some of the latest technology.

Combine that with an aging work-force, low gas prices, new gas in new fields, and an ever-increasing market, no wonder training is on the lips of management at almost every layer in every part of the country. A person could buy a standard spark plug for an engine in 1990 for less than US$5.

Why Training is so CriTiCalThis Isn’t Grandpa’s Gas Company Any More — Welcome to the 21st Century

By Randy Anderson

Randy Anderson has over 30 years’ experi-ence in the gas pipeline industry, a major portion of which is devoted to training in-dustry technicians and engineers in the latest developments in the technology of compressor systems operation, diagnos-tics and maintenance. He is one of foremost proponents of training. In fact, he insists that training is the keystone of the industry — it holds up all the other parts.


Randy Anderson was the previous owner of ACTT prior to its acquisition by CECO in August 1999. Anderson has over 30 years of experience in the natural gas en-gine and compressor industry. He began his career at Panhandle Eastern Pipeline in 1974 as a casual laborer, and ulti-mately became senior engineer for Plant Operations and Maintenance at Panhan-dle Eastern, Texas Eastern and Trunkline Gas Pipelines. With Anderson’s practical experience as a member of a mainte-nance crew, an operator, an equipment analyst and a technician, he is noted for his ability to relate with people from every area of gas transmission. He received his BS degree in Engineering from Kennedy Western University. He is considered one of the top mechanical trainers in the gas industry on engine and compressor opera-tion, maintenance and analysis. He has managed and implemented numerous innovative preventive maintenance and equipment analysis programs. Anderson is experienced in maintenance and per-formance analysis and training.

This Waukesha VHP series 4 gas engine is typical of modern com-pressor drivers and illustrates the complexity of components faced by gas plant technicians.

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GTE_900series.indd 1 6/22/11 10:09 AM

Today, a single spark plug can cost in excess of US$135.

OSHA has had a profound impact as well. Policies on ladders, hoists, slings, scaffolds, hand tools, signage, PPE, vehicle safety, public awareness, pipe-line integrity, line crossings, handling hazardous materials, fire extinguishers and critical fasteners are just a few that come to mind, without a comprehen-sive search on Google. And we won-der why training is so critical. This isn’t

grandpa’s gas company any more — welcome to the 21st century.

Management, supervisory and work-er philosophies have changed, at least at some locations, from:

• No comprehension of training needs or “If it isn’t broke, don’t fix it.”

• Then, slowly these parties began to recognize the need for improving training, but were unwilling to pro-vide funding. In hard budget times, training was the first thing to go.

• Some progress was finally made and companies began to initiate training programs but wanted to limit the scope of project in ei-ther dollars or people that were to be involved.

• Then, some of the industry leaders recognized that management sup-port was mandatory. Upper man-agement became willing to delegate authority and make all the parties involved responsible for their own training needs.

• And finally, training became an integral part of the system, bring-ing independent organization and responsibilities into a whole or a complete package.

Different companies are in different phases of this progression. Midstream and smaller companies oftentimes don’t have the personnel or assets to accom-plish some of these goals internally. Many of the smaller gathering com-panies didn’t exist 10 years ago, and a majority of their workforce has less than five years’ seniority.

Recently, I conducted some train-ing in the gathering fields of Wyo-ming, U.S.A., where a supervisor complained, “Every time I finish sending new employees to the Cater-pillar schools or other OEM classes, some other company offers them

Separable compressors, such as this Ariel multistage unit driven by a gas engine, have largely replaced the integral engine-compressor configuration. Technicians need to have intimate knowledge of this type of machinery.


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US$3 an hour more and they leave.” Someone commented in the back of the room, “Well I guess you could not train them and keep them!” Doesn’t this say that training makes employees more valuable not just to your competition but to you as well?

One other aspect of training is safety. I haven’t looked at any industry statis-tics, but as a consultant I am investigat-ing more and more catastrophic failures and conducting more and more accident investigations. Poor procedures and in-adequate training have been contribut-ing factors in most of those incidents.

In the past six months, two of my clients have given personal testimony of how new, more effective policies and procedures, in conjunction with continuous and comprehensive train-ing, have changed their companies forever. One director made the follow-ing statement: “We’re different than a lot of our competition. We don’t have generalists; we have experts. We have people with good general knowledge, they also have expertise. They may specialize in alignment, rebuilding heads, crankshafts, turbochargers, air-fuel ratio controls or emissions. We

have experts. And they have direct-ly impacted our bottom line.” This, married with amazing policies and procedures, led to this amazing state-ment: “And we haven’t experienced a catastrophic unscheduled outage in several years.”

There are more qualified people who can speak to the effectiveness of online, classroom, hands-on or on-the-job training. My belief is training is the keystone of our industry — it holds up all the other parts. Can you imagine a doctor reading an instruc-tion manual as he or she prepares to remove your appendix? You’re not allowed to change a spark plug in an aircraft engine without an A&P li-cense, but untrained people can and do change plugs on a natural gas engine. Now you might say, if the plane’s engine fails, the plane crashes and people die. Can’t we say the same thing about an accident at a compres-sor station?

The future of the gas industry is in flux. To ensure a safe workplace, to meet changing technology, to comply with increasingly stringent environmental laws and to improve profitability, companies need to recognize training is the keystone to success. A

SEE DIRECTLINK ATWWW.COMPRESSORTECH2.COM


A large number of integral engine compressors are still in operation on major pipe-lines and process plants. They have been subjected to constant upgrad-ing in components and control sys-tems, all of which require training programs.

Industry News CompressorTechTwo

Oklahoma State university Institute of Technology

The university reports that the Natural Gas Compression Program at the Okla-homa State University Institute of Technol-ogy now has so many students enrolled in its specialized program that it is rais-ing funds to construct a 30,000 sq.ft. (2790 m2) facility to better accommodate current and future students. Just over half way to their goal of US$5 million, the university expressed appreciation for the industry support shown to date.

The new facility would attract and prepare more technicians to enter the in-dustry. With approximately 70 students currently in the program, the goal is to in-crease enrollment to near 120.

The program, which is sponsored by the Gas Processors Association (GPA), dates back to 2000, although individual courses have been offered since 1979.

The curriculum includes classes in ad-vanced natural gas engine technology, gas compressor technology and electrical devices and controls among others. The program also includes courses such as technical writing, computer literacy and business ethics allowing graduates to re-ceive an Associate in Applied Science De-

gree and add value to their position in the company. Graduates are also prepared to understand new systems and components as they are introduced and have the skills necessary to advance in position as op-portunities develop.

For more information about the program, contact Roy Achemire at 918-293-4724 or visit the website at www.osuit.edu.

The PROS CompanyThe PROS Co.

of Lubbock, Texas, U.S.A., a rebuilder of screw compressors and gear boxes, has hired Terry “TL” Ledbetter as its new professional sales engineer. Ledbetter, who has several years of compressor experience, will cov-

er Western Kansas and Oklahoma, Texas and Oklahoma Panhandles, and the Perm-ian Basin in the United States.

ultrachem’s jonathan Rickner Accredited As ClS

Ultrachem Inc., announced that Jona-

than Rickner, southeast regional sales manager, has been accredited as a certified lubrication specialist (CLS) by the Society of Tribologists and Lubrication Engineers (STLE). Certified lubrication specialists have extensive knowledge of lubrication fundamentals and best practices in lubri-cation maintenance in industrial settings, Ultrachem said.

In his five years with Ultrachem, Rick-ner has developed his knowledge and skills in the lubricant industry. Along with managing sales and marketing duties with-in his territory, Rickner has taken on the role of a lubrication application expert, handling a wide range of customer service and technical resource roles within the company, according to Ultrachem.

