Combeau-Mari Evelyne, -« The Introduction of Gymnastics and Sport by the

Military : Horseracing, Society Life and Festivities-From Gallieni To Cayla (1896-

1939), in Combeau-Mari Evelyne, Colonial Sport in Madagascar, 1896-1960, Special

issue of the International Journal of the History of Sport, London, Routledge Taylor

and Francis Group, Volume 28, Number 12, August 2011, pp.1586-1604.

The Introduction of Gymnastics and Sport by the Military: Horseracing, Society Life and Festivities

From Gallieni to Cayla (1896-1939) A method for toughening bodies, physical exercise advocated for its moral achievement was

now seen as a necessary auxiliary to the individual’s intellectual training. A tradition of

physical practices going under the rather vague term of “gymnastics” had been developed and

disseminated in France since the late 18th century. Drawing from foreign influences—Jahn’s

turnen1 in Germany, Ling’s method2 in Sweden and contributions by Colonel Amoros3 from

Spain—the “French Method” was established in its final form when the Gymnase Normal

Militaire et Civil de Grenelle4 [Grenelle Military & Civil Teacher Training School] was

instituted in 1819.5 The French Method, in which two major types of exercise were associated

(free floor exercises and apparatus work, according to principles ruling military, school and

commercial gymnastics) was the model for gymnastics taught in France for the best part of

the 19th century and the very early 20th century. Fortified by their pioneering role and drawing

on a peerless instructor training institution—the Joinville-le-Pont Gymnastics Teacher

1 The German Friedrich-Ludwig Jahn set up patriotic gymnastics following Prussia’s defeat by Napoleon at Jena in 1806. Based on the learning of collective discipline combined with character toughening, this method was aimed at making good soldiers. 2 Using the principles of anatomy, Ling elaborated gymnastics claiming a scientific, medical and rational character. 3 This Spaniard at the service of King Joseph Bonaparte was forced to take refuge in France as of 1814. In 1830 he published a Manual of Physical and Moral Education where he distinguished between “civil and industrial” and military and medical gymnastics, attempting to make a synthesis of the various trends. As he was not favourably received in educational circles, Amoros turned towards military authorities. 4 From 1846 it was felt as increasingly necessary to create a fully-fledged Ecole normale [Teacher Training College] to train instructors. The Joinville-le-Pont School was founded in 1852. 5 See R. Hubscher, J. Durry and B. Jeu, L’histoire en mouvements, le sport dans la société française (XIXème-XXème), Paris: Armand Colin, 1992, p. 23.

Training College6 opened in 1852—the military made gymnastics their preserve. Such

domination was even stronger in the colonies: “We have been spurred to undertake distant

enterprises mainly by the necessity to give the Army and Navy some occupation,”7 wrote

Indochina’s former governor Jean-Marie de Lanessan in 1897. In this context, colonisation

gave the military a precedence over the political personnel, as shown by the fact that the first

governors appointed to important colonies such as Madagascar and Morocco were General

Gallieni (in 1896) and his disciple General Liautey, respectively. Beyond their vague official

desire to set up a civilian administration, they introduced a long-lasting influence on the

colony’s social and cultural life. During the year 1904 I continued to mitigate the sway of the military administration in the few countries where it was still prevalent. Civil servants were progressively substituted to garrisoned officers and NCOs, paving the way for the installation of civil administration, the system of government any new country should eventually be ruled by as soon as order is established. When I left the colony in May 1905, only three military garrisons proper were left, based in Morondava, Maintirano and Fort-Dauphin.8

At the turn of the 20th century, the Empire was regarded more as a supply of men that

could easily be drafted in the event of a conflict than as an opportunity for territorial conquest,

as shown in Gabriel Hanotaux’s response to the question by Léopold King of Belgians in the

foreword of a book on General Gallieni: “But what on earth are you trying to get from Africa?” “Majesty,” I answered, “soldiers. And to find soldiers we are sending soldiers there, these admirable officers and non-commissioned officers who train and supervise our black troops, and whom we are with today.” We sensed that this elite had to be trained and kept at the ready, as France might need it one day.9

General Mangin theorized about the principle of physical and military preparation for

overseas populations in his book La force noire [Black Force].10

Familiar with physical activity as a result of new laws11 and through combat preparation,

the military who conquered Madagascar were also keen practitioners of the gymnastics and

sports they introduced. They were instrumental in implementing first gymnastics, then sport,

within the colony’s military, school and civil structures.

6 It was headed by Major d’Argy, a former student of Amoros. See Marcel Spivak, “Education physique, sport et nationalisme en France du Second Empire au Front populaire: un aspect original de la défense nationale,” Doctoral Thesis, U. of Paris I, 1983. 7 Quoted by Xavier Yacono, Histoire de la colonisation française, Paris: PUF, Que sais-je?, 1973, p. 46. 8 General Gallieni, Neuf ans à Madagascar, Paris: Hachette, 1908, p. 262. CAOM (French Overseas Archives), shelf mark BIB-SOM-D1181. 9 Preface by Gabriel Hanotaux, of the Académie française, in Judith Cladel, Le Général Gallieni, Paris: Librairie militaire Berger-Levrault, 1916, p. 8. 10 Charles Mangin, La force noire, Paris: Hachette, 1910. 11 Physical training was made compulsory in the Army as of 1819.

I- Gymnastics and sport, a military culture

Eager adepts of Amorosian gymnastics to maintain their physical fitness, the military

systematically included a full training course in their programmes, more often with fencing,

shooting12 and horseracing. Colonial authorities encouraged the creation of regiment sporting

groups. Madagascar’s first sporting club called Le Casse-patte [Leg-Breaker] stemmed from

the 13th Colonial Infantry Regiment, and so were the groups set up in the provinces, especially

Tamatave (Taomasina) and Diego Suarez. Meetings between military teams led to sporting

competitions—in which the officers’ teams won all the first prizes until the 1940s. After the

First World War the military systematically included “native” recruits in their general training

programmes. Overcoming local reluctance and signs of passivity, the military authorities

imposed physical preparation even in the most remote provinces.

The army also fostered the development of gymnastics and sporting activities in the

general public. As early as February 1901, during regiment festivities, battalions offered

spectators from the colonial elite gymnastics displays based on group movements

sequences.13 (Photo FR ANOM 44 PA 164/97) Starting in 1904, the Palace Festival14

included even more spectacular acrobatics and human pyramids. The imposing building of the

13th Infantry Regiment (the Prime Minister’s palace during the former Merina monarchy) was

used as background to public demonstrations by officers. (Photo FR ANOM 44 PA 172/ 11 or

13) Apparatus—here parallel bars—is the stable fulcrum of a colourful composition15 with

practically perfect symmetry. Note the studied elegance of the participants’ wear: alternated

white and black shirts and shorts producing the illusion of staggered stripes, and the

extremely effective visual effect of the human pyramid tapering at the top with two European

children standing on their hands. Such performance is clear evidence that carefully prepared

shows were essential to arouse a dramatic impression in audiences. Embodying the virile

power of the European male, the finale was a symbol of stability, with well-mastered

acrobatics underpinning the aesthetic beauty of solidarity consented to in purely military

discipline. Demonstrations were not limited to apparatus work. Shows meant to both entertain

and impress were organized into several scenes and included wrestlers,16 fencers,17 boxers,18

12 See the Gallieni Collection photographs at the CAOM, shelf mark FR ANOM 44 PA 172/ 157-160, “Tananarive, 29 mai 1904, concours annuel de tir” [Antananarivo, 29 May 1904, Annual Shooting Contest]. 13 Gallieni Photographic Collection, FR ANOM 44 PA 164/ 96-97. 14 Gallieni Photographic Collection, FR ANOM 44 PA 172/10-11-12-13-15-16-17-18-19. 15 Gallieni Photographic Collection, CAOM-FR ANOM 44 PA 172/11. 16 Gallieni Photographic Collection, CAOM-FR ANOM 44 PA 172/8. 17 Gallieni Photographic Collection, CAOM-FR ANOM 44 PA 172/7.

as well as acrobats, tightrope walkers, clowns,19 etc.

