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CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

A. Definition of Translation

Basically, translation is transferring message from source language into

target language. Thus, translating is related to the 3 main elements, they are

source language, meaning or message, and also target language. There are a lot of

translation’s definitions proposed by the experts. Simatupang (2000:2) states that

translating is transferring the meaning existing in the source language (SL) to the

target language (TL), and makes it as natural as possible along with the rules of

the TL. Simatupang underlines that it is transferring the meaning, not the form.

Moreover, Newmark (1988:5) in his book A Textbook of Translation also states

that translation is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way

that the author intended the text. In addition, Suryawinata and Hariyanto

(2003:11) emphasizes that the outline of translation cannot be separated from the

meaning or information case.

Besides the meaning, language style in translation must also be

considered. As conveyed by Nida and Taber (1969:12) in their book The Theory

and Practice of Translation that translating consists of reproducing in the receptor

language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in

terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. Furthermore, Nida and Taber are

not concerned about the languages involved in translation, but more interested in

how translation works by looking for the natural equivalents as closely as possible

so that the message in source language can be conveyed in target language.

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On the other hand, Bell (1991:6) defines translation from the equivalent

of text. He states that translation is the replacement of representation of a text in

one language by a representation of an equivalent text in a second language. He

continues that texts in different languages can be equivalent in different degrees

(fully or partially equivalent), in respect of different levels of presentation

(equivalent in respect of context, of semantics, or grammar, or lexis, etc) and at

different ranks (word-for-word, phrase-for-phrase, sentence-for-sentence).

Based on the definition of translation above, it can be concluded that

the core of translation is transferring the equivalent meaning or message of the

source language (SL) into target language (TL) with considering the language

style of both languages.

B. Translation Techniques

In translating a text, problems often arise with any differences or

untranslatable on grammar or culture that exists in the source language (SL) or

target language (TL). Therefore, a translator must be careful and observant in

determining the pattern of translation structures for the results of the translation

can be understood and not deviate from existing content in the text. To deal with

such situations, a translator requires translation techniques. Molina and Albir

(2002:509) define translation technique as a procedure to analyze and classify

how translation equivalence works. They also state five basic characteristics of

translation techniques, such as: (a). affect the result of the translation (the

products); (b). classified by comparison with the original (between source text and

target text); (c). affect micro-units of text (morpheme, word, phrase, clause,

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sentence); (d). by nature discursive and contextual (depends on the context); and

(e). functional (used when translating the micro-units of text).

In this research, the researcher applied two theories of translation

techniques, they are proposed by Molina Albir (2002: 509-511) and Newmark

(1988: 81-91). This research are mostly applied the theory of translation

techniques by Molina & Albir. Besides, there are a lot of data translated by using

Newmark’s theory. It is due to several techniques proposed by Newmark are more

specific to analyze the translation of data particuarly in cosmetic terms.

Molina and Albir (2002: 509-511) in their article Translation

Techniques Revisited: A Dynamic and Functionalist Approach propose several

techniques of translation which are used to analyze the translation, as follows:

1. Adaptation

This technique replaces the cultural element from source text into

the target text cultural. Adaptation occurs when something specific to one

language culture is expressed in a totally different way that is familiar or

appropriate to another language culture.

Example:

ST: Harry, I make this sunny side up egg for your breakfast. TT: Harry, aku membuatkan nasi goreng ini untuk sarapanmu.

Commonly, American people used to have their breakfast with “sunny

side up egg” or with bacon, bread, or cereal. However, Indonesian people

are more accustomed to have breakfast with “nasi goreng” (fried rice). It

must be underlined that the breakfast dishes of the two cultures are

different.

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2. Amplification

The purpose of this technique is to add or to introduce more

information of implicit information or term found in the SL. It is in

opposition to reduction.

Example:

ST: This silk dress is imported from China. TT: Gaun yang terbuat dari kain sutera ini didatangkan dari

China.