CLS-accredited individuals must have at least three years of experience in the field of lubrication and pass an exam covering the following subjects: lubrication fundamen-tals; fluid conditioning; storage, handling and application of lubricants; monitoring and reducing consumption of lubricants; gears; bearings; seals; fluid power; lubri-cant manufacturing; pneumatics; transpor-tation lubricants; metalworking; solvents and cleaners; problem solving; lubricant analysis; and lubrication programs.

T. Ledbetter

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Wyoming Gas FairThe towering Grand Teton Mountains

and spectacular vistas may bring fall tour-ists and early sunsets to Jackson Hole, but the quality of the information presented at the Wyoming Gas Fair in Jackson, Wyo-ming, U.S.A., has helped to elevate its sta-tus as a key industry event.

The 15th annual program and show will be held Sept. 14-15, once again at the Snow King Resort.

Sponsors say that all 120 exhibition booths have been reserved. The event also will feature about 20 talks by industry and state officials.

Gas Compression ConferenceThe University of Oklahoma (OU) is the

site of one of the longest running com-pression industry events. The 55th Gas Compressor Conference is scheduled Sept. 27-29 at OU’s College of Continuing Edu-cation in Norman, Oklahoma, U.S.A.

The conference offers participants the opportunity to learn current diagnos-

The COMPRESSORTechTwo staff has begun compiling your August-September issue. Besides encompassing two cal-endar months, it will cover two subjects of critical concern to the gas machinery sector.

Turbomachinery could be characterized as the heart of the industry, with con-trols and instrumentation as the brains. Our supersized August-September issue will feature numerous stories and technical articles on those subjects. And, to add a bit of Latin zest, we’re throw-ing in some articles on South American compression. But that’s not really unusual. Did you know that COM-PRESSORTechTwo is available electronically in a quarterly Spanish edition?

This year marks a major change in our annual events tour. Historically, the Pump Users Symposium has been held early in the year and the Turbomachinery Sympo-sium in September or early October. In 2011, however, the Turbomachinery Labora-tory at Texas A&M University has scheduled both events to run concurrently Sept. 12-15, 2011 in Houston, Texas, U.S.A. Much of the content of our August-September issue will be directly related to the machinery featured at those important events.

COMPRESSORTechTwo edi-tors and other staff will attend all of the following important third- and fourth-quarter events, and we hope you will pause at our booth for a chat.

tic and repair techniques on equipment. It also features two dozen exhibitors showing compression industry products and services.

Turbomachinery/Pump users Symposia

Exhibits at the combined 40th annual Turbomachinery Symposium/27th annual Pump Users Symposium will flood the floor of the George R. Brown Convention Center in Houston, Texas, U.S.A., on Sept. 12-15. Both events are sponsored by Texas A&M University’s Turbomachinery Laboratory.

The symposia will include lectures, tu-torials, case studies, discussion groups and short courses, as well as exhibits of ser-vices and full-sized equipment.

The university claims the event is the only compression industry meet-ing organized by users, for users. The Turbomachinery Symposium’s advisory committee consists of leaders in the ro-tating equipment and power generation community. a

BOA AG Revamps Website

BOA AG, a Swiss specialist in flexible elements, components and systems, has revamped its website. The website, www.boa.ch, is available in English, French, Ger-man and Italian, and pre sents the company’s portfolio of flexible metal hoses in stainless steel, expansion joints in stainless steel or rubber, metal bellows and plastic hoses, and expansion joints and bellows. BOA’s prod-ucts cover a wide range of applications.

Hotstart Inc.

Hotstart Inc. has named Terry Judge as its chief executive officer, effective March 18, 2011. Judge, who joined the company in 2001, previously served as the compa-ny’s director of sales and marketing. He replaces Rick Robinson, who retired in March after 23 years with the company.

Trond Liaboe will assume Judge’s for-mer position as director of sales and mar-keting. Liaboe, who’s been with Hotstart since 2002, previously served as the com-pany’s international market manager.

Champion Brands

Champion Brands, LLC has launched its new corporate website at www.championbrands. com. New features include an interactive distribution map, streamlined access to product technical information and an updat-ed press center for industry-related releases. The website also provides detailed content about the company’s products, manufactur-ing, distribution, private label capabilities, GSA contracts and branded product offer-ings, which include specialty products for the racing and performance industry.

T. Judge T. Liaboe

Industry News CompressorTechTwo Planning Ahead CompressorTechTwo

Coming in August/September

CT728.indd 1 6/24/11 2:01 PM

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Editor’s Note: The following is from a paper present-ed at the 2010 Gas Machinery Conference, Phoenix, Ari-zona, U.S.A.

Large-bore gas internal combustion engines used in the gas pipeline industry have a long history of reliable serv-ice. Starting in the 1970s, engine manufacturers began to


Operating with electrOnic pre-cOmbustiOn chamber check ValVes — a case studyElectronic Pre-Combustion Chambers Offer Major Solution to

Unscheduled Downtime and Excessive Parts ReplacementBy David Link, Marlan Jarzombek, PE, and James McCoy Jr., PE

David Link is a compressor specialist in the Storage and Compres-sion Group at Atmos Energy in Dallas, Texas, U.S.A. He is respon-sible for engine and compression diagnostics, training, consult-ing and testing of new technologies to improve the reliability of the storage and compression units. He is a member of the Atmos Storage and Compression Technical Staff that addresses problem issues related to the operation and maintenance of the Atmos compression system. Prior to his current role, Link was respon-sible for the collection and analysis of 50 units in the Lone Star Gas system as the company analyst. Link has 26 years in the gas industry, working in construction, operations and diagnostics. He has an associate’s degree in Industrial Electronics. He is an active member of the Gas Machinery Research Council (GMRC) and serves on the GMRC Engine Analyzer and Reliability Workshop Committee of which he is currently the chairman. Marlan Jarzombek is a manager of Storage and Compression Operations at Atmos Energy. He is responsible for leading a team that operates and maintains natural gas compressor stations and storage facilities in an effort to provide reliable transmission, in-jection and withdrawal service for gas control. Prior to his current role, he was responsible for leading a team of compressor special-ists and provided technical services and support to operations through training and troubleshooting, facilities upgrades and ef-ficiency enhancements. Before joining Atmos Energy, Marlan was a senior research engineer at Southwest Research Institute and a senior engineer at Schlumberger, and has more than 15 years of experience in the oil and gas industry. Jarzombek has a degree in Mechanical Engineering and is a Registered Professional Engineer in Texas. He is an active member of the Gas Machinery Research Council (GMRC), serves on the GMRC Project Supervisory Com-mittee (PSC) and is also a member of ASME. James J. McCoy, Jr., PE, received his BS degree in Mechanical Engineering from Christian Brothers University, Memphis, Tennes-see, U.S.A., in 1965. He received his MS in Mechanical Engineer-ing from the University of Houston and MBA from Rice University, Houston, Texas, U.S.A., in 1968 and 1985, respectively. His career began with 20 years at Tennessee Gas Pipeline, where he spent the last five years as a combustion engineer on the company’s Clean Air Team. His career has spanned some 30 years in the Gas Pipe-line Industry, mainly on combustion modifications for improved performance and emissions on large-bore gas engines. McCoy is an Associate member of the Internal Combustion Engine Division of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME). He holds four U.S. patents. For the last five years he has been with Hoerbiger Engineering Services, Houston, Texas.

offer engines that produced lower levels of undesirable emissions, mainly NOx and unburned hydrocarbons. In order to accomplish this goal, larger turbochargers were employed to produce air in excess of the air needed for combustion. The excess air served as a heat sink to keep combustion temperatures down, thus lowering NOx. How-ever, this excess air led to unstable combustion and in order to restore stable combustion, pre-combustion cham-bers were employed. A pre-combustion chamber is sim-ply a small chamber where a rich (near stoichiometric) mixture is maintained so the spark plug is sure to light off the mixture, and thus ignite the main chamber. With consistent light-off in the pre-chamber, the hot gases that are discharged into the main chamber light off even the leanest mixture. Low NOx and unburned hydrocarbons in the exhaust are the result.