The development of Amorosian gymnastics in Madagascar—just as the early propagation

of sport—resulted from the promotion of physical training by General Gallieni himself. The

son of an Army captain, he was educated at La Flèche Military School and completed his

studies at the Saint-Cyr Military Academy. His craving for action and adventure led him to

join the Marine Infantry, where he started as sub-lieutenant when the 1870 Franco-German

war was declared. After a minor head wound and six months as a prisoner in Germany,

Gallieni, aged 22, was never to forget the bitterness of defeat. Repressing his dream of

becoming an explorer, he resolutely engaged in colonial wars: Senegal, Sudan, Indochina and

Madagascar. Born in the Pyrenees, the General considered mountains the prime source of his

inspiration and drive. Mountain races fortified his dream by developing in this young, passionate, intense nature a taste for the unexpected, the joy of overcoming obstacles, the emotion of facing this or that danger, the exhilaration of feeling his physical and moral forces give him the ability to yearn for an ideal and be certain to achieve it.20

The mountains taught him to withstand and overcome physical weakness. Gallieni was a

tireless walker who would carry his men along and go all the way by foot to investigate every

detail of a situation. He was also convinced of the benefits of body toughening through

rational practise of gymnastics, which he recommended for troops. He was an eager promoter

of cycling21 and sports in the colony. The Gallieni Photograph Collection,22 which gives sport

pride of place, bears witness to that: many pictures taken between 1901 and 1904 feature

cycling competitions,23 water sport activities on Lake Anosy24 and tennis matches.25

The Army designed the layout of most of the first gymnastics display and sporting

practise areas. The Mahamasina plain was used for the training of colonial troops (See Photo

FR ANOM 44 PA 169/190) before it was converted into a racecourse. The track also served

18 Gallieni Photographic Collection, CAOM-FR ANOM 44 PA 172/9. 19 Gallieni Photographic Collection, CAOM-FR ANOM 44 PA 172/14, and Frédérique Gallo, “Les photographies du fonds Gallieni Madagascar 1896-1905: Les reflets d’une colonie” [The Gallieni Photographic Collection, Madagascar 1896-1905: Images of a Colony], Master’s Degree Dissertation under the supervision of Marc Michel and Yvan Paillard, Université de Provence, History Department, 1991. 20 Judith Cladel, Le Général Gallieni, op. cit. p. 18. 21 After introducing the wheel used in the island's carts, the young forwarding agent Giraud Vinet imported the first bicycle to Antananarivo in 1898. M. Pignères, “Jadis et naguère,” La Revue technique de Madagascar, 3, December 1963. 22 This splendid collection (not accessible to the general public) is kept at the Overseas Archive Centre (CAOM), with shelf mark FR ANOM 44 PA. 23 Gallieni Photographic Collection, CAOM-FR ANOM 44 PA 164/113-114 and FR ANOM 44 PA 170/39-40-41-42-49-53. 24 Gallieni Photographic Collection, CAOM-FR ANOM 44 PA 172/118-132. 25 Gallieni Photographic Collection, CAOM-FR ANOM 44 PA 171/17-22.

as a velodrome26 from 1902, and the central part of the stadium was then devoted to football.

Ball games, rugby and association were introduced in the late 19th century by the European

military, who later trained indigenous troops after the first World War. For many years in

mainland France, and even more so in the colonies, the Army was the breeding ground where

the French Government recruited the best part of public and private school teachers for

reasons of convenience and competence. For instance, a decision dated 13 March 190927

officially made Colonial Infantry Corporal Cantinian, of the Emyrne Battalion, responsible for

gymnastics courses in the state secondary school for boys opened in 1907 by Victor

Augagneur. His methods, inspired by the Joinville training system, were clearly military, as

stated by writer Jean Paulhan, then a young French teacher in the school: Outside, Corporal Cantinian, who teaches the kids gymnastics, is shouting. He takes them the military way. The first day he looked at young Bourgoin from head to toe somewhat disrespectfully and said: “Make sure you lose that fat, young man.” The only thing Bourgoin could do was burst out into tears.28

The first civilian sporting clubs were initiated by the military, in particular the Sport-club

de Madagascar, the reference gathering place for Antananarivo notabilities. But in the same

way as the sport was becoming popular among a still neophyte public in Britain, then in

France, horseracing became the premier entertainment, the spectacle by excellence, for which

the European elite and the indigenous population gathered in the same venue, each in their

own place, both equally attracted by the temptation of gambling.

II- The origins of horseracing

Importing horses into Madagascar was clearly both a military and economic necessity.

Horses had already proved their efficiency in the process of armed conquest and pacification.

It was now necessary to solve the problem of transport urgently in an island devoid of

highways. The horse was the ideal means to reach the most remote places in the bush. An

excellent rider, General Gallieni made his rounds throughout Madagascar on horseback; in

particular he went on a five-month exploration journey in 1898 to discover and map the

island’s different regions. It is well-known that the Governor-General of Madagascar performs most of his duties on horseback: he always rides to make his rounds and form a clear idea of local conditions by himself on the spot, examine the settlers’ and natives’ claims personally and give the necessary orders to solve pending

26 See photographic document p. 133 in Exposition universelle de 1900, les colonies françaises, Madagascar, Paris: Calmann-Levy, 1900. 27 Note 4 by Laurence Ink in the new edition of Jean Paulhan, Lettres de Madagascar 1907-1910, Paris: Editions Claire Paulhan, (new edition) 2007, p. 444. 28 Ibid. p. 443.

matters here and now.29

The Governor had a passion for animal husbandry and wanted the local populations to

take to it. One difficulty was how to acclimatize European races to Madagascar conditions.