3. Borrowing

Borrowing in translation occurs when the translator takes some

words or idioms from source language. Further, Molina & Albir have

classified borrowing more detail into two characteristics: (1) Pure

borrowing, and (2) naturalized borrowing. When an expression or a word

is taken over purely into target language (without any change), it is called

pure borrowing. While in naturalized borrowing, it can be naturalized to fit

the spelling rules in the target language.

Example:

- Pure borrowing

ST: Can I delete this file! TT: Bolehkah saya menghapus file ini?

- Naturalized borrowing

ST: Day and night cream. TT: Krim siang dan malam.

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4. Calque

This technique is translating a phrase of foreign word literally. It

can be lexical or structural.

Example:

ST: blue-blood TT: berdarah biru According to www.phrases.org.uk, the meaning of “blue-blood” is “the

blood that which flows in the veins of old and aristocratic families.”

Meanwhile, based on Indonesian dictionary on www.kbbi.web.id, the

meaning of “berdarah biru” is “keturunan ningrat/bangsawan”. Both of

English and Indonesian meaning, it show that the phrase is translated

literally. However, the phrases are acceptable in their own country; it has

become one of standard idiom in both of source and target language.

5. Compensation

Compensation technique is changing stylistic effect in another

place in the target language. In general terms, compensation can be used

when the words or sentence cannot be translated, and the meaning that is

lost is expressed somewhere else in the translated text. Compensation is

familiarly used in translating literary works.

Example:

ST: Take me a pair of scissors on the table, please. TT: Tolong ambilkan sebuah gunting di meja.

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6. Description

This technique replaces a term or expression with a description of

its form or/and function.

Example:

ST: I wanna two cups of mochaccino, please. TT: Saya pesan dua gelas kopi yang dicampur susu, gula, dan

cokelat, ya.

Actually, “mochaccino” is one of special Italian beverage, but it has been

consumed in some countries in the world including Indonesia. On the other

hand, some of Indonesian people have not known the appearance or

materials of “mochaccino” yet. Therefore, little information about

“mochaccino” is more important to be showed.

7. Discursive creation

This technique uses a temporary equivalence that is totally

unexpected or out of context. It is used to translate the title of film or book

title. This is done to attract the attention of prospective readers or viewers.

Example:

ST: The Lord of The Rings: The Fellowship of The Ring. TT: The Lord of The Rings: Sembilan Pembawa Cincin.

The example above is a title of the first series of popular novel and film

The Lord of The Rings.

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8. Established equivalence

This technique uses a term or expression recognized as an

equivalent in target language according to dictionaries or language in use.

Example:

ST: Attorney General TT: Jaksa Agung

9. Generalization

Generalization uses a more general or neutral term. This technique

is used because the TT does not have a specific equivalence like ST. It is

in opposition to particularization.

Example:

ST: Sukma ke sekolah naik becak. TT: Sukma goes to school by vehicle.

10. Linguistic amplification

Linguistic amplification adds linguistic elements in TT. This is

often used in consecutive interpreting and dubbing. It is in opposition to

linguistic compression.

Example:

ST: Shall we? TT: Bisakah kita berangkat sekarang?

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11. Linguistic compression

Linguistic compression simplifies linguistic elements in the TT.

This is often used in simultaneous interpreting and in subtitling. It is in

opposition to linguistic amplification.

Example:

ST: Are you hungry? TT: Lapar?

12. Literal translation

Literal translation is a translation technique by translating a word or

an expression word for word.

Example:

ST: I buy some bags. TT: Aku membeli beberapa tas.

13. Modulation

This technique changes the point of view, focus, or cognitive

category in relation to the source language; it can be lexical or structural.

Example:

ST: My young brother drinks the juice. TT: Jus itu diminum adikku.

As seen in the example above, a translator notices the issue from the object

“juice”, not the subject “my young brother”.

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14. Particularization

This technique uses a more precise or concrete term, from super

ordinate into subordinate term. It is in opposition to generalization.

Example:

ST: Mom bought me jewelry yesterday. TT: Ibu membelikanku kalung, gelang, dan anting emas kemarin.

15. Reduction

Reduction is erasing words by considering the information is

familiar in target language. It is in opposition to amplification.