This solution brought with it another problem for operat-ing personnel. From the beginning, pre-combustion cham-bers have been fueled by a small gas line that operated through a mechanical check valve. The small chamber is fueled while the pressure in the cylinder is low and as the pressure in the cylinder (and pre-chamber) exceeds the sup-ply pressure, the check valve closes. This isolates the fuel supply from the high pressure in the pre-chamber during compression and combustion. This works great in theory, as the pressure in the fuel supply is normally high enough to open the check valve.

In other words, as the compression pressure in the main chamber/pre-chamber rises above the supply pressure, the ball/wafer/poppet closes the valve. The ensuing hot com-bustion gases do not heat up the fuel supply line and cause exhaust gases to interfere with the fueling of the pre-cham-ber. However, in practice, as the engine operates and is then shut down for operational reasons, the mechanical check valve has a tendency to accumulate moisture or contami-nation and can stick either in the open or closed position. This can cause the pre-chamber to either be over- or under-fueled, resulting in the loss of the ignition source for that cylinder. This will result in a cold cylinder and the resulting overload of other cylinders. This problem usually manifests itself when trying to start the engine. This can lead to un-orthodox (and possibly unsafe) maintenance practice such as tapping the check valve with a wrench while trying to start the engine.

When the process of the operation of the mechanical check valve is examined closely, we can see why these issues occur. The pre-chamber fuel supply pressure is set so the engine runs properly at normal load and speed. The problem here is when starting the engine, the air manifold

CT737.indd 1 6/28/11 10:36 AM


pressure is usually at a very low level, and the check valve opens earlier and closes later, since the pressure in the check valve supply has to be high enough to open the valve. This has a tendency to supply too much fuel to the pre-chamber, at a time when there is a very rich mixture in the main chamber. This rich main chamber air-fuel mix-ture is pushed up into the pre-chamber. Furthermore, this rich combustion in the pre-chamber will tend to be “sooty,” which can lead to sticking.

Figure 1. Typical pre-combustion chamber and mechanical check valve.

On the other hand, when the engine is operating with a high air manifold pressure, the opposite effect occurs. The valve will open late, and close early, causing the pre-chamber to be under-fueled. Even if the pre-chamber check valve does open, a misfire could occur in the pre-chamber because of insufficient fuel. If this occurs, particularly if the ball/wafer/poppet is stuck in other pre-chambers, it could be impossible for the engine to start.

Figure 2. Typical four-stroke pre-chamber/main chamber arrangement.

The SolutionThe electronic pre-combustion chamber check valve does

not rely on a small pressure differential to actuate the check valve. The actuation is achieved with a positive electronic sig-nal that is triggered by monitoring the position of the flywheel, which is tied to the position of each cylinder. The controller for the electronic valve can be programmed to admit the ex-act amount of fuel for whatever condition the engine may be operating in at the time. The controller varies fuel by varying

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to pre-combustion chamber check valve problems. At this particular station, it costs approximately US$1200 (assuming US$4/Mcf) for gas lost through the starters per failed start and subsequent blow-down.

Figure 3. Failed mechanical check valve.

In addition to the downtime associated with failed starts, downtime associated with cleaning and/or replacing me-chanical check valves must be factored into the cost as well. The wear and tear on the starters caused by increased num-ber of start-attempts should be considered in the cost to the operating company, as well. For some engines, on average, one new check valve is replaced per pre-combustion cham-ber per year and two rebuilds are performed per pre-com-bustion chamber per year. Cost of a new mechanical check valve is approximately US$800. Cost of rebuilt check valve is approximately US$300.

For some engines, this can amount to approximately US$30,000 per year in parts alone. These figures do not in-clude the dollars associated with unit downtime, lost man-hours or the gas lost on failed start-attempts.

Operational Solution Because of the often reported mechanical pre-combustion

chamber check valve issues that repeatedly resurface and impact operations, the operating company decided to im-plement a solution. After attending a presentation by Greg Beshouri on work being done for PRCI, where several emerging technologies were described, company person-nel presented the information to management about the benefits of the electronic pre-combustion chamber check valve. A decision was then made to try them on an engine as a test bed. In order to have a comparative study to evalu-ate this technology, electronic PCCs were installed on one engine, while new mechanical poppet-style check valves were installed on an adjacent, identical engine, operating in the same service. Both engines are Dresser-Rand 612-KVS-RA units used for injection service with similar maintenance and operating histories. These units are 2850 hp (2125 kW) each and operate at 360 rpm maximum speed. The units were originally built in 1988.

Figure 4. Control module (SDM) , electronic check valve (ePCC) and typical HMIs.

the pulse-width of the signal that tells the valve how long to stay open. Since the supply pressure to the electronic valve is always constant (usually at around 100 psi [6.9 bar]), the valve is able to precisely fuel each pre-chamber. This results in con-sistent light-off of the pre-chamber, which in turn, results in consistent combustion in the main chamber.

Many engines, when running with pre-combustion cham-bers, operate with coefficients of variation (average devia-tion of peak pressure divided by average peak pressure) in the <10% range. The goal is to operate with as low a coef-ficient of variation as possible, as this leads to lower strain on the engine.

Operational IssuesOperational problems often occur with mechanical pre-

combustion chamber check valves. These are generally of wafer, ball or poppet-style design, and are all susceptible to “stiction” issues. As often occurs, these stiction issues cause the check valves to remain closed or close improperly. A malfunctioning, sticking or failed check valve will cause mis-fires, detonation and failed starts. These problems eventually result in unplanned downtime for cleaning or replacement, which has a pronounced effect on increased costs associated with operating and maintaining these engines. One of the more difficult challenges has been to keep the mechanical pre-combustion chamber check valves functioning as when new. The section that follows details some of the specific operational problems with these mechanical check valves that have been observed and documented by compressor station operators.

The notes below were written by on-site personnel (sta-tion operators), where mechanical check valves all too often cause operational and maintenance headaches. The excerpts below were a few that were taken from the daily logs at a natural gas storage facility that depict the typical problems encountered. For this particular engine, mechani-cal poppet-style check valves were being used in the pre-combustion chambers.

“Pulled and cleaned #3 and #4 PCC check valves and restarted.”

“Unit 2 down @2:43 am, #4 cylinder cold ó replaced PCC check @ 3:30am, then down again. Ultrasonically cleaned PCC check valve.”

“Unit 2, #4 cylinder dropping out (pecking on PCC check valve throughout the night to keep engines running).”

“Cylinder #8 deviation, temp alarm on #2 unit. Changed PCC and plugs on cylinders #7 and #8 on unit #2 and adjust fuel on #8 cylinder.”

“Cleaned all 16 PCC check valves.”

More than 60 similar reports were noted for this one en-gine in the past year alone. The list goes on and on ...

