Chapter 2 -...
Transcript of Chapter 2 -...
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Chapter 2 & 3Chapter 2 & 3
Organizational Environments and
Cultures
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2Blast From The PastBlast From The PastTechnological Innovation in the 20th CenturyTechnological Innovation in the 20th Century
1900-1910✔airplane, plastic, air conditioner
1911-1920✔mammogram, zipper, sonar
1921-1930✔talking movies, penicillin, jet
engine1931-1940
✔radar, helicopter, computer1941-1950
✔atomic bomb, bikini, transistor1951-1960
✔DNA, oral contraceptive, Tylenol
1961-1970✔video recorder, handheld
calculator, computer mouse1971-1980
✔compact disc, gene splicing, laser printer
1981-1990✔MS-DOS, space shuttle, CD-
ROM1991-Today
✔Pentium processor, Centrino, Quad core, Mobile computing, Java, etc
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3Technology CycleTechnology CycleS-curve pattern of innovationS-curve pattern of innovation
Effort
Perf
orm
ance
Discontinuity
NewTechnology
A
B
C
Adapted from Figure 10.1
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Changing EnvironmentsChanging Environments
✔Environmental Change✔Environmental Complexity✔Environmental Munificence✔Uncertainty
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5Issues Priority Matrix
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6Basic Model of Basic Model of Strategic ManagementStrategic Management
Four Basic Elements
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7Strategic Decision Making ModelStrategic Decision Making Model
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8Strategic Decision Making, Cont.Strategic Decision Making, Cont.
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Outcomes from External and Internal Outcomes from External and Internal Environmental AnalysesEnvironmental Analyses
Examine opportunities and threats
Examine unique resources, capabilities, and competencies(sustainable competitive advantage)
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STRATEGIC FORMULATIONSTRATEGIC FORMULATION(The TOWS Matrix help you generate STRATEGY (The TOWS Matrix help you generate STRATEGY
alternatives by Matching S-W-O-T)alternatives by Matching S-W-O-T)
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1. Environmental Scanning1. Environmental Scanning
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Lingkungan Internal PerusahaanLingkungan Internal Perusahaan
✔Struktur Organisasi✔Budaya Organisasi✔Sumber daya yang dimiliki perusahaan
✴Keuangan✴SDM yang ada✴Sarana dan prasarana fisik
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Industry AnalysisIndustry Analysis Porter’s 5-Forces Model, Modified Porter’s 5-Forces Model, Modified
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15Organisasi dan MasyarakatOrganisasi dan Masyarakat
Pemerintah Pusat
Pemerintah Daerah
Penyalur
Media Massa
Lembaga Pendidikan
Lembaga Konsumen
Pelanggan
Lembaga Keuangan
Pasar Uang
Karyawan
Serikat Buruh
Pesaing
Asosiasi Bisnis
Pemasok
Kelompok Politik
Pemilik
Lembaga Hukum
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How Global Conditions How Global Conditions Affect Firm ValueAffect Firm Value
Figure 17.6
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Technological ForcesTechnological Forces
http://api.ning.com/files http://blog.karachicorner.com/blog-images
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Economic ForcesEconomic Forces
http://filipspagnoli.wordpress.com/tag/education
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Economic ForcesEconomic Forces
GDP nominal per capita world map IMF 2008.png
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Perkembangan Pertumbuhan Ekonomi Beberapa Negara 1990 - 2005
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
1 6 11 16 21 26 31 36 41 46 51 56 61
USAJepangIndonesiaThailanSingapore
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Perkembangan Suku Bunga Internasional dan Domestik 1990 - 2005
0
5
10
15
20
25
1 14 27 40 53 66 79 92 105
118
131
144
157
170
183
Sibor 3 blUSA primeSBI 3 bl