Example:

ST: American President, Barack Obama visited to Indonesia. TT: Barack Obama kunjungi Indonesia.

According to the text above, without showing the words “American

President” or “Presiden Amerika” in target language, most of people

have been familiar that Barack Obama is currently American President. It

also considers the effectiveness in word using.

16. Substitution

This technique changes linguistic elements for paralinguistic

elements (intonation, gestures) or vice versa. It is usually done in

interpreting process. Example, when a speaker from Japan subdues his

body, the interpreter should translate it into such kind of thankfulness, like

thank you (Paramita, 2013: 19).

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17. Transposition

Transposition is changing a grammatical category, for instance

from verb to noun or even vice versa. This technique can be used in the

level of units, for instance from word to phrase or vice versa.

Example:

ST: She didn’t finish the homework due to her laziness. TT: Dia tidak menyelesaikan PR karena malas.

18. Variation

This technique changes linguistic into paralinguistic elements

(intonation, gestures) that affect aspects of linguistic variation: changes of

textual tone, style, social dialect, geographical dialect, etc.

Example:

ST: I don’t want to see you anymore. TT: Gue nggak mau ketemu elo lagi.

While, the following are translation techniques proposed by Newmark

(1988: 81-91) in his book entitled A Textbook of Translation which also

employed to analyze the translation, they are:

1. Couplets and Triplets

This technique combines two or three different techniques

respectively for dealing with a single problem. It is particularly common

for translating cultural words.

Example:

ST: This rich cream is used for face and body. TT: Krim yang kaya ini digunakan untuk wajah dan tubuh.

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The translator translates the phrase “rich cream” by applying two

techniques; they are naturalized borrowing technique and established

equivalence. First technique is established equivalence. The translator

transfers the word “rich” into “kaya”. If translated literally, the meaning

of “kaya” is having a lot of money or valuable possessions. However, in

this case the meaning of “kaya” has been recognized as an equivalent

word to explain about the content of cream. Second technique is

naturalized borrowing. The translator borrows the word “cream” into

“krim”; it adapts SL to the normal pronunciation and the spelling rules in

TL.

2. Through Translation

Through translation technique is employed by putting literal

translation of common collocations, names of organizations, the

components of compounds, and perhaps phrases. This technique is also

known as calque or loan translation. Normally, through translation should

be applied only when the terms are already recognized globally.

Example:

ST: The SPF 15 sunscreen protects your skin in the sun for 15 times longer.

TT: Tabir surya dengan SPF 15 melindungi kulit anda dari sinar matahari selama 15 menit.

From example above, the terms of SPF is loaned by the translator. SPF is

an abbreviation of Sun Protecting Factor which has function for protecting

the skin from sunbeam. This technique is applied by the translator by

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loaning the terms of SPF, since it is an internationally recognized in

cosmetic terms.

3. Shifts or Transposition

Shift or transposition is a translation technique which is changing

the grammar from SL into TL. It is similar with the theory of

transposition proposed by Molina & Albir. There are five types of shift or

transposition stated by Newmark:

a. The change from singular to plural. Example:

ST: Jual produk itu kepadanya. TT: Sell the products to her.

According to example above, there is a changing of singular into

plural. The word “produk” (singular) is translated into “products”

(plural). It can be seen from the suffix –s in TT which shows

plurality in English. However, there is no system of adding suffix –s

as the marker of plurality in Bahasa Indonesia. This technique is also

done for conversely, from plural to singular.

b. The change is required when a source language grammatical

structure does not exist in the target language. Example:

ST: Stolen jewelry TT: Perhiasan yang dicuri

From the example, it can be seen that there is a change of the

structure in TT. In this case, the word “jewelry” belongs to the head

or a noun phrase, while the word “stolen” is a modifier. “Jewelry”

means “perhiasan”, and “stolen” means “yang dicuri”. However,

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the changing of structure is due to the structure in ST does not

appropriate in TT. Therefore, in Bahasa Indonesia, the word

“perhiasan” functions as noun phrase, and “yang dicuri” is as

modifier.

c. The one where literal translation is grammatically possible but may

not accord with natural usage in the target language. Example:

ST: He had achieved a high score in this semester. TT: Nilai yang tinggi di semester ini adalah bukti

keberhasilannya.