EconomicsAs noted by the operator’s reports, these mechanical check

valves are replaced and rebuilt multiple times throughout the year. In one instance, the operators replaced all the PCC check valves one day, started the engine and had to replace them all again the next day after just one start. This could be from “liquids,” “soot” or any number of other causes, but certainly issues that occur often in operating engines in this service. In another example, one of the units at a station experienced 22 failed starts in one month and 14 the prior month. Many of these failed starts are attributed

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Figure 5. ePCC installed on a Dresser KVSRA engine.

ResultsAs noted in the Operational Issues section of this paper, there

were numerous problems identified with the mechanical pre-combustion chamber check valves during the test period (more than 60 issues!). The KVSRA engine that utilized the electronic pre-combustion chamber check valves experienced very few issues (only two, and they were minor “commissioning” issues). These were electronic glitches that were easily identified and corrected. It should be noted that this was the first commercial installation of the HES ePCC, and has been in operation now for 15 months, and continues to deliver excellent performance.

Figure 6. Peak pressure spread on mechanical check valve installed on Unit 2.

Figure 7. Peak pressure spread with ePCC installed on Unit 1.


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Figure 8. Tabular data from Units 1 and 2.

Figure 9. Peak pressure spread with ePCC at higher load.

ConclusionIn addition to eliminating many operational and mainte-

nance activity headaches that occur with mechanical-style pre-combustion chamber check valves, the ePCCs also ad-dress and solve other issues. The data from this study has shown that ePCCs can replace mechanical-style check valves and eliminate sticking issues, improve in-cylinder mixing and peak pressure control. The ePCCs contribute to precise control of the amount of fuel injected into the engine’s pre-combustion chambers, which results in greater combustion stability and a smoother-running engine. This study verifies other studies1 that have shown how consistent combustion in the pre-chamber leads to more consistent combustion in the main chamber, over a wide range of air-fuel ratios. By implementing this technology, the operating company can increase engine reliability and integrity, save on fuel and reduce maintenance expenses. A

Addendum Common questions operating companies ask concerning

ePCCs:1. What does the scope of installation involve?The scope of installation involves the following: operat-

ing company will provide power to 24 volt power supply; space to mount SDM, power and distribution module; drilled flywheel for speed pickup and reset pin in flywheel; fly-wheel position could be picked up from gear mounted on flywheel; engine analyst for commissioning; fuel for ePCCs supplied to ePCC manifold at 100 psi (6.9 bar) (typically); fuel pressure dependent on PCC chamber volume (larger volume means greater pressure).

HES will provide: depending on written scope, one or two ePCCs per cylinder; conduit for wiring power module, SDM and distribution; and conduit on engine to route cable to each ePCC; one programmed SDM, 24 volt power sup-ply, and distribution module; fuel manifold for ePCCs; labor for installing components on engine, as well as installing conduit on engine (unless specified otherwise by operating company); commissioning of ePCCs on engine; and training for operating company personnel.

2. What is the typical length of an ePCC installation?A typical installation takes three days and commis-

sioning takes one. But fuel system modification will add substantial time.

3. What maintenance is involved with the new sys-tem? How often do electronic solenoid check valves require replacement?

There is no maintenance required on the valves. Both the ePCC valves and the SDM come with a two-year warranty. Returning valves every three years for testing is recommended.

4. What types of adjustments are required by operators? No adjustments after commissioning are required unless

the mode of operation changes from the normal ranges pro-vided at commissioning.

5. Describe the typical optimum fuel supply pressure required.

The typical operation supply pressure for the ePCC is 100 psi (6.9 bar).

6. Expected longevity of the system?ePCC valves have a two-year warranty, but there are sev-

eral systems in the field that have been in operation for near-ly three years without valve issues.

7. Classification of installed hardware?Installed hardware is rated at a Class I, Div II.

Editor’s Note: The authors wish to acknowledge the con-tributions of Bharat Trivedi, vice president of Atmos’ Storage and Compression group, to this study and for his encourage-ment and support of this emerging technology. The authors also wish to acknowledge all of the Atmos Bethel Storage Fa-cility personnel for their support on the project during instal-lation, commissioning and operations.

1. “Combustion Sensing in Pre-combustion Chambers Using Ion-Sense,” Greg Beshouri, AETC and Matthias Huschenbett; pre-sented at the 2008 Gas Machinery Conference.


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Company Name Page Number Company Name Page Number

Advertisers’ Index


JULY

ACI Services Inc. ......................................................................40

Altronic, Inc. .............................................................................2-3

Argentina Oil & Gas Expo 2011 .................................................63

ARIEL ..........................................................................................1

AXH air-coolers ..........................................................................69

BG Service Co., Inc., The ..........................................................35

BorgWarner BERU Systems GmbH ..........................................33

* Burckhardt Compression AG .....................................................47

Cameron’s Corporate ................................................................41

Cameron’s Compression Systems Group ............................42-43

Catalytic Combustion Corporation .............................................23

CECO, Compressor Engineering Corp. ..............................14, 59

Chart Cooler Service Company, Inc.

Aftermarket Division ..........................................................17

Cook Compression .....................................................Third Cover

* CPI, Compressor Products International ...................................83

Cummins Inc. ............................................................................25

Detechtion Technologies ...........................................................45

DCL International Inc. .................................................................9

E Instruments International ........................................................69

Elliott Group ............................................................Second Cover

* Ellwood Crankshaft Group .........................................................71

Exline, Inc. ................................................................................31

Flender-Graffenstaden S.A.S. ...................................................57

* GE Oil & Gas ...............................................................................5

GT Exhaust, Inc. .................................................................39, 65

Hahn Manufacturing Company ..................................................71

Harsco Industrial Air-X-Changers ..............................................11

* HOERBIGER Kompressortechnik Holding GmbH ................28-29

KB Delta Compressor Valve Parts Mfg. .....................................19

Kilowatts Design Company Inc. ................................................53

MOTORTECH GmbH ................................................................55

Murphy, FW ..............................................................Fourth Cover

* Neuman & Esser Group .............................................................51

Rolls-Royce .................................................................................7

Rottler Manufacturing ................................................................15

* Siemens Oil & Gas ....................................................................49

SoftInWay, Inc. .........................................................................77

* Tech Transfer Inc. ................................................................20-21

Testo, Inc. .................................................................................27

Universal LLC ............................................................................26

* Further information on this company’s products can be found in the 2011 Edition of the Global Sourcing Guide (at GSGnet.net) and 2011 Compression Technology Sourcing Supplement (at CTSSnet.net).

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For most of its 105-year history, the gas engine company most recently known as Dresser Waukesha developed and implemented pioneering oil and gas technologies. That core business created the basis for it to become an integral part of GE Energy Gas Engines.

Dresser Waukesha was merged into GE Energy as part of the parent GE company’s US$3 billion acquisition of Dresser Inc. last February. GE Energy’s Gas Engines said Dresser Waukesha’s technological expertise matched well with its own capability to grow business on a global scale — espe-cially in emerging regions like Latin America and the Middle East where Dresser Waukesha’s technology can play a role in oil and gas production. GE Energy’s Gas Engines said the merged operations also leave it well positioned to capitalize on the emerging megatrend around abundant and cleaner-burning natural gas.

It noted that there are logical synergies between GE’s Jen-bacher gas engine expertise, global research capabilities and financial resources, and Dresser Waukesha’s gas engine, oil and gas industry experience and investments in rich- and lean-burn technologies.

GE said compression and mechanical drive technologies and applications using Dresser Waukesha gas engine tech-nology will give the Jenbacher gas engine portfolio an entrée into the small-scale compression sectors in oil and gas.