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Perkembangan Tingkat Inflasi beberapa Negara 1990 - 2005
-5
0
5
10
15
20
1 6 11 16 21 26 31 36 41 46 51 56 61
USAJepangIndonesiaThailanSingapore
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Jumlah Uang Beredar (M1)
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Perkembangan Kurs Rp terhadap Beberapa Mata Uang Asing 1990 - 2005
02000400060008000
10000120001400016000
1 15 29 43 57 71 85 99 113
127
141
155
169
183
Rp/$Rp/YRp/SgdRp/Euro
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Socioculture ForcesSocioculture Forces
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Socioculture ForcesSocioculture Forces
http://filipspagnoli.wordpress.com/tag/education
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Population Pyramid Summary for Indonesiahttp://www.census.gov/ipc/www/idbpyr.html
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31Population Pyramid Summary for China
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Socioculture Socioculture ForcesForces
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Political ForcesPolitical Forces
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Natural ForcesNatural Forces
http://1.bp.blogspot.com http://pusdiknakes.or.id/persinew/images
http://bataviase.files.wordpress.com/2007/02/03-banjir.jpg
http://westnu.files.wordpress.com
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Lingkungan EksternLingkungan Ekstern
1. PASAR YANG TERSEDIA✔ a. Jumlah penduduk dan Pertumbuhan penduduk✔ b. Distribusi penduduk✔ c. Pendapatan per kapita
2. KONDISI PEREKONOMIAN ✔ a. Sumber daya alam✔ b. Topografi✔ c. Iklim✔ d. Pertanian atau Industri ?✔ e. Prasarana
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393. LINGKUNGAN SOSIAL BUDAYA
Para ahli Antropologi telah sepakat bahwa budaya itu memiliki tiga karakteristik yakni :✔ Budaya bukan pembawaan sejak lahir melainkan dipelajari✔ Berbagai bentuk budaya saling berhubungan – kalau salah satu aspek budaya tersentuh, maka yang lain
akan ikut terpengaruh pula✔ Budaya dimiliki bersama oleh anggota kelompok dan menjadi pembatas antara kelompok yang berbeda
( Edward T. Hall, 1977 )✔ a. Nasionalisme✔ Sebagai contoh, untuk memasarkan produk film di negara India, sebuah perusahaan film asing, mesti
mempersiapkan strategi yang terencana, mengingat nasionalisme masyaraakat India terhadap film mereka sendir sangat besar.
b. AgamaBeberapa hal yang perlu diperhatikan oleh manajer pemasaran internasional anatara lain ( Moezamil, 1992)
aadalah sbb. :✔ Perusahaan harus memastikan bahwa jadwal kerja dan program pemasarannya disesuaikan dengan hari
libur agama.✔ Pola konsumsi mungkin dipengaruhi oleh kewajiban atau tabu oleh agama. Contohnya adalah ikan pada
hari Jum’at untuk ummat Katolik jaman dahulu, daging sapi untuk orang Hindu atau dagin babi bagi orang Islam dan Yahudi. Larangan minum alkohol dalam agama Islam merupakan keuntungan bagi perusahaan seperti Coca Cola.
✔ Peran ekonomi wanita banyak bervariasi dari satu budaya ke budaya lainnya, dan penyebab pentingnya adalah kepercayaan agama.
✔ Sistem kasta membatasi partisipasi dalam perekonomian. Pengaruhnya tidak hanya dalam penempatan tenaga, tetapi juga dalam program distribusi dan promosinya.
✔ Lembaga keagamaan seperti ( jaman dulu terutama ) sering dapat merintangi pengenalan produk dan teknik baru, atau sebaliknya dapat memperlancar.
c. Tingkat pendidikand. Atribut produk✔ Hal ini disebabkan arti warna-warna tersebut tidak selalu sama untuk setiap negara. Misalnya, Bagi
Amerika warna hijau melambangkan iri hati, biru melambangkan kesedihan. e. Sikap dan nilai
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4. LINGKUNGAN POLITIK DAN HUKUM
a. Peranan Pemerintah✔ Untuk mengetahui situasi lingkungan politik ( peranan pemerintah ) ini Richard
Robinson memberikan 4 pertanyaan yang dapat digunakan untuk mengevaluasi produk yang akan dipasarkan berkaitan dengan situasi politik yang ada. Pertanyaan-pertanyaan tersebut adalah :
✔ Apakah produk itu pernah menjadi pokok perdebatan politik mengenai cadangan pasoknya ( minyak, fasilitas pengangkutan, pelayanan umum, dan sebagainya ) ?