In the example above, there is a change of verb into noun. The verb

“had achieved” is transferred into a noun “keberhasilan”. This

technique may be applied because the translation provides equivalent

meaning.

d. The replacement of a virtual lexical gap by grammatical structure.

Examlple:

ST: Tanaman itu akan subur apabila petaninya rajin menyiraminya.

TT: The plant will be fertile with watering diligently by the farmer.

The example above shows that there is a changing of complex

sentence into simple sentence. The conjunction “apabila” in ST is to

show the complexity of a sentence. However, in TT the word

“apabila” is not translated to make it simple with one clause.

e. The illustration of a frequent tension between grammar and stress.

Example:

ST: I have no control over this condition. TT: Aku tidak dapat mengendalikan kondisi ini.

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Based on the example above, there is shifting technique of a noun

phrase “no control”. It is translated into “tidak dapat mengendalikan”

whic belongs to verb. This transation is translated into lexical system

to preserve the stress of the term.

C. Translation Quality

A translator should convey a message from source text into target text

completely. No matter what techniques the translator used, the message cannot be

added or erased. Quality assessment can be noticed from three aspects, there are

accuracy, acceptability, and readability.

1. Accuracy

Accuracy is one of the most important aspects of translation. It deals

with a product of translation. Accuracy can be observed from the result of

translation by comparing the source text and target text. Accuracy determined

by the correctness of the meaning which transferred from source language

into target language. The quality of translation is very closely related to the

equivalence of meaning (accuracy) in transferring message from the SL to

TL. Nababan (2010:8) states “Konsep kesepadanan mengarah pada

kesamaan isi atau pesan antar keduanya”. He continues that a text can be

called a translation if the text has the same meaning or message with the other

text (source language). Maintaining the equivalence of meaning is also

confirmed by Nida and Taber (1969:13):

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“As has already been indicated in the definition of translating, meaning must be given priority, for it is the content of the message which of prime important...this means that certain rather radical departures from the formal structure are not legitimate but may even be highly desirable.”

It means that maintenance of meaning is a very important. Translators

should not add or erase the meaning or message from the source language

simply because it is affected by the formal structure in target language. For

accurately expressing the meaning or message, the translator may do the

changes of the formal structure.

2. Acceptability

Acceptability assess the translation product in choosing the words

which more appropriate or acceptable in target text. It relates to the

naturalness of a translated text. Acceptability considers about the norm,

culture, and rule which exist in target language. In terms of dictions, a

translator brings a big responsibility in conveying an appropriate and

acceptable understanding to the readers. Burazer (2013: 136) explains that:

“...translators carry the great burden of being responsible for revealing communication clues to target audiences and other societal groups. They should therefore be able to anticipate their target audience’s expectations and do their best to meet them by making the right decisions in terms of selecting and properly employing appropriate and acceptable textual features that which make the text appropriate and acceptable on the textual level as a whole – that is, that do not merely correspond to the ST vocabulary and structures on the micro, sentential level of text processing.” In addition, Nida and Taber (1969: 12) in their book states that the

best translation does not sound like a translation. Based on those two

explanations, it means that translator should find the most appropriate and

acceptable dictions to make the translation sound natural in target language.

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3. Readability

Readability is the ease with which text can be read and understood by

target readers. It considers about the readers understanding toward a text. A

text of translation can be said to be good if the readers able to comprehend

and understand the content or message of the text well. According to Richard

et al (1985:238) (in Nababan 2010: 11), readability depends on the average

length of sentences, the number of new words, and the grammatical

complexity of the language used. The reader is one of the most important

elements in determining the level of readability of a text. The text of

translation can be called readable if the readers can understand it easily

without thinking twice or more.

D. Cosmetic Terms

There are several definitions of cosmetic based on

www.oxforddictionaries.com, as follow:

cosmetic: cos|met¦ic: /k�z�m�t�k

(adj) 1. Relating to treatment intended to restore or improve a person’s appearance. 2. Affecting only the appearance of something rather than its substance.