The company expects to combine the core strengths of Jenbacher technology — fuel flexibility and high efficiency — with the Dresser Waukesha technology innovations in low emissions and reliability to develop more solutions for petrochemical, mining and manufacturing customers.

“The Waukesha compression and power generation en-gines for the oil and gas industry are a natural fit for GE’s

energy business,” said Rafael Santana, president and CEO, gas engines. “The synergy resulting from the combination of GE’s global scale and resources, and Waukesha’s technology expertise will help us to better serve our customers,” he said.

Historically, GE and the former Dresser businesses traveled separate but somewhat parallel paths for more than a century before their February merger. Both companies got their start during the “Second Industrial Revolution,” when oil and elec-tricity replaced steam power. GE founder Thomas Edison fo-cused his company on electric power while the Waukesha Mo-tor Co. specialized on internal combustion engines for vehicles.

These corporate stories began to dovetail after Waukesha entered the burgeoning — yet inefficient — oil and gas industry early in the 20th century. At the time, clunky steam engines powered drilling rigs. The coal and water to oper-ate the engines had to be transported to remote and often arid drilling sites.

In the early 1920s, driller Louis Pearce told James DeLong, a Waukesha sales representative, that the oil industry needed an engine that was powerful, dependable and portable. In 1924, when Pearce organized the Portable Rotary Rig Co., DeLong sold him two Waukesha engines. By the 1930s, Waukesha’s Model WOK engines— painted a distinctive or-ange with black blocks — were a common source of station-ary power in American oil fields. Since then, Waukesha en-gines have built a reputation as reliable, durable workhorses for the global oil industry.

GE said the combination of Dresser Waukesha and GE Energy positions it to better serve customers’ needs to burn cleaner, lower-carbon fuels. It can also benefit shale gas developments that are yielding record-breaking supplies of natural gas —the main energy alternative for curbing green-house gas emissions and the prime fuel for flexible, efficient power generation.

GE predicted that combining the Jenbacher and Dresser Waukesha brands within its newly integrated gas engines division will deepen GE’s penetration of the global gas engines segment and boost the pace and quality of low- emission technology developments.

“Today, GE Energy delivers one-fourth of the world’s elec-tricity and has positioned itself as a leader in clean technol-ogy innovation,” said Brian White, president of Waukesha gas engines. “It’s exciting for us at Waukesha to be part of GE’s commitment to solving the world’s biggest energy chal-lenges,” he said. a


GE EnErGy SEES SynErGiES from DrESSEr AcquiSitionPlans to Build on Gas Engine Power Gen, Rich-/Lean-Burn Technology Strengths

Natural gas-fired Model WOK engines powered the drawworks and sup-ply pump on this oil rig.


GE Energy Waukesha’s VHP Series Four rich-burn engines can pro-duce more power on the hottest field gases, at high altitudes and in remote locations.

CT749.indd 1 6/23/11 5:41 PM


MAG Supplying Equipment to North American, European Plants

MAG IAS has received two new or-ders, valued at more than US$26 mil-lion, from customers in the energy and heavy construction equipment sectors in Europe and China. The orders include an array of MAG ma-chine tools, tooling, engineering and support services. The machines will be produced at MAG manufacturing plants in North America and Europe, the company said.

A 12-machine order for more than US$21 million from an energy sector customer includes horizontal boring mills, vertical and horizontal turning centers and machining centers for a new plant in Europe. The project in-cludes tooling, engineering services, production ramp-up support and long-term technical support.

The second order, valued at more than US$5 million, includes two MAG FTR 3500 horizontal boring mills (HBM) to be installed at a customer’s new facility in China for production of large construction equipment compo-nents. The order also includes MAG tooling and support services.

One of MAG’s newest products, the FTR 3500 floor-type HBM is a versa-tile machine, capable of a full 6.56 ft. (2 m) reach inside parts with a ram-supported spindle. The machine tool is designed for “heavy metal” milling, as well as precision multi-axis con-touring, boring, drilling and tapping on large parts.

GE Supplying More Equipment for WEPPII Project

GE Oil & Gas compression technolo-gy has again been selected to help sup-port one of China’s energy infrastruc-ture projects. In two contracts totaling nearly US$100 million, GE will sup-ply six gas turbine-driven compressor trains and nine electric motor-driven compressors to PetroChina for the Eastern portion of the second West-to-East Pipeline (WEPPII).

PetroChina is the owner and de-veloper of the WEPPII project, which runs through 13 provinces and au-tonomous regions. Since 2005, GE has supplied compression equipment and turbine technology for WEPPII, as well as for the first West-to-East Pipe-line (WEPPI), with contract wins total-ing US$700 million.

“GE’s expanding installed base in-cludes more than 120 gas turbine and

110 electric motor-driven compressor trains for pipeline projects vital to en-ergy supply in China and Asia,” said Claudi Santiago, president and CEO, GE Oil & Gas.

The compression equipment for the latest WEPPII contracts will include PCL compressors driven by GE PGT25+ gas turbines. The PGT25+ gas turbines will be manufactured in Cincinnati, Ohio, U.S.A., and Florence, Italy. The compressors in Florence, which will be shipped to China, are expected be-tween the second half of this year and the third quarter of 2012.

Six Laby Compressors Ordered from Burckhardt Compression

Burckhardt Compression has re-ceived two orders from Sinopec Wu-han Co., Wuhan City, Hubei Province, China, to deliver six Laby compres-sors for its petrochemical complex.

The Laby has a labyrinth sealing system on the piston and piston rod gland that allows oil-free and contact-free compression for minimum wear and tear, the company said, making the Laby suitable for polypropylene production and low-temperature eth-ylene boil-off gas applications. The compressor has a discharge pressure up to 4350 psi (300 bar), flow up to 6500 scfm (11,000 Nm³/hr) and shaft power up to 3000 hp (2200 kW).

The order includes a total of six compressors. Two compressors will be used for propylene compression — one as an off-gas compressor (JPP process) and one as a recycle gas com-pressor (ST process). Delivery of those compressors will take place in the fourth quarter of this year and the first quarter of 2012, respectively. In addi-tion, four compressors will be used for ethylene liquefaction, with two for eth-ylene BOG compression within the re-condensing cycle and two for propane compression within the refrigeration cycle. Installation is scheduled after the first quarter of 2012.

MAN to Bring Motor-Compressors to the Netherlands

MAN Diesel & Turbo Schweiz AG received a multimillion-euro contract from Abu Dhabi National Energy Co. PJSC (TAQA) for the delivery of com-pression technology for Bergermeer Gas Storage in Alkmaar, Netherlands.

The scope of supply consists of six fully integrated, skid-mounted high-frequency motor-compressor systems,

providing emission-free operation, the company said. Each 13 MW mo-tor-compressor unit, with a weight of more than 88.2 tons (80 tonnes), con-sists of a tandem compressor arrange-ment, generating a flow of 19 MMcfh (540,000 m³/hr).

The complete rotating assembly levitates in magnetic bearings and is installed in a hermetically sealed housing, eliminating the need for shaft seals and, as a result, emissions to the atmosphere, according to MAN Diesel & Turbo. The Bergermeer Gas Storage project will create an open access gas storage facility in Europe. Bergermeer Gas Storage will provide the Northwest European gas market with 145 Bcf (4.1 x 109 m³) of seasonal storage, nearly doubling the Nether-lands’ total storage capacity.