He asked experts to develop a new race of horses adapted to the country’s needs. The first

results were showcased at the lavish 1902 Agricultural Show (Photo FR ANOM 44 PA

169/5): The Horse Show was particularly noted because after a long period of experiments and even failures, the problem of creating a race adapted to the country’s needs was finally solved. It became increasingly obvious that the solution they had long sought after was to stop trying to acclimatize imported animals for service and populate the country only with animals born from cross-breeding indigenous mares with stallions introduced solely for reproduction. The number of horses entered for competition, which had been only about 40 at the 1900 Agricultural Show, was in excess of 300 in 1902. These horses had their fathers’ beauty and their mothers’ resistance and rustic character, were small, well built, robust, capable of running long distances, and required little fodder …30

In addition to animal display, the first sporting events were introduced at the Androhibe

Agricultural Show to a European and Malagasy audience. Horse shows included jumping

(Photo FR ANOM 44 PA 169/78), which was not reserved to the French military only (Photo

FR ANOM 44 PA 169/85), and steeplechase. Competitions, tournaments (Photo FR ANOM

44 PA 172/113), races and betting were organized to entertain the European and Malagasy

population, raise money and foster horsing. These sporting celebrations later became periodical and were managed alternatively by the Société d’encouragement [Horse Promotion Society] and Société du Sport-Club de Tananarive; they were much appreciated both by the European colony and the native population. I was fain to encourage them through subsidies, not only to organize entertainments loved by the public, but first and foremost to instil the liking of horses in the Malagasy and make everybody aware of a problem the solution of which was closely linked to the development of the colony.31

The Horse Promotion Society was founded in Antananarivo in 1903 with the view of

improving horse races. Its Board composition32 shows the immediate participation of major

businesses and the inevitable military control. The presence of two “indigenous” members

testifies to the concern of making the Malagasy population aware of the horse issue. The

Society organised the first races on the Mahamasina Plain converted into a racecourse. The

Governor-General chose this site with a high historical charge in the Malagasy collective

29 Captain X (attached to the Governor-General’s Headquarters), Voyage du Général Gallieni, cinq mois autour de Madagascar, Paris: Hachette, 1901, p. 11. 30 General Gallieni, Neuf ans à Madagascar, op. cit. p. 205. 31 Ibid., p. 248. 32 Composition of the Board of Société d’encouragement de Tananarive pour l’amélioration des races de chevaux à Madagascar in 1904: Mr Prémont, Deputy Director of Grands Etablissements Gatry, President; Lieutenant Lobez, Aide-de-Camp to the Governor-General, Vice-President; Mr Lesueur, auctioneer, Secretary & Treasurer. European members: Mr Poitevin, trader; Commandant Dubois; Mr Jully, Head of Civil Buildings Office; Mr Raoult, Civil Affairs Clerk. Indigenous members: Mr Ranarivelo, Mr Ratelifera. Guide annuaire [Directory] de Madagascar et dépendances, Antananarivo: Imprimerie officielle, 1904, p. 592.

memory to be the privileged venue for his contact with the colony’s population. [The plain of] Mahamasina was used as a parade ground by Radama I (1810-1828), then Ranavalona I (1828-1861). A sacred stone was erected on it, and key ceremonies were organized there, such as the first public appearance of Ranavalona III in November 1883. During the 19th century political leaders more and more frequently chose to convene the people there for major proclamations.33

Located below the Rova (Royal Palace) and surrounded by hills, this open space was a

large amphitheatre were people could gather not only in the central enclosure but also on the

surrounding slopes. General Gallieni gradually transformed and developed this reference

place according to Western urban standards and used the sporting facilities, horse racecourse,

velodrome and stadium as a collective communion arena.

The initiative begun in the capital soon spread to the provinces. In the same year in

Tamatave, during a visit by General Gallieni, a first horse show was organized in preparation

for the establishment of the Société d’encouragement34 [Society for the improvement of the

horse race] in the East Coast of Madagascar. With its grandstand decorated with French

flags,35 track and refreshment stall, the racecourse became one of the most popular places

were the colonial and native elite would meet. While the ladies in their hats and finest attire

gathered at the refreshment stall,36 the men conferred on the future of the horse in

Madagascar. They discussed how to alter breeding methods: feeding, appropriate care in the

coastal regions, where conditions were significantly different from those in the Imerina, etc.

General Gallieni intended to create a local coastal race through acclimatization, different from

the High Plateaus crossbred race and reinforced from time to time with imported animals.

Such special concern for horses, their beauty and aspect can easily be inferred from the

numerous photographs in General Gallieni’s book, Neuf ans à Madagascar [Nine Years in

Madagascar],37 or in newspaper articles.38

The local population enjoyed the spectacle of races (Photo ANTA) and gambling.

33 Rajaonah V. Faranirina, “La fête des enfants à Antananarivo au temps de la colonisation (1899-1959),” in Odile Goerg (ed.), Fêtes urbaines en Afrique, Espaces, identités et pouvoirs, Paris: Karthala, 1999, p. 115. 34 The 1904 Board of the Tamatave Société d’encouragement on the East Coast of Madagascar included Mr Baillet, President; Captain Preud’homme, Vice-President; Mr Didelot, Secretary; Mr Vibien, Treasurer. Members were Messrs de Rocca-Serra, Mori, Bensch, Gojon, Bousquet. Guide annuaire de Madagascar et dépendances, op. cit. p. 592. 35 Gallieni Photographic Collection, FR ANOM 44 PA 170/39. 36 Gallieni Photographic Collection, FR ANOM 44 PA 170/46. 37 See on page 205 the photograph of horse breeding stables at Iboaka farm in the province of Fianarantsoa. General Gallieni, Neuf ans à Madagascar, op. cit. 38 Madagascar illustré, Saturday 15 January 1938, Madagascar National Archives. Two magnificent photographs depict the finest specimens to be found at the Antananarivo stud. Above: Kandahar, a purebred Anglo-Arabian at the stud since 1923. Below: Etendard, a crossbred Anglo-Arabian-Australian born in the colony on 4 November 1923.

Jockeys, essentially recruited among the Malagasy, became huge celebrities.39 (See Photo

ANTA). The Europeans preferred horse races (Photo FR ANOM 44 PA 171/63) where the

military displayed their skills. Most of the time these events were organized by the reserve

and active service officers’ entertainment committee in front of a stand where the notables,

among whom the Governor-General and his wife and the Chief Army Commander, sat in the

front rows. The event started with a hunting-style race performed by NCOs; then on a special

course, junior riders did their best efforts to implement the skills learnt in riding lessons.

Lastly, the ladies and the military’s and notables’ wives, daughters or sisters displayed their

cleverness and grace in riding and jumping.

In the mid 1930s, during the Cayla governorship, horse riding was all the rage,

symbolizing the climax of colonial society life. The first sign of this was the complete

upgrading and development of the Mahamasina racecourse (see photograph in Revue de

Madagascar, 1937, p. 13) and its surroundings40 in 1936: the racetrack was redesigned and

three new stands were built, “looking very modern with their bold cantilever canopy”41 (see

photograph in Revue de Madagascar, 1937, p. 19). L’Etrier [The Stirrup], a new civilian club

reserved for the colonial elite, was set up in Antananarivo in 1937.42 Presided by Colonial

Inspector Lavaud, the club used the same practice types as those initiated by the military, yet

promoting a new generation of riders who succeeded in steeple chase such as Jacques

Hannebicque,43 one of Mr Dimiglio’s pupils, aged only 14, who won the Georges Mayer

Prize at the 22 May 1938 races. The club also tried to introduce new activities such as a three-

stage rally on horseback44 between Ambatoloana and Antananarivo. At the heart of the

Antananarivo society life, L’Etrier organized two-pronged events: first horseracing and

competitions, then elegance and motoring, under the benign patronage of the Governor-

General and the Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Armies.45 In the late thirties, while the

Antananarivo society was running out of steam46 under the presidency of Mr Assolant,

racecourses and horse promotion societies multiplied in the provinces. The Anosy racecourse

39 Madagascar Sports et cinéma, 21, Thursday 23 June 1938, CAOM. Note in the three photographs of the Mahamasina riding competition a Malagasy jockey, Ramananarivo, jumping a fence. 40 See La revue de Madagascar, 17, January 1937, Antananarivo: Imprimerie officielle. 41 Madagascar illustré, Saturday 16 October 1937. 42 Published in the Official Gazette of 4 December 1937. 43 See the column “Silhouette sportive” [Sports Profile] with his caricature in Madagascar Sports et cinéma, 18, Thursday 2 June 1938. 44 Madagascar illustré, Saturday 7 January 1938. 45 Madagascar Sports et cinéma, 26, Thursday 28 July 1938. 46 Madagascar Sports et cinéma, 13, Thursday 28 April 1938 and Madagascar Sports et cinéma, 17, Thursday 26 May 1938.