(noun) A preparation applied to the body, especially the face, to improve its appearance.

While The Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FD&C Act) in Farris (2014: 1)

defines cosmetics as articles intended to be rubbed, poured, sprinkled, or sprayed

on, introduced into, or otherwise applied to the human body or any part thereof for

cleansing, beautifying, promoting attractiveness, or altering the appearance.

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Furthermore, Farris also add that cosmetic products include moisturizers, nail

polish, lipstick, eye and facial make-up, shampoo, hair color and toothpaste.

More, based on Peraturan Kementerian Kesehatan Republik Indonesia No.

445/MENKES/PER/V/1998 which is talked about “Bahan, zat warna,

substratum, zat pengawet dan tabir surya pada kosmetika” explained that the

meaning of kosmetika is:

sediaan atau paduan bahan yang siap untuk digunakan pada bagian luar badan (epidermis, rambut, kuku, bibir dan organ kelamin luar), gigi dan rongga mulut, untuk membersihkan, menambah daya tarik, mengubah penampakan, melindungi supaya dalam keadaan baik, memperbaiki bau badan, tetapi tidak dimaksudkan untuk mengobati atau menyembuhkan penyakit.

Peraturan Menteri Kesehatan Republik Indonesia in Alfinur (2013) also classified

cosmetic based on its usefulness and the application toward body into 13 kinds:

1. Preparat untuk bayi; minyak bayi, bedak bayi, dan lain-lain. 2. Preparat untuk mandi; minyak mandi, bath capsules, dan lain-lain. 3. Preparat untuk mata; maskara, eye shadow, dan lain-lain. 4. Preparat wangi-wangian; parfum, toilet water, dan lain-lain. 5. Preparat untuk rambut; cat rambut, hairspray, pengeriting rambut, dan lain-lain. 6. Preparat pewarna rambut; cat rambut, hairbleach, dan lain-lain. 7. Preparat make up (kecuali mata); pemerah bibir, pemeah pipi, bedak muka, dan

lain-lain. 8. Preparat untuk kebersihan mulut; mouth washes, pasta gigi, breath freshener,

dan lain-lain. 9. Preparat untuk kebersihan badan; deodoran, feminismhygiene spray, dan lain-

lain.10. Preparat kuku; cat kuku, krem dan lotion kuku, dan lain-lain. 11. Preparat cukur; sabun cukur, after shave lotion, dan lain-lain. 12. Preparat perawatan kulit; pembersih, pelembab, pelindung, dan lain-lain. 13. Preparat untuk suntan dan sunscreen; suntan gel, sunscreen foundation, dan

lain-lain.

According to those explanations, it can be concluded that cosmetic

terms are all things related to the treatments of how to care body, the product

itself, and more about physical appearance.

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E. Oriflame and Catalogue

According to www.freedictionary.com, the definition of catalogue is:

cat·a·log or cat·a·logue (ktl-ôg, -g)

n. 1. a. A list or itemized display, as of titles, course offerings, or articles for exhibition or sale, usually including descriptive information or illustrations.

b. A publication, such as a book or pamphlet, containing such a list or display: a catalog of fall fashions; a seed catalog.

2. A list or enumeration: "the long catalogue of his concerns: unemployment, housing, race, drugs, the decay of the inner city, the environment and family life" (Anthony Holden).

3. A card catalog.

Those are three definitions of catalogue; however catalogue can be

simply defined as an itemized display, in this context catalogue is used as an

attractive media campaign to promote certain products in every week, month, or

year. The purpose of catalogue is very significant as a device for publication that

used by companies as a way to promote their products or services. In addition,

catalogue is a handy tool that also used to inform the prospective buyers and

existing customers about prices and all sorts of their products in order to increase

the sales percentage. Catalogue can be a printed material and online.

Oriflame is a beauty product business that started in Stockholm,

Sweden. Two brothers, Jonas and Robert af Jochnick started the business in 1967.