TAQA received the final statu-tory approvals and permits to con-struct and operate the facility in May. Bergermeer Gas Storage operations will start in 2013 with full commercial operations in 2014. A

Recent Orders

SoftInWay.indd 1 6/3/11 9:32:26 AM



CT741.indd 1 6/23/11 5:43 PM


http://www.softinway.com


Atlas Interactive Ltd. has been awarded a contract to develop and de-liver standardized safety training to the global oil and gas industry.

Since April 2009, Atlas, based in Ab-erdeen, Scotland, has worked with the Offshore Petroleum Industry Training Organization (OPITO) of the U.K. to provide the latter’s Minimum Industry Safety Training (MIST) standards to more than 48,000 U.K. oil and gas workers.

Under a new contract, Atlas and OPITO have developed an interna-tional version of MIST, which Atlas will make available to more than 1.5 mil-lion exploration and production work-ers over the next two years.

The training program will be launched in the Middle East in July and then will be rolled out in 30 nations across Asia and Africa. It will be de-livered via the Internet and will be tai-lored to meet each nation’s workforce, language and geographic needs.

Atlas Chief Executive John Rowley said, “This is a groundbreaking initia-tive in terms of the importance the in-dustry is placing on health and safety.”

The international MIST course con-tains up to nine modules. They include risk assessment, asset integrity, the use

of hazardous substances, working at heights and mechanical lifting.

The training uses Atlas’ Fast Track diagnostic tool, which assesses a learner’s knowledge gaps under time-bound conditions and tailors the content of the course to the learner’s personal knowledge gaps. Fast Track uses a process that rebuilds the course each time, based on incorrect assess-ment responses. This ensures an ulti-mate pass mark of 100%. Time is saved by delivering only the training that is needed, Rowley said.

Atlas said it has reduced 14 hours of classroom-based content to about two hours of e-learning content. Since the course can be taken anywhere, there are no travel expenses.

OPITO has worked with govern-ments, national oil firms, multinational oil companies and contractors to as-sess their safety skills needs. The U.K. group provides guidance on work-force skills development, emergency response and occupational standards, qualifications and quality assurance of training delivery.

David Doig, OPITO’s CEO, said, “The offshore industry operates in some of the harshest, most hostile

and therefore hazardous environments for workers anywhere in the world. Health, safety and environment (HSE) must be the number-one priority for oil companies, as it is the foundation of safe, effective and efficient operations.”

He added, “The delivery and con-tent of basic safety training varies dra-matically from region to region and lacks consistency across the industry. Oil and gas workers should have con-fidence that their colleagues share the same level of safety training.”

Doig said although many employers have HSE systems, they struggle when it comes to measuring workforce com-petence. He said that compliance has been the driver for HSE policy and performance, but a competence-driven approach to managing HSE perfor-mance is needed.

“The challenge is to see the devel-opment of a safe and skilled workforce as an investment rather than a cost to the business,” he said.

Since its founding in 1995, Atlas has provided e-learning training to more than 350,000 oil industry personnel in more than 600 companies across 35 nations. A


AtlAs InterActIve tAkes OPItO trAInIng WOrldWIde More Than 1.5 Million E&P Workers May Be Schooled in Offshore Safety Standard

Safety training is emphasized at refineries, such as this Texas City, Texas, U.S.A., plant.


CT734.indd 1 6/23/11 5:46 PM


Propak Pamphlet

Propak has published a pam-phlet highlighting the compa-ny’s capabilities. The company specializes in oil and gas pro-duction packages and modu-larized processing plants. Its product line includes hydro-carbon liquids recovery sys-tems, waste oil processing, gas compression and power generation packages.


Energy Savings Calculator App

WEG Electric Corp. has re-leased an energy savings cal-culator application for Black-Berry smartphone devices. The application calculates savings gained for using WEB variable frequency devices or electric motors, as well as the reduction of CO2 emissions. It can also create reports and calculations for all the motors in a facility.


Oxygen Analyzer

ABB has published a four-page, color brochure about its own Endura AZ20 analyzer, designed for measuring oxy-gen concentration in combus-tion gases. The brochure states that the analyzer fits harsh ap-plications in industries such as hydrocarbon processing and power generation. The analyzer also incorporates rugged enclo-sures, self-diagnostic electron-ics and automatic calibration.


Rockwell Online Tool

Rockwell Automation has de-veloped a free online tool that gives manufacturers a complete analysis of its current water, air, gas, electric and steam (WAGES) management performance. The tool uses a 20-minute online assessment to generate a real-time report outlining a facility’s WAGES management baseline. The results enable employees to identify and make changes to facilities within the their organi-zation, Rockwell said.


Pipeline Compressor Upgrades

Aavolyn Corp. has released a newsletter on its products de-signed for upgrading pipeline compressors. Those products include pressure-balanced pis-ton rings, oil rings, pressure-balanced unit design packing, fabricated coolant cups and piston rider ring conversions. The newsletter also provides information on DuPont Telfon PTFE Fluoropolymer resin, a product Aayolyn uses to pro-duce seals.


6 MW Gas Turbine

MAN Diesel & Turbo has pub-lished a brochure on its new 6 MW class gas turbine. The tur-bine is available in the two-shaft configuration for mechanical drive and will soon be launched in the single-shaft version for power generation applications. The turbine features a high ef-ficiency and a low emissions combustion system.


Aftermarket Services

Valerus has released a bro-chure on its aftermarket serv-ices. Valerus is a worldwide company specializing in inte-grated oil and natural gas han-dling equipment, operations and services. The company has a network of global alli-ances and partnerships with OEMs like Waukesha, Cater-pillar, Ariel and GE.


Compressor Valves

Cook Compression has pub-lished literature on its Mop-pet and Manley compressor valves. The literature details both valves’ designs and ca-pabilities, such as damage resistance on the Manley compressor valves and the commonality of parts for the Moppet compressor valves.




July_PIC.indd 3 6/24/11 4:02 PM









Editor’s Note: Part 1 of this series in the May 2011 issue of COMPRES-SORTechTwo presented a primer on the federal National Ambient Air Qual-ity Standards (NAAQS) along with a regulatory update on the Criteria Air Pollutant (CAP) of most significant concern to the oil and gas industry — eight-hour ozone. Part 2, in the June issue, continued with updates on the other CAPs, including CO and NO2 and their impact on recip-rocating internal combustion engine (RICE) owners and operators. This fi-nal installment in the series discusses NAAQS-driven pollutant mitigation strategies that translate into station-ary engine compliance requirements.

State and federal air quality regula-tory programs employ several differ-ent strategies in pursuit of their goal to attain and maintain the NAAQS. These include the promulgation of emission standards, control technol-ogy requirements, NAAQS compliance demonstrations, air-permitting rules and fuel restrictions. All of those ef-forts can potentially affect the degree of emissions control and operational constraints on stationary sources such as reciprocating internal combustion engines (RICE).

The Relevancy of NAAQS to RICE-specific Regulatory Requirements

Emission Standards - Emission stan-dards for criteria air pollutants (CAPs) for RICE are established through federal rules like Subpart IIII and JJJJ of the New Source Performance Standards (NSPS) and state rules that typically target non-emergency engines located in ozone non-attainment areas, maintenance areas or areas contributing to ambient impacts within non-attainment areas.

Although the recently amended National Emission Standards for Haz-ardous Air Pollutants (NESHAP) Sub-part ZZZZ rule for stationary RICE comes under the umbrella of hazard-ous air pollutant (HAP) mitigation, the standards set by this rule also play an NAAQS-related role through emission limitations placed on CO (as a HAP surrogate) for both spark-ignited (SI), lean-burn and com-pression-ignited (CI) engines and on formaldehyde as a HAP for rich burns. Formaldehyde is also a vola-tile organic compound (VOC) and a precursor to ozone formation.