was built in Fiarantsoa.47 But Antsirabe, the “new oasis of imperial power”48 (Photo ANTA)

was the city which most benefited from the passion for stylish open-air recreation under the

Cayla governorship. The whole Antananarivo upper-class now headed to the spa and holiday

resort in the Ankaratra High Plateaus. This description of the 1938 Easter Sunday at the

Antsirabe racecourse presided by Governor-General Cayla himself gives a clear idea of

colonial life atmosphere: A large crowd filled the charming Antsirabe racecourse where the steeple chase was held. First came the officers, putting on some fine displays: Captain de Ricaumont riding Nicolas II, Lieutenant Mercier on Nuageux and Captain Duran on Messager. No incidents, except two head-over-heels by Millionnaire ridden by Captain Redon who did an unwilling somersault and Captain de Ricaumont on Familier whose keenest wish was to head back to the stables. Then all of the gentlemen in turn displayed their talents: Mr Bergué on Mascotte, Mr Dimilglio on Laurelle and Mr de Ricaumont on La Barbe distinguished themselves, after which Mrs Assolant on Mascotte, Mrs Segretin on Laurelle, Mrs Casselle on Mine de Rien did justice to their skill and grace. The juniors Jacques Hannebicque on Droit, Jean Verier on Mandoline and JP Fonterme on Laurelle confirmed that they have heeded the lessons of their excellent instructor Mr Dimiglio. A puissance event then pitted the best riders and jumpers … All in all, the day was a perfect success. It so satisfactory to see that horses are becoming very much in vogue these days.49

Yet the colonial elite did not find entertainment only on racecourses.

III- The Antananarivo Sport-Club and European society life

Colonial society reproduced the social life styles of its mainland France counterpart, with

the typical exaggerations seen in close communities. The classic ingredients were the desire to

show off, to seek entertainment and to rise up the social ladder through old-boy networks.

Antananarivo’s micro-society consisted of military people and administrators, with a

sprinkling of traders or rich industrialists and a few settlers; they had their specific rites, codes

and exclusive meeting places; they created learned societies, welfare organizations and

entertained themselves with fancy dress balls and evening dances. They went to the

Antsampanimahazo Municipal Theatre50 (See Jacques Clemens postcard p. 125) to see French

and Malagasy-speaking plays and shows and listen to concerts by the Société philarmonique

or the Orphéon malgache. They played British sports, especially tennis (Photo FR ANOM 44

PA 171/19) at the Club. The Cercle (as it was also called) was the French equivalent of the

47 Madagascar Sports et cinéma, 15, Thursday 12 May 1938. 48 See the analysis by Eric T. Jennings, Curing the Colonizers, Hydrotherapy, Climatology and French Colonial Spas, Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2006, pp. 138-53. Through the study of spas and hydrotherapy Jennings shows the colonial administrators’ desire to relocate the political capital from Antananarivo to Antsirabe. 49 Madagascar Sports et cinéma, 13, Thursday 28 April 1938. 50 The theatre was built on land belonging to the Queen and was inaugurated on 14 September 1899.

British club. As the historian Maurice Agulhon has shown,51 it was “the typical form of

middle-class sociability in France from the first half of the 19th century.” Originally an

association of men organized to engage in non-profit or recreational activities together, it was

meant to create links in a situation where individuals experienced solitude and uprooting more

than anywhere else.

The colonial elite met in very exclusive circles in the capital and large cities such as

Tamatave, Antsirabe, Diego Suarez, Fianarantsoa, etc. The Sport-Club de Tananarive

(1897),52 Tennis Club Tananarivien (1925) or Golfing Club de Madagascar (1930)53 offered

the possibility to practice sporting activities (swimming, tennis, golf, etc.) in a protected

environment.

The Sport-Club, created in 1897 by Jean Paoli, a professional serviceman,54 was

Madagascar’s first civil sporting society. It was the exemplary locus of society life for

Antananarivo’s European elite, offering quality facilities since its inception. It had the

racecourse and a good velodrome in Mahamasina; in Antsahavola, the “silver valley”—

meaning rich valley55—an “extensive and elegant sports field where the most varied exercises

[could] be practised: pistol shooting, tennis, bowls, etc.”56 Each year, at the garrison shooting

range, the Club organized an international shooting competition with war weapons (Photo FR

ANOM 44 PA 172/158-160). All Europeans could join the club provided they were sponsored

by two members and paid the subscription (2 francs per month57) and membership fee (10

francs). Officially the same conditions applied to the Malagasy; however a study58 of the

photographic collection commissioned by General Gallieni during his governorship points out

that no Malagasies can be seen on Sport-Club pictures; quite the contrary, the photographs

evince the exclusive character of the club (Photo FR ANOM 44 PA 169/127). The pictures

51 Agulhon Maurice, “Le cercle de la France bourgeoise (1810-1848), étude d'une mutation de sociabilité,” Cahier des Annales, Paris: Armand Colin, 1977, p. 16. 52 Interview of Louis Paoli made in Saint-Denis (Reunion) on 21 February 2000. Louis Paoli was born in Antananarivo in 1922; he was a student at Lycée Gallieni in 1940 and joined the “Free French Forces Cadets” in 1942. 53 Madagascar National Archives. File D130. 54 The creation of the club was published on 2 December 1897 in the Madagascar Official Gazette. 55 This was the entertainment place of Ravoninahitriniarivo, one of Prime Minister Rainiharo’s daughters’ son. Tananarive, essai sur ses origines, son développement, son état actuel, Antananarivo: Imprimerie officielle, 1952. 56 Guide annuaire de Madagascar et dépendances, op. cit. p. 592. 57 The amounts for 1908, equivalent to 3 euros today. Members’ guest were accepted free of charge. 58 Frédérique Gallo, “Les photographies du fonds Gallieni Madagascar 1896-1905: Les reflets d’une colonie,” Master’s Dissertation under the supervision of Marc Michel and Yvan Paillard, U. of Provence, Dept of History, 1991.

with mark FR ANOM 44 PA 169/126-127-128-129-13059 present all the male Sport-Club

members around General Gallieni. Some are in uniform (which confirms that the military

influence was strong), proudly posing with their bicycles. In other pictures they are shown in

light-colour suits and colonial helmet with their fencing gear (Photo FR ANOM 44 PA

170/57) or on the velodrome (Photo FR ANOM 44 PA 170/42). The lavish sporting

celebration organized by General Gallieni in September 190060 on the Mahamasina Plain,

decorated with French tricolours, was meant to foster the sporting spirit in Madagascar. It was

a huge popular success according to the pictures showing the large crowd61 in hats and white

lambamena (pareos) gathered in the stadium. The smartly-dressed Malagasy aristocracy was

also present: men in suits and top hats, ladies in white crinolines, hats and umbrellas.62 A

large streamer stretched over the stadium entrance encapsulated the spirit of the event: “All

our wishes are for the glory of France and the prosperity of Madagascar.”63 Sporting,

acrobatic and circus-like actions (bicycle races,64 three-legged races,65 greasy pole,66

horizontal bar67 or clowns68) were performed to surprise and amuse the audience. In March

