Cognitive reference point Reporter : Sherry Professor : Daphne Yuan.
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Transcript of Cognitive reference point Reporter : Sherry Professor : Daphne Yuan.
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Cognitive reference point
Reporter : SherryProfessor : Daphne Yuan
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Rosch
• Focal Colors• Line orientation• Numbers
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Focal Colors
• People across cultures consistently choose focal colors(i.e. basic colors) as prototypes.
• Shows that certain colors are salient in people’s mind.
Which slices look like they could be composed of two or more colors ?
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Line orientation
• vertical, horizontal, and diagonal lines would serve as reference orientations.
The results in this domain were less uniform than in the case of color.
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Numbers
• expected multiples of 10 to fulfill the CRP function.
10 50 100 1000
17 36 164 1027The top one is faster to into to people’s mind
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Elaborations of the Roschean model
• This section briefly reviews some of the relevant studies in cognitive and social psychology, behavioral economics, marketing and management research.
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Similarity judgments
• It is the most straightforward application of the Roschean CRP model
• People usually have one preferred direction of comparison. They usually compare a less prominent item to a more prominent item (CRP).
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Similarity judgments
• Example (Tversky, 1977) :
• A CRP-item is preferred in the base-position (i.e. standard of comparison), whereas a non-CRP element is generally used as a target of comparison.
North Korea is similar to China
China is similar to North Korea
is similar to
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Similarity judgments
• Example (Tversky, 1977) :
• A CRP-item is preferred in the base-position (i.e. standard of comparison), whereas a non-CRP element is generally used as a target of comparison.
North Korea is similar to China
China is similar to North Korea
is similar to
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Spatial cognition
• It were shown to be crucial both in child development and in the learning of new environments by adults.
• For example, When getting to know a new city, people would usually start by memorizing the most salient points.
Paths develop as elaborations of the landmark network.
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Spatial cognition
• Locations without a reference point status are usually judged nearer to spatial reference points than are reference points to non-CRP locations.
• We can tentatively conclude that despite being diverse in form and function, all reference points seem to display the kind of asymmetry.
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Judgments of symbolic magnitude
• It describes the way people compare two items in terms of magnitude (e.g. magnitude of digits, size of objects, geo
• graphic distances).• The reference point can be indicated explicitly, as in Choose
the stimulus closer to X.
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Judgments of symbolic magnitude
• For example, it has been argued that the question Which is larger may trigger the upper bound as a reference point, whereas the question Which is smaller is likely to activate the lower bound to which the stimuli will be compared.
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Judgments of symbolic magnitude
• Reaction times increase when people have to judge which of the two large objects is smaller or which of the two small objects is larger.
• This is an instantiation of the so-called semantic congruity effect.
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Social judgments
• People usually judge others as more similar to themselves.• The subjects in their experiments rated a friend as more
similar to themselves than vice versa.• Social stereotypes usually function as reference points for
making judgements about the self.• However, the self serves as a CRP for social stereotypes with
few known attributes.• Such reference points include beliefs, language, facial
expressions, country of origin and gestures.
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Behavioural economics
• Kahneman (1992) applied this analysis to the study of negotiation behavior.
• He has shown that depending upon the CRP chosen in negotiations, people will evaluate the same result as either gain or loss.
• It is therefore possible to change the result of negotiations by manipulating reference points.
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marketing aresearch
• The notion of a reference point also plays an important role in marketing research, where it is sometimes called reference price.
• This internal reference price can be adjusted, for instance, by broadening price dispersion or manipulating confidence associated with price expectations
• An unrelated product stored in the short-term memory can affect the decision to buy a target product.
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marketing research
• Example : if before buying a cooker you encountered a price of a
BMW, your willingness to pay for the cooker will increase for even an expensive cooker will still be a lot cheaper than a BMW.
willingness to pay ↑
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Management studies
• Prospect Theory with its inventory of reference points has also been applied to the studies of human organizational behavior in work settings.
• Goals function as reference points and alter the value of outcomes.
• This explains why people strive harder when they have a specific goal, such as finishing the paper by the end of the month.
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Ubiquity of reference-point reasoning
• Reference-point reasoning observed across various kinds of human activity is the asymmetry between reference and non-reference items.
• Given the ubiquity of CRPs, we have reasons to expect that language also involves a lot of reference-point reasoning.
• language is not a separate module, but an integral part of cognition, whose organizing principles from the general properties of the human mind.
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Reference-point constructions in Cognitive Grammar
• Possessives• Deixis• Metonymy• Further applications
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Possessives
Figure 2.1. Reference-point relation.C – conceptualiser, R – reference point,D – dominion, T – target (Langacker 2001: 21)
a reference point is a cognitively salient item that gives mental access to a less salient target. The set of possible targets that can be accessed through a particular reference point is called dominion.
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Possessives
Figure 2.1. Reference-point relation.C – conceptualiser, R –girl,D – dominion, T – neck
Therefore, the girl’s neck is felicitous and the neck’s girl is odd.
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Possessives
• One of the current topical issues is the status of the reference point with respect to the target.
• An important contribution of the reference-point approach to the study of possessives is that it provides a unified account of numerous relations expressed by means of a possessive construction. (ownership, kinship, part-whole, agent process, experience-happening relationship)
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Topic construction
• extends the reference-point model from the analysis of possessives to a wider range of grammatical phenomena that calls reference-point constructions. One of these is a topic construction.
• Example :Consider the following example from Japanese:(1)sakana wa tai ga oisiifish TOP red.snapper SUBJ delicious
(2) On the table sat a nervous calico cat
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Deixis
• The function of a deictic word in specifying its referent in a giving context.
(3) Ted scratched his nose, and so did Jimmy.
(4) # He saw a skunk near Ralph. (5) # Near Ralph, he saw a skunk
anaphoric relation
Pronouns, are usually interpreted in the context of the dominion specified by the nominal subject.
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Metonymy
• the entity that is normally designated by a metonymic expression serves as a reference point affording mental access to the desired target.
• (6) She bought Lakoff and Johnson, used and in paper, for just, $1.50
• (7) The dog bit the cat.
• (8) Don is likely to leave.
teeth
Ref. point
easily provide a mental path to a target
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Cognitive status of reference-point constructions
• are we dealing with the same cognitive phenomenon or with different phenomena referred to by the same term – reference points?
• In the third place, the crucial feature of a reference-point relationship on both the Roschean and the Langackerian account is the asymmetry between CRPs and non-CRPs.
• In the second place, defined CRPs as cognitively salient items that other items are seen in relation to.
• In the first place, places reference-point constructions in the same group of phenomena.
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Reference points in lexical semantics _Round numbers
• Most prominent numbers are likely to be used in approximative expressions, such as There were thirty to forty birds in the tree.
• Approximatives usually involve round numbers, such as 10, 20, 25, 50, and 100.
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Reference points in lexical semantics _Spatial vocabularies
• Using the notion of reference points is the investigation of spatial vocabularies.
• Languages differ in how they code the relation between a target object and a reference point.
vanuit : ‘out of’ signals the presence of contact with the reference point at the initial state of the target,
tot bij : ‘until, as far as’ codes resulting proximity without contact
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Reference points in lexical semantics _Prototypes
• Prototypes may indeed be taken as a prime example of reference points providing mental access to less salient, non-prototypical entities.
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Summary
• Cognitive reference points have been shown to play a major role in various aspects of human cognition.
• Despite the growing interest of psychologists in reference-point reasoning, the notion of CRPs has generated relatively little interest in linguistics.
• In this thesis, I will elaborate the CRP model by extrapolating it to cognitive lexical semantics.