An example of an emission stan-dards summary was generated by the step2compliance RICE Rule Tool in Figure 1. The sample report shows an applicability determination assessing the federal RICE rules and the relevant limits that apply to a selected four-stroke lean-burn (4SLB) engine oper-ated at a major source of HAPs.

Control Technology Require-ments - In addition to RICE emission standards, specified emissions control technology may also be required for stationary engines as a means of attain-ing or maintaining NAAQS compliance.

Some examples of this include rea-sonably available control technology (RACT), best available control technolo-gy (BACT) and lowest achievable emis-sion rate (LAER). RACT and LAER are generally triggered by proposed RICE installations in ozone non-attainment areas at facilities classified as minor and major, respectively.

BACT requirements were originally introduced as part of the federal Pre-vention of Significant Deterioration (PSD) pre-construction permitting program for major sources and ma-jor modifications in attainment areas, and a version of BACT is also incor-porated into some state construction permitting programs such as in Wyo-ming, U.S.A. These various control technology standards range from the least restrictive RACT requirements, which achieve an incremental step in emissions control while taking into account economic feasibility, to the most restrictive LAER requirements, which call for the application of the best emissions-reducing technology available without regard to cost.

BACT falls somewhere between the two and is based on a top-down ap-proach that allows permittees to con-sider factors such as economic feasibil-ity relative to industry averages and the availability of candidate technology.

Fuel Restrictions - Another meas-ure that U.S. Enviromental Protection Agency (EPA) and the states use to mitigate emissions is the establishment of fuel restrictions — something also heavily relied upon in the realm of mobile source emissions management. Although gas-fired engines may be re-quired under a condition of their permit to run on pipeline-quality natural gas, which often contains a lower fraction of VOCs than field gas, numerical fuel restrictions such as sulfur content limits generally result in greater gains from an emissions mitigation perspective.

NAAQS Compliance Demonstra-tions - NAAQS compliance demon-strations by facility or emission source are among the strategies used by agen-cies to ensure continued protection of ambient air quality. Air permitting regulations vary from state to state, but many common threads are found be-tween those programs.

Dispersion modeling may be a pre-requisite for obtaining a major source construction permit as a means of dem-

The Relevance of The naTional ambienT aiR QualiTy STandaRdS, PaRT 3

Where the Rubber Meets the NAAQS Road for Stationary EnginesBy Jill Powell


Jill Powell is air compliance director at step2compliance, a firm offering emissions compliance tools and services to assist the energy industry with air quality compli-ance and data management. She holds a Bachelor’s degree in Physics (with an emphasis on atmospheric physics) from the University of Colorado at Boulder. She has over 17 years of experience in the field of regulatory air quality compliance and envi-ronmental information system development. She has worked on projects for a variety of industries, including petroleum refineries, gas processing plants, compressor stations, surface coating operations, mining and steel production, but her career emphasis has focused on the natural gas industry, including the production, gathering, pro-cessing and transmission sectors.

CT746.indd 1 6/24/11 10:02 AM

onstrating compliance with the NAAQS for pollutant emissions above threshold quantities. Historically, however, that exercise has been considered overkill for projects involving minor sources. However, the frequency of states re-quiring ambient impact screening for new minor source projects as well, ei-ther by rule or by policy, is rising. That trend especially seems to target those anticipated to potentially violate the new one-hour NO2 standard.

Some states, such as Texas, require that NAAQS compliance be demon-strated for a proposed (nonmajor) stationary engine through a simpli-fied screening methodology based on facility emissions and property line distance, as a condition for claiming a permit by rule (PBR) authorization.

Air Permitting - The final strategy for meeting NAAQS that we will consider is air permitting. Federal air permitting

rules, such as PSD, New Source Re-view and others, already constrain states to require that new or modified major sources meet certain criteria for emission reductions via control technology and other restrictions.

Construction and operating permit programs administered by the states constitute the enforcement vehicles through which all of the above-listed NAAQS compliance measures are collected and addressed either through the permit application proc-ess or via conditions set forth within the issued permit.

An example of this mechanism is the proposed relocation of a gas-fired lean-burn engine from out of state to a facility within Colorado. In that case, if the engine is over 100 hp (73.5 kW), the owner/operator must comply with the state ozone control regulations limiting NOx, CO and VOCs to 1.0, 2.0 and 0.7 g/hp-hr, respectively. The con-

struction approval permit is the vehicle by which these emission limits are established for the proposed engine along with other conditions ensur-ing the demonstration of compliance through monitoring, recordkeeping and/or reporting.

Regulatory Programs Directly Affecting Stationary Engines

Air quality regulatory programs spe-cific to stationary RICE include New Source Performance Standards (NSPS) Subparts IIII and JJJJ, NESHAP Subpart ZZZZ and those state rules addressing emissions control in NAAQS non-attain-ment and maintenance areas. The big-picture objective of the federal NSPS rules is to establish emission standards for CAPs by source category, such as stationary RICE, that apply to new and reconstructed stationary equipment.

The primary goal of the NESHAP program is also the establishment of emission standards, but for HAPs rather than CAPs. However, as point-ed out earlier, the NESHAP Subpart ZZZZ RICE rule indirectly lends assis-tance in the effort of attaining NAAQS compliance, since CO is defined as a surrogate for formaldehyde (the HAP of greatest concern for engines) and formaldehyde (as a VOC) as an ozone precursor.

Individual state rules that set forth other RICE emissions-related require-ments in addition to the federal ones are normally part of an ozone or NOx control program that applies to facilities in non-attainment areas or areas con-tributing to non-attainment.

Examples of NAAQS-Driven Emissions Compliance Issues Affecting RICE

Better understanding of how NAAQS ultimately drives changes to state and federal emission regulations allows us to consider some examples of air compliance issues that could af-fect RICE in 2011 and beyond.

RICE Installations in New Ozone Nonattainment Areas - In Part 2 of this series, current eight-hour ozone non-attainment areas across the Unit-ed States based on the 80 ppb standard were compared with projected non-attainment areas based on a tighter 75 ppb standard. Under this scenario, the number of affected counties doubled.

The revised ozone standard to be finalized by August 2011 is anticipated to fall within an even tighter range of 60 to 70 ppb. The U.S. map in Figure 2 shows counties projected to violate a primary eight-hour ozone standard of 60 to 70 ppb by the year 2020. If an owner or operator is planning to con-


Figure 1. This example of an emission standards summary report was taken from an applicability determination made for a four-stroke lean-burn gas-fired engine operated at a major source of hazardous air pollutants (HAPs). (Courtesy of step2compliance, RICE Rule Applicability Service.)


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struct or modify stationary RICE in any of these areas, there is a high prob-ability that the proposed engines will have to achieve further NOx and VOC emission reductions after 2012-13.

If the units are already found to be subject to one of the federal emission standards (NSPS or NESHAP), it is pos-sible that compliance with these stan-dards will be sufficient depending on factors such as the engine’s manufac-ture date, facility HAP status and horse-power rating. The limiting factor for NAAQS compliance demonstrations on post-2012 construction projects may be the one-hour NO2 standard rather than eight-hour ozone for low-stack and close-fenceline scenarios.

Emergency Generators and the One-Hour NO2 Standard - When the one-hour NO2 standard was promulgated in 2010, a major con-cern was how emergency generators would fare in locations near property boundaries or major roadways. Un-til March 2011, when the EPA issued additional clarification on model-ing guidance for this new standard, some gray areas existed with respect to modeling of intermittent emission sources for the demonstration of NAAQS compliance.