1904, the Sport-Club had 150 European members already.69 Changes in the Board’s

composition testify to the spreading of sport into civil society. Its President, Mr Noguès,

Administrative Services Director, was a civil servant. The Vice-President was Lieutenant

Lobez,70 Aide-de-Camp to the Governor-General; this confirmed that the Club was under the

tutelage of the military and controlled by General Gallieni. But the Board was gradually

invested by representatives of colonial administration and traders.71 The decline of the

military to the advantage of colonial administrators became clear after the new Governor-

59 These photographs are from the Gallieni Collection, shelf mark FR ANOM 44 PA. 60 See Photograph FRANOM 44 PA 168/79. 61 See Photographs FRANOM 44 PA 168/81-82-83-89-90. 62 See Photograph FRANOM 44 PA 168/96. 63 See Photograph FRANOM 44 PA 168/82. 64 See Photographs FRANOM 44 PA 168/84-93. 65 See Photograph FRANOM 44 PA 168/85. 66 See Photograph FRANOM 44 PA 168/94. 67 See Photograph FRANOM 44 PA 168/86. 68 See Photograph FRANOM 44 PA 168/97. 69 Guide annuaire de Madagascar et dépendances, op. cit. p. 592. 70 Lieutenant Lobez was also Vice-President of the Antananarivo Horse Promotion Society [Société d’encouragement]. 71 Mr Mélan, an administration clerk, was Secretary; Mr Engelhard, a trader, was Treasurer; Mr Damon, a Compagnie Lyonnaise employee and Mr Cadier, a colonial deputy administrator, were assessors; Messrs Paoletti, trader, and Lecocq, deputy Civil Affairs officer, were substitutes. See Guide annuaire de Madagascar et dépendances, op. cit. p. 592.

General Victor Augagneur72 was appointed in December 1905. The craze for tennis (FR

ANOM 44 PA 171/20) spread like wildfire among the members of administrative and

educational circles after the nomination of Education Director Charles Renel,73 a tennis

enthusiast. The writer Jean Paulhan,74 who was appointed French teacher to the European

Boys’ School at its creation75 in January 1908, testified to the pivotal role played by the

Sport-Club in the Antananarivo society life. There was no weekend when he didn’t play

tennis on the Antsahavola courts (See the Jean Paulhan photograph p. 185). He was also

amazed at discovering the pelota wall put up by two Treasury inspectors. He soon became one

of the best players of the championship: Apart from me and Mr Cap, the whole school and administration staff are Freemasons. Yes, and I also play the Basque pelota once a week. It’s a game. I am a Sport-Club member and we have quite a neat place, and players. It’s really gladdening. You’ll see, you’ll see when I’m back in Paris. Could you please give 60 francs to Maurice? It’s to buy myself a chistera and balls. The balls are on the Sport-Club, they will refund them to me.76

The capital’s Sport-Club became a model for the provinces. The Tulear Sport-Club was

set up in 190477 and presided by Mr Jaussaud, a trader; its Vice-President was Mr Ortholan,

second-class Army doctor. The Moramanga Sport-Club was registered in the Official Gazette

on 22 December 1923, that of Toliara on 18 June 1927, that of Maevatanana on 24 May 1930,

etc. Colonists’ wives were admitted at the clubs, where they mainly played tennis (Photo FR

ANOM 44 PA 171/101). Women were part of society life not only in the capital. The

Tamatave Lawn Tennis Club,78 established by a Governor-General’s decree dated 15

December 1902,79 had 22 European and Creole members, including ten women and young

ladies. It was specified in the statutes that “Ladies can be members of the Club by right.” The

President was a man (Mr Sadreux), but the Vice-President and Secretary-Treasurer were

women (respectively Mrs Robin and Mrs Tortel). Women also actively arranged festivities.80

72 A former mayor of Lyon, physician and Freemason, Victor Augagneur was appointed Governor after the colony had been pacified. His remit was to disband part of the occupation troops and trim the administration while carefully controlling newly recruited civil servants (including teachers), most of whom were Freemasons. 73 A Professor of French at the Lyon Faculty of Arts, Charles Renel (1870-1925) was appointed Chief Education Officer by Victor Augagneur on 1 December 1906. He remained in this position until 1925. A Freemason, he became the Master of the Antananarivo Lodge, affiliated to the Grand Orient de France. 74 Paulhan Jean, Lettres de Madagascar 1907-1910, Paris: Editions Claire Paulhan, (reprint) 2007. 75 A staunch laic, Victor Augagneur created an official secondary school network on 4 January 1908 to counter Catholic and Protestant schools which dominated education. 76 Letter by Jean Paulhan to his mother dated Sunday 31 May 1908, op. cit. p. 181. 77 Ibid. 78 See Letter by the Tamatave Lawn Tennis Club President to the Colonial Administrator, Province Chief and Mayor of Tamatave dated 8 December 1925, Madagascar National Archives, D130. 79 Registered in the Madagascar Official Gazette No. 765 of 27 December 1902. 80 See the “1902 Sporting Show” photograph where European women can clearly be seen. Grandidier

The Club organized public celebrations meant to amuse the European colony and amaze the

indigenous population. In March 1902 the Sport-Club launched a flower carnival81 at Mid-

Lent, and a float display was added in 1903 (FR ANOM 44 PA 171/1). Iconographic

documents tend to show that the most successful parade was that of 190482 (CAOM Poster).

TSG The parades mobilized every section of the European and Malagasy population in

Antananarivo, with the floats vying to outdo each other for beauty and creativity. Almost all

the European and Malagasy inhabitants of Antanarivo took part in the parades—military,

firemen, civil servants, workers, etc. The floats competed for both beauty and originality: with

a locomotive (“Li Roques Oise” [a pun on “Iroquois”]) hauling two cars, a boat called

Djemnah, not to mention a “Sahara I Emperor” or a “Half-Moon,” the streets of the capital

were in full swing. The Europeans in fancy dress marched along the astonished Malagasy

crowd standing on both sides of the streets.

As founding members of the Sport-Club, the Paoli father, son and grandson played a key

role in promoting and structuring sport in Madagascar. The grandson Louis, an “all-round”

sportsman, as he likes to call himself, gives a precious testimony:83

My father Paul Paoli witnessed and contributed to the introduction of sport in Madagascar. The son of Jean Paoli, who arrived in the island with the first French colonizers as a soldier in General Gallieni’s troops (1896), he was born in Madagascar and raised in the cantonment (now the Prime Minister’s palace) like all military families. He was fed by a young Malagasy woman84 aged 18 at the time, a former slave who was hired to serve the family in 1905. This initial experience made him a devoted lover of the country. My grandfather Jean Paoli was the creator of the Sport-Club.