According to www.corporate.oriflame.com, Oriflame is one of beauty companies

with the fastest growing in the world. Oriflame is now an international beauty

company selling direct in more than 60 countries around the world of which 12

are operated by franchisees. Its wide portfolio of Swedish, nature-inspired,

innovative beauty products are marketed through a sales force of approximately 3

million independent consultants, who together create annual sales of around 1.5

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billion Euros. Oriflame has five own production units in Sweden, Poland, China,

Russia and India. PT Orindo Alam Ayu or well-known as Oriflame Indonesia is

started in 1986; firstly located in Jakarta.

Oriflame vision is to create a beauty company which offers skin care

range that is different than other products available at that time; those are made

from natural ingredients. Oriflame also has a commitment to offer high quality

products at affordable prices. Oriflame offers the leading business opportunity for

people who want to start making money from day one and work towards fulfilling

their personal dreams and ambitions through its unique business concept - Make

Money Today and Fulfil Your Dreams Tomorrow™. In the distribution to

consumers, Oriflame uses Multi Level Marketing system or better known as

MLM. This system frees its customers to obtain advice from people they know.

The Oriflame Consultant in charge of selling Oriflame products also can earn

unlimited income and career opportunities.

In short, Oriflame Catalogue September 2013 is one of catalogues as a

promotion media to the readers. The content of Oriflame catalogue is written in

many languages, including Bahasa Indonesia and English. The English version is

taken from www.in.oriflame.com published by Oriflame India. Whereas, the

Indonesian version is taken from printed material published by Oriflame

Indonesia. Oriflame catalogue reflects the latest fashion trends and beauty, filled

with a variety of attractive offers that enable customers to buy them. Catalogue

has a very important role in selling Oriflame products. The consultants do not

need to have experience in selling; they just need to show the catalogues to the

prospective buyers. Based on this reason, various explanations about the idea

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behind the product, the naming and the make-up steps should be easily understood

by the reader. In addition to attract prospective buyers, Oriflame catalogue also

serve to attract prospective consultants to join.

F. Review of Related Study

In the previous research, Lusi Susilawati, 2010, Translation Linguistic,

Postgraduate Program, Sebelas Maret University Surakarta, in her thesis entitled

Analisis Transposisi dan Modulasi pada Terjemahan Petunjuk Pemakaian

Produk-produk Oriflame, analyzed transposition and modulation technique in

translating the make-up steps listed on the packaging of Oriflame products. Lusi

applied purposive sampling. The data consists of words, phrases, and sentences

related to the products name and make-up steps on the product packaging.

Another research, Indah Mulatsih, 2013, Linguistic Study, Postgraduate

Program, Sebelas Maret University Surakarta, in her thesis entitled Terjemahan

Teks Iklan Produk Kecantikan dan Perawatan Tubuh Berbahasa Inggris di

Majalah Wanita ke dalam Bahasa Indonesia (Kajian Ideologi, Metode, Tekhnik,

Penerjemahan, dan Kualitasnya), analyzed about translation problems and the

objectives of beauty products and body care advertisement translation listed on

woman magazines. Moreover, Indah also noticed on the impact of the use of

translation techniques, method, and ideology toward the translation quality in

terms of accuracy, acceptability, and readability. Indah applied descriptive

qualitative research and used purposive sampling. The data of the research

consists of 16 advertisement text of beauty products and body care listed on 8

foreign woman magazines and 8 Indonesian woman magazines.

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The researcher analyzes the similar topic about Oriflame products as

Lusi done and the translation of beauty products text as Indah done. In

comparison with Lusi’s research, the researcher does not only focus on the

transposition and modulation technique but also translation techniques in general

and quality of Oriflame Catalogue. While compared to Indah’s research, the

researcher is more focused on the techniques applied by the translator and the

impacts toward the translation quality of cosmetic terms translation in Oriflame

Catalogue September 2013. Similar to Lusi and Indah, the researcher also apply

descriptive qualitative research and purposive sampling.The data used by the

researcher consists of words and phrases related to cosmetic terms listed on

Oriflame Catalogue September 2013.