In the guidance memo entitled, “Additional Clarification Regarding Application of Appendix W Modeling Guidance for the One-Hour NO2 Na-

tional Ambient Air Quality Standard,” EPA said “… we are concerned that assuming continuous operations for intermittent emissions would effec-tively impose an additional level of stringency beyond that intended by the level of the standard itself. As a result, we feel that it would be in-appropriate to implement the one-hour NOx standard in such a man-ner and recommend that compliance demonstrations for the one-hour NO2 NAAQS be based on emission scenar-ios that can logically be assumed to be relatively continuous …”

EPA is essentially advocating a common-sense approach to NAAQS compliance demonstrations, which is good news for facilities such as emergency generators that operate occasionally. Rather than basing dis-persion modeling data input on the maximum hourly emissions rate, the door has been opened to allow the modeling of these impacts based on average hourly rates. EPA further said, “For example, if a proposed permit includes a limit of 500 hours per year or less for an emergency generator, a modeling analysis could be based on assuming continuous operation at the average hourly rate, i.e., the maxi-mum hourly rate times 500/8760.”

Demonstrating compliance with the one-hour NO2 standard may present challenges for stationary RICE in con-


Figure 2. This map shows counties in the United States that can be expected to exceed the eight-hour ozone standard of 60 to 70 ppb by 2020.

tinuous service located a bit too close to the facility’s property boundary. However, engines operated as emer-gency or standby units have a much better chance of avoiding additional mitigation costs that could result from this new NAAQS.

Many stationary engines, both gas-fired and diesel, go through the air permitting process without having to perform the direct NAAQS compliance demonstrations that may be required for major source pre-construction through permitting programs. How-ever, the evolving NAAQS for criteria pollutants represent a hidden yet for-midable driving force behind myriad air quality regulations affecting RICE owners and operators in the future.

It is worth noting that the absence of NAAQS for greenhouse gases (GHGs), although normally a non-negotiable prerequisite for mandat-ing emissions control and permit-ting requirements, has not prevented EPA from moving forward with other rules that RICE operators need to be aware of, such as the PSD/Title V Tailoring Rule. By closely follow-ing the status of these ever-changing criteria pollutant standards, operators will be better equipped to prepare for unexpected hurdles involving engine installations. A


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In 1899, A.W. France patented the tangent cut packing ring design.This single event not only ushered in a new era of compressor sealing but also laid the foundation upon which the company known today as Compressor Products International was built.

The France tangent cut packing ring design eliminated a variety of piston rod sealing problems and paved the way for the development of higher pressure compressors. While today’s compressor packing rings are offered in a range of new sophisticated materials, this original France design remains an industry standard.

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Compressor Products Interna-tional (CPI) has expanded its opera-tions in China with the opening of a 300,000 sq.ft. (27,870 m2) facility that includes a workshop with a variety of machining capabilities.

CPI said the Shanghai, China, fa-cility will support its Asian customer base with technical sales support, and manufacturing/reconditioning services for the company’s core pro-duction lines, which include compres-sor valves, packing and wiper rings, packing cases, piston and rider rings, and lubrication products and systems.

In addition to the Shanghai location, CPI has a sales office in Beijing, China.

Westport Innovations Inc. has en-tered into an agreement with Caterpillar Inc. to evaluate direct-injection, natural-gas fuel system technologies for possible use on Caterpillar’s large engines.

Westport focuses on alternative-fuel, low emission transportation technolo-gies that allow engines to operate on fuels such as compressed natural gas, liquefied natural gas, hydrogen and biofuels. It is based in Vancouver, Brit-ish Columbia, Canada.

Caterpillar and Westport will share expenses on a program to be com-pleted next year to demonstrate the integration of their respective direct-injection, natural-gas technologies for large engine applications.

GE Oil & Gas said its Wellstream business has been awarded a long-term, flexible pipe and subsea equipment logistics services contract by Petróleo Brasileiro S.A. (Petrobras). The work is valued at more than US$200 million.

In March, GE completed its US$1.3 billion acquisition of Wellstream, which designs and makes flexible oil and gas pipeline products for the sub-sea production industry. To fulfill the new contact, GE will build a dedicated 600,000 sq.ft. (55,000 m2), US$90 mil-

lion Wellstream facility in Niterói, 8.5 mi. (14 km) from Rio de Janeiro.

Meanwhile, GE Energy has opened an office in Ashgabat, Turkmenistan, to serve that nation’s power generation and oil and gas sectors.

The office will include a training fa-cility and a technology showcase. The initial staff will include commercial and technical engineers.

GE has provided water purification and oil and gas technology services in Turkmenistan. It also has installed gas turbines with the capacity to generate more than 1700 MW of electricity.

Kittiwake Developments Ltd., of Littlehampton, U.K., has acquired Hol-royd Instruments Ltd., which makes acoustic emission technology.

The newly named Kittiwake Holroyd will supply acoustic emission instru-ments for the early detection of prob-lems related to monitoring the condi-tion of rotating machinery. Holroyd is based in Matlock, U.K.

Kittiwake specializes in machinery monitoring, fuel and lube oil analysis, emissions monitoring and water testing.

Timken Co., a bearings manufactur-er based in Canton, Ohio, U.S.A., is ac-quiring Philadelphia Gear Corp. for US$200 million.

Philadelphia Gear provides gear drives, replacement products and serv-ices for markets including energy and infrastructure. It recently was awarded a US$80 million contract to provide main reduction gears for the U.S. Navy.

Chris Coughlin, president of Timken’s Process Industries segment, said, “Phila-delphia Gear is an excellent fit with Timken. It will strengthen our presence precisely in the areas we’ve targeted.”

Philadelphia Gear is based in King of Prussia, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., and has 220 employees. It will be merged into Timken’s industrial services business.

Cardinal Gas Storage Partners LLC

has acquired Monroe Gas Storage Co. LLC as well as an option to de-velop to an adjacent depleted natural gas reservoir formerly owned by High Sierra Monroe LLC, a wholly owned subsidiary of High Sierra Energy LP and other shareholders. Purchase price was US$148 million.

Monroe has operated in northeast Mississippi since 2009 and has 12 Bcf (340 x 106 m3) of working gas capac-ity, which could be doubled through expansion of the existing facility and development of the option. It has in-terconnects with Tennessee Gas Pipe-line and Texas Eastern Pipeline.

Established in 2008, Cardinal is a joint venture between Redbird Gas Storage LLC and funds controlled by Energy Capital Partners LLC. It also owns Perryville Gas Storage LLC, Arca-dia Gas Storage LLC and Cadeville Gas Storage LLC.

Victrex Polymer Solutions is building a technical center in Tokyo, Japan, which will be completed by the end of the year, according to the com-pany. The new center will supplement similar centers in Shanghai, China, and in Lancashire, U.K. The company makes polyaryletherketones (PAEK) for high-end materials and process technology. It is a division of Victrex Plc of Thornton Cleveleys, U.K.

Toromont Industries Ltd. com-pleted the spin-off of Enerflex Ltd., its natural gas compression business, on June 1 after receiving the approval of its shareholders and Canadian regu-latory officials. A

CPI … WestPort InnovatIons … CaterPIllar … Ge oIl & Gas … Petrobras … Ge enerGy …

KIttIWaKe DeveloPments … HolroyD Instruments … tImKen … PHIlaDelPHIa Gear CorP. … CarDInal Gas storaGe … monroe Gas storaGe … vICtrex Polymer

solutIons … toromont InDustrIes … enerflex

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Compressor Tech - July 2011

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