Paul began to practise sports when a child as one of the Casse-pattes.85 He was seriously

wounded in 1914 and returned to Madagascar with his father once the conflict was over. After

a stint as a gold seeker,86 Jean started a public works construction company. The business

flourished and expanded; the family bought a printing works and bookshop (La Pergola) near

the Place Colbert, in the centre of Antananarivo. We were the dealers for Hachette publications; as the shipping time was three weeks, we had plenty of leisure. And we had quite a privileged lifestyle. At the beginning the recreation we had were reserved to colonial society. My father Paul took an active part in the development of the first sporting clubs, especially the Sport-

Collection. (Displayed at the Photoana exhibition, Antananarivo Train Station, 2-30 April 2005). 81 See Photographs FR ANOM 44 PA 169/ 131-132, Gallieni Photographic Collection at CAOM. 82 See the poster by A. Hamon, CAOM 9 Fi 101. 83 Interview of Louis Paoli aka Loulou made in Saint-Denis (Reunion) on 21 February 2000. 84 These local nurses were called nénennes. 85 “Silhouette sportive” [Sporting Profile], Madagascar Sports et cinéma, 6, Thursday 10 March 1938 (see the caricature). 86 To reward his soldiers, General Gallieni granted them mining concessions. Madagascar was then rich in gold (reefs). Louis Paoli’s grandfather began his first career as a “gold seeker.” In colonial times, native tribes were forbidden to touch gold: it was a privilege of the kings or members of the royal family. Interview of Louis Paoli.

Club,87 in continuation of his father’s action. It really was Antananarivo’s major club, reserved to the colonial elite and forbidden to the natives until the 1950s. He was also the President of the Stade Olympique de l’Emyrne,88 where natives were admitted later. Sporting activities developed quickly, such as football, rugby, tennis, swimming and horse shows, which were held at the Mahamasina racecourse and were very popular. My father was an accomplished sportsman. Though his arm had been wounded in the war, he played—among other sports—tennis89 and became one of Madagascar’s best players. The Fédération des Sports athlétiques de Madagascar was set up in order to organize the island’s nascent sporting life; he was Vice-President (1933-1937) then President of the Federation from 1937 on. He actively promoted the diversification of sports, including cycling, which he didn’t practice. We were so involved in the sporting life that after 1945 we marketed sports items at the printing works. We were the dealers for the make Origan. My father devoted much time and vast amounts of money to sporting.90

The practice of tennis (ANTA Photo) was emblematic of social aloofness. Each year the

Sport-Club held its tournament,91 in which all the capital’s notorious figures took part. In the

evening, a select, elegant crowd would gather in the function rooms of the Hotel Fumaroli for

the Sport-Club grand ball.

The main aims of sports clubs were for the Europeans to “be among themselves” and

strengthen their social networks. Clubs could be found in all major cities and were of prime

importance in the bush or in the most remote provinces. Some were “sporting” in name only,

and organized mainly indoor games or cultural activities, such as the Analalava92 club, whose

18 male and female members met for dancing, playing croquet or more often card games, but

no other sport. No natives were admitted. As a matter of fact to pay lip service to modern

sports was more important than to actually practice them.

A health, competition or leisure sporting activity accessible to and even recommended for

women, swimming was practised by most of the colony’s wealthier families. For want of

pools until the late 20s, amateurs would swim in natural environments (2 ANTA photos): People would swim in natural places such as the lake of Mantasoa or in Antsirabe, an extremely popular resort and spa with plenty of leisure activities. The film by Robert Boudry93 shows very well organized swimming competitions in the inter-war period with surface lane dividers, performance measurement, linesmen, etc. Water sport activities were also held on the lake of Mantasoa, especially dinghy sailing, with competitions from time to time. Jackie Conan was one prominent sailing figure at the Ampohibo private club, where waterskiing was also practised. His father was a PT teacher in Madagascar. The Sport-Club swimming pool was built only after the war. For a long time it was the only officially recognized pool (together with St Michel’s). Swimming was an exclusively white colonist thing.94

87 The club was later renamed ACSA. 88 “Silhouette sportive,” Madagascar Sports et cinéma, 6, Thursday 10 March 1938. 89 See Mr Paoli’s photograph during a tennis match, ANTA. 90 Louis Paoli 21 February 2000 interview. 91 Madagascar Sports et cinéma, 23, Thursday 7 July 1938. 92 Analalava District: Letter from the Chief of Province to the Governor-General dated 12 January 1926, Madagascar National Archives, D130. 93 This film, a private source of the Paoli family (Robert Boudry, an in-law of the Paolis, was General Secretary in Madagascar) which I had access to, is an invaluable document on the everyday family life of Madagascar’s administrative elite in the 30s. 94 Louis Paoli 21 February 2000 interview.

On Sunday 16 October 1937 the Cabanon swimming pool was finally inaugurated in

Antananarivo: A dazzling opening of the Cabanon swimming pool this Sunday … Everybody has discovered with pleasure the new extremely elegant and perfectly clean facilities … The already long list of members boasts many personalities of our city. The opening celebration will include fencing displays by the best fencers of our school of arms, who were kind enough to give their support.95

The new swimming club, Cercle des Nageurs du Cabanon de Tananarive (CNCT), was

constituted and its registration was published in the Official Gazette dated 18 September

1937. A strictly European club, the Cabanon became one of the most prized meeting place of

the colonial middle-class. Competitions were held according to the same rules as those of

riding contests.96 The civilians competed against the services in officially recorded races. The

afternoons ended with the ritual civilians vs services water-polo match, then dinner would be

served in the pavilions...

In the 1930s, the Antananarivo European population would go to Antsirabe at week-ends

to enjoy water sport activities. No spa without a swimming pool! The Antsirabe 40 x 15 m

swimming pool, filled two thirds with warm thermal water, was inaugurated in late December

1937.97 Organisers transferred the classic competition programme to the resort. This year swimming had pride of place. In addition to the traditional Lake Andraikibe meeting, the swimmers were to inaugurate the new Ranovisy swimming pool. It can be said that these two events were enormously successful. On Sunday at around 9 o’clock the crowd took over the lakeside stands and thousands of Malagasies occupied the neighbouring slopes. Contestants in swimsuits stood on the starting platform and when the Governor-General took his seat in the Dignitaries’ Box the events began in quick succession. Then came the civilians vs services relay which closed a splendid meeting. In addition to numerous personalities, the presence was noted of the Inspector of Colonies Mr Lavaud, Mr Pecheyrand, etc. And the hundreds of cars which had brought thousands of spectators set off back to town, expertly channelled by the stewards. On Monday morning, in the delightful setting of Ranovisy, swimmers of both sexes had the agreeable task of inaugurating the warm-water pool, in front of Governor-General Léon Cayla and his wife, and numerous personalities. The stand, the perimeter of the pool and the slopes were filled with as large a crowd as the day before. Finally the civilians vs services water polo match ended in a 6-2 victory for the civilians.98

With their fondness for entertainments and society life, the members of the sports clubs

very often took part in the organization of festivities designed to relieve the monotony of daily

life.

95 Madagascar illustré, Saturday 23 October 1937. 96 Madagascar Sports et cinéma, 5, Thursday 2 March 1938. 97 Madagascar illustré, Saturday 23 October 1937. 98 Madagascar Sports et cinéma, 13, Thursday 28 April 1938.

IV- Festivities and assimilation: Malagasy Children’s Day

In the colony, public holidays were a high point in social life. The Regimental Festival,

Schools Day, the Farming Festival, the 14 July National Day served as a convivial reminder

of the role of overseas France. Such festivities played a significant part in the scheme to

assimilate the colonized peoples, whereby the calendar, the programme and symbolism were

used to forge the unity of the Republic. The lion’s share of the entertainments went to

gymnastic displays, military exercises and parades, and games. The Republic put its solidity

and organization on show, and thus displayed its values. These events were of course intended

for the colonists, but first and foremost were aimed at the Malagasy population, at future

conscripts who had to be persuaded of the need for training, regeneration and commitment to

the service of the “motherland.” Such republican festivities also served as a form of social

regulation, as P. Chambat emphasizes: Gymnastics is an ordinary form of the exercise of authority upon the working classes. ... The purpose is to moralize a section of the population presumed to be unstable and potentially dangerous, and at the same time to avoid it falling under the sway of the clergy.99

In Madagascar, General Gallieni initiated a long tradition of republican holidays,

organized with suitable solemnity and ceremonial. His public appearances were staged with

all the trappings needed to impress onlookers and reaffirm the sovereignty of France. But when he showed himself in public, it was France which appeared in the person of her delegate. Thus he only went out surrounded by several officers. Their livery was dazzling. When he passed by, the guardhouses accorded him the honours, and the bugles rang out. When he rode on horseback, his flag-bearer went with him. A troop of young Hovas swirled around him in the pomp of their red spahi uniforms, flashing splendidly in the African sun. ... These appearances fed the curiosity of the local populations and when he used to return to Antananarivo after one of his long treks across the island, the Malagasies would come flocking from their villages, even ones fifty or sixty kilometres away, to see the great Frenchman ride by.100

Gradually sport took its place in such patriotic festivities, as for example in the 14 July

celebrations held in Diego Suarez. In front of the stands101 decked with tricolor flags, the vast

harbour was the setting for sailing regattas102 and rowing races.103

In the programme of festivities organized in Madagascar,104 a singular place was

99 P. Chambat, “Les fêtes de la discipline, gymnastique et politique en France (1879-1914),” in P. Arnaud. and J. Camy (eds), La naissance du mouvement sportif associatif en France, sociabilités et formes de pratiques sportives, Lyon: PUL, 1986. 100 Judith Cladel, Le Général Gallieni, op. cit. pp. 110-11. 101 See Photograph FRANOM 44 PA 177/16, Gallieni Photographic Collection at CAOM. 102 See Photograph FRANOM 44 PA 177/10. 103 See Photographs FRANOM 44 PA 177/12-13-14-15-17. 104 At the same time General Gallieni also brought in a “European Children’s Day” which took place according to its own calendar. The activities of European and Malagasy children—school, clubs and societies, leisure, festivals—were kept entirely separate from each other, in accordance with colonial rules.

occupied by the “Malagasy Children’s Day.” Inspired by a similar celebration held in

Indochina, General Gallieni, seeking “to ensure the fecundity of the Hova race,” paid tribute

to large families by instituting a day of rejoicings for mothers and their children. The day when it takes place belongs wholly to the children and their mothers. They go joyfully about the streets of the towns and villages, dressed in new clothes, to visit their parents and friends, who cover them with toys and sweets, and then move on to the entertainments provided in their honour.105

The General sought to reconstitute these ceremonies, which, at the suggestion of the

Malagasy notables,106 took place on the first Sunday in April, the season of fine weather all

over Imerina, when farm labour was not yet keeping the peasants in the fields. It was a

reconstitution rather than a creation, for despite the conventional speeches of the principal

governor of Imerina Rasanjy,107 Faranirina Rajaonah108 recalls the existence of tsikonina, the

feast of children and adolescents, which took place with picnics, song and dance at every

fandroana, the feast of the royal bath during the time of the monarchy.

The processions sometimes involved up to 20,000 children aged between five and twelve.

Surrounded by his officers and European ladies, the head of the colony, the “ray aman-dreny

(father and mother) of all Malagasy children”109 was present in person at the rejoicings,

dances, songs and gymnastic displays (FR ANOM 44 PA 171/32). He gave out prizes and

gifts. The ultimate purpose of propaganda and “regeneration of the race” was clearly

underlined by the Governor. This celebration I had instituted in 1898, with a view to associating in Malagasy minds the natural taste for popular festivities with the idea of honouring large families. In every province, prizes were awarded to mothers with the largest number of living children. The minimal spending from the overall budget was more than covered by the effectiveness of the resulting propaganda for the cause of repopulating the country. Finally, during the week preceding the holiday, it was a pleasure to see how the native families lavished care on their children, pampered them, dressed them in new clothes and took the utmost pride in ensuring they put up a good show in the solemn procession.110

There is no doubt that the festivity met with fervent popular approval, as can be see from

the photographs (FR ANOM 44 PA 164/ 103-107; FR ANOM 44 PA 171/39) preserved in the

General’s albums.111

105 Judith Cladel, Le Général Gallieni, op. cit. p. 106. 106 “The feast ushers in at the end of winter the favourable season for festivities, marked by the private rites of circumcision or exhumation,” Rajaonah V. Faranirina, “La fête des enfants à Antananarivo au temps de la colonisation (1899-1959),” in Odile Goerg (ed.), Fêtes urbaines en Afrique, Espaces, identités et pouvoirs, op. cit. p. 114. 107 Speech published 1900 in Vaovao, official Malagasy-language journal. 108 Odile Goerg (ed.), Fêtes urbaines en Afrique, Espaces, identités et pouvoirs, op. cit. p. 115. 109 Ibid. p. 113. 110 General Gallieni, Neuf ans à Madagascar, op. cit. p. 207. 111 CAOM Gallieni collection: FR ANOM 44 PA 164/ 100-112; FR ANOM 44 PA 169/ 105-125; FR ANOM 44 PA 171/23-46; FR ANOM 44 PA 172/ 20-59.

In reaction, Victor Augagneur dropped the festivity for the entire duration of his

governorship (1905-1909). It was reactivated in the 1930s under the impetus of Governor-

General Cayla. Initially limited to the Imerina, the celebration gradually spread through the

island and was associated with the colonial week festivities at the end of May. During the

1930s, it was organized at Antananarivo, Tamatave, Majunga, Fianarantsoa, Fort Dauphin,

Diego Suarez and the Comoro Islands. Preparations and staging112 became a veritable

institution, with no place for improvisation. In the memory of Antananarivans, no celebration in the capital had ever been as brilliant as the 1931 Children’s Day festivities. Those of 1932 and 1933 were equally dazzling. Frenchmen who complained of the disappearance in metropolitan France of genuine festivals said that they had rediscovered in the Cayla-epoch Children’s Day the atmosphere of traditional Shrove-Tuesdays, royal pageants or the old provincial assemblies.113

An organizing committee was specially appointed in every region. The General

Governorship allocated a specific budget114 to the provinces, according to the number of

children involved. The head of the Province would make every attempt to bolster his treasury

in anticipation of the great moment. The programme of festivities115 followed the same

pattern wherever it took place. It began with official speeches and a reminder of the role of

France, “reny malala, beloved mother”116 in the “great human and civilizing endeavour”

pursued in Madagascar. The baby contest, the diploma ceremony and prize-giving were held

in mid-morning. The day continued with the rewards handed out to mothers of large families:

the Special Certificate and cash prize. The Red Cross distributed clothes to indigent children.

Then came the schoolchildren’s processions: fancy-dress parades, floats, and so on. (See

Jacques Clemens postcard p. 123???) as well as various entertainments: plays, film shows,

song, dance, gymnastic movements, sports contests, etc. To the sound of the military band,

the army lent its support with the participation of the children of the lower ranks in gymnastic

displays and sports contests. In mid-afternoon, a high tea brought together the best pupils. In

addition, every province offered entertainments in keeping with its local traditions, contests in

mpilalao (traditional music with dances) and asa ampinga (a shield and spear game) in the

112 See CAOM, General Governorship Archives, shelf mark 6-14 D39. File: Fêtes des enfants malgaches [Malagasy Children’s Festival]. 113 Rajaonah V. Faranirina, “La fête des enfants à Antananarivo au temps de la colonisation (1899-1959),” op. cit. p. 121. 114 See the document “Notice of assignment of funds” drawn up by the Finance and Accounting Department for the year 1937. CAOM, 6-14 D39, op. cit. 115 See the poster for the programme of festivities of the “Fête des enfants malgaches” in Antananarivo in 1935. CAOM, General Governorship Archives, ibid. 116 Rajaonah V. Faranirina, “La fête des enfants à Antananarivo au temps de la colonisation (1899-1959),” op. cit. p. 114.

Imerina, or ringa regional wrestling matches in Tulear. The festivities caused migrations of

the rural population from the bush to the local capital. By the Friday, bush children were arriving in carts, dugouts or on foot, followed by a large retinue of friends and relatives. The stall-holders in the market had multiplied their stocks for the occasion, as joy stimulates the appetite.117

In this context, physical and sporting activities brought enhanced animation and spectacle

to the programme. The exercise competitions between the schools were awaited with

unconcealed impatience. This was the competitive part of the programme. Each troop had its keen supporters hoping for original acrobatics or impressive group routines. The boys produced some much applauded novelties, the Vezo displayed a gift for suppleness, while the Masikoro showed more teamwork and more energy, as well as greater rhythm. Schools from the distant bush tried to outshine the townsfolk. The girls showed even more marked progress: their costumes, attitudes, rounds and figures have greatly improved since the first efforts in 1931. ... One noteworthy group consisted of twenty little girl gymnasts118 (Photo 6119) in black shorts, white tops and yellow scarves performing a series of exceedingly graceful combined movements with the aid of hoops.120

The succession of reports from provincial heads121 to the Governor-General sheds

interesting light on the evolution of the festivities’ content, the increase in the number of

participants and the performances of the schools. Note that by the late 1930s the productions

were showing a marked trend towards regionalization. Processions, songs, dances and

physical activities owed more to local traditions. Despite all this, the special field saw a compact crowd barely contained by the police acclaiming the most celebrated ringa champions, from Befandriana to Betioky. The districts of the North (Masikoro) wrestled with various alternatives against those of the South (Vezo, Tanalana and Mahafaly). The victors, in addition to being borne aloft in triumph, received money prizes rewarding their talents.122

Sports occupied an ever more important place, and the provincial heads did not hide their

satisfaction in seeing French chants replacing Malagasy ones to accompany the exercises. As

the head of the Tulear school district rightly points out, photographs give no more than a

glimpse of the atmosphere. Indeed, everybody could note the initiative, training and progress of our young Malagasy children (Photo 5123) in all their exercises. Many people expressed the opinion that in a few years these sturdy, agile, disciplined young fellows would make splendid soldiers for France.

117 Report by the head of the Tulear school district to the Governor-General, on Malagasy children’s day of 23 May 1937, CAOM, 6-14 D39, op. cit. 118 See Photograph taken from the report by the head of the Tulear school district to the Governor-General, CAOM, 6-14 D39, op. cit. 119 Photo 6, “Danse des fillettes des écoles” [Schoolgirls’ Dances], Malagasy Children’s Day, CAOM, 6-14 D39, op. cit. 120 Report by the head of the Tulear school district to the Governor-General, CAOM, 6-14 D39, op. cit. 121 Some reports, including that of Tulear Province, were drawn up with care and included photographs. 122 Report by the head of the Tulear school district to the Governor-General, CAOM, 6-14 D39, op. cit. 123 Photo 5, Official School of Tulear, “Equilibre des garçons” [Boys’ Balance], Malagasy Children’s Day, 1939, CAOM, 6-14 D39, op. cit.

Most of the exercises called for unusual vigour and the girls in particular showed astonishing sporting dispositions. In the tests of strength, pyramids or acrobatics (Photo 3124), they followed the example of the boys perfectly. This did not prevent them organizing the traditional round dances, miming housework (dance of the seamstresses Photo 2125), needlework or baby care, and singing the while. ... This year the fashion seemed to be for walking on the hands, an exercise in which many young gymnasts excelled. A school had organized mobile fixed and parallel bars (Photo 4126) carried on the shoulders, and presented some impressive routines.127

At the end of the 1930s, Children’s Day was the most popular annual event, particularly

in the provinces. Several reports emphasize how such festivities were increasingly

overshadowing the national holidays of French origin, the meaning of which wholly escaped

the population. In reality, the Malagasy have always used official festivities for their own

traditional calendar. The Malagasy inserted sequences from fandroana (the feast of the bath, a feast of renewal linked to the Merina royalty) into the calendar of the 14 July, continued to use its specific vocabulary and loaded the official holiday with the symbolism of renewal. The days preceding the 14 July were reminiscent of the period following the announcement of fandroana, a time of preparation marked by feverish activity which, though normal before any feast day, also bore an important ritual meaning.128

This reality did not encroach upon the conventional speeches of the provincial

administrators (Photo 1129) whose action was based on the policy of assimilation, as is shown

by the conclusion of the secretary-treasurer of the Tamatave events committee in his report to

the Governor-General: Colonial week was brought to a dazzling close by Malagasy Children’s Day, which provided a moving reminder of France’s colonizing Mission. With its diverse events, it proved the interest shown by the motherland for Malagasy youth, which she wishes to instruct and educate, for the family which she wishes to fortify and develop, and the entire race whose future she has at heart. Colonial week was not pointless. It served to strengthen the profound and lasting bond uniting all those who belong to the great French family.130

***

124 Photo 3, “Equilibre des filles” [Girls’ Balance], Malagasy Children’s Day, 1939, CAOM, 6-14 D39, op. cit. 125 Photo 2, “La danse des couturières” [Seamstresses’ Dance], Malagasy Children’s Day, 1939, CAOM, 6-14 D39, op. cit. 126 Photo 4, Official School of Tulear, “Equilibre des garçons,” Malagasy Children’s Day, 1939, CAOM, 6-14 D39, op. cit. 127 Extract from the report of the Head of the Tulear School District, delegate of the events committee, June 1939, CAOM, 6-14 D39, op. cit. 128 F. V. Esoavelomandroso, “Les 14 juillet à Antananarivo au temps de la colonisation,” in Guy Jacob, Regards sur Madagascar et la révolution française, Actes du colloque d’Antananarivo 5 et 6 juin 1989, Madagascar, June 1990. 129 Photo 1, “La tribune officielle” [The Grandstand], Malagasy Children’s Day, 1939, CAOM, 6-14 D39, op. cit. 130 Extract from the report of the secretary-treasurer of the Tamatave events committee to the Governor-General, 29 May 1939, CAOM, 6-14 D39, op. cit.

Behind the emblematic personality of General Gallieni, the army imported gymnastics

and sport into Madagascar. Through gymnastics, they sought by example to impose rigour,

discipline and devotion on the new recruits. They promoted the first forms of entertainment in

the British style, such as equestrianism and the clubs which jealously maintained the fences

between communities. But they also were at the origin of the organization and animation of

great popular events such as the “Malagasy Children’s Day,” the essential function of which

rested on the assimilation of the local populations into the “motherland.” During the 1930s,

the diversification of the sports movement, the multiplication of Franco-Malagasy societies,

the action of new protagonists and the first attempts at structuring cast the army’s supremacy

into question.