✔ Apakah produk itu merupakan suatu masukan penting bagi industri lainnya ( semen, baja, tenaga, alat mesin, dan sebagainya ) ?
✔ Apakah produk itu dari segi sosial atau politik cukup peka ( obat-obatan, makanan, dll ) ?
✔ Apakah produk itu memiliki arti penting bagi pertahanan nasional ? b. Perkembangan Teknologi Informasi✔ Masalah Pendirian. ✔ Untuk mendirikan sebuah usaha /perusahaan di negara lain, maka perlu diperhatikan
suasana dan kecenderungan perkembangan politik yang sedang dan akan terjadi di negara tersebut.
c. Paten dan Merek Dagang. d. Perlindungan dan Penyelesaian Perselisihan. ✔ Interntional Chamber of Commerce, American Arbitration Association, dll.e. Perpajakan.
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415. ISNIS INTERNASIONAL / GLOBALISASI
✔ Perkembangan Dunia✔ “Jika suatu negara menginginkan kemakmuran / kesejahteraan bagi rakyat dan bangsanya,
hendaknya ia melakukan perdagangan dengan negara lainnya ”
Faktor yang menyebabkan suatu negara memerlukan negara lain : ✔ Tidak Setiap Sumber Daya yang Dibutuhkan, Dimiliki Negara ✔ Untuk Memperluas Pasar✔ Untuk Memperoleh Devisa✔ Untuk Keperluan Alih Teknologi✔ Mendapatkan Keuntungan dengan Adanya Spesialisasi
✔ Hal lain yang perlu diperhatikan :a. Mata Uang yang Berbedab. Kondisi Goegrafis c. Kebijaksanaan Pemerintahd. Kondisi Pasar Tujuan✔ Kualitas yang minimal tidak dibawah produk lokal✔ Harga yang besaing✔ Pilihan produk yang cukup✔ Pelayanan pasca penjualan yang baik✔ Ketersediaan/kontinuitas produk yang cukup✔ Akrab lingkungan dan sesuai dengan kultur setempat✔ Memiliki nilai lebih dibanding produk pesainge. Kemampuan Perusahaan
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Beberapa Fakta Tentang RisikoBeberapa Fakta Tentang Risiko
✔ NEGARA % RESIKO YANG HILANG✔ ✔ AMERIKA 73,0✔ INGGRIS 65,5✔ ITALIA 60,0✔ ARGENTINA 19,0✔ BRASIL 31,0✔ INDONESIA 19,0
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88Chapter
PowerPoint Presentation by Charlie Cook© Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. All rights reserved.
The Manager as a The Manager as a Planner and Planner and StrategistStrategist
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PlanningPlanning
Defining the organization’s goals, establishing an overall strategy, and developing a hierarchy of
plans to achieve goals
FOM 5.5Robbins et al., Fundamentals of Management, 4th Canadian Edition ©2005 Pearson Education Canada, Inc.
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Setting GoalsSetting Goals
SpecificMeasurableAttainableRealisticTimely
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GAMBARAN VISI PERUSAHAAN
“Alice” in Wonder Land Dalam perjalanannya, Alice tertesesat di hutan, dan menghadapi beberapa pilihan jalan yang harus dilalui. Untunglah ia bertemu sahabatnya, seekor keledai. Bertanyalah ia kepada sahabatnya tersebut :
Alice : “ Sahabatku, tolong tunjukkan kepada saya jalan mana yang harus saya ambil agar tidak tersesat lagi ? “ Si keledai : “ Sebelum saya tunjukkan jalan, maukah Alice memberitahukan akan pergi kemana ? “ Alice : “ Itulah masalahnya, Saya tidak tahu mau pergi kemana ….“ Si keledai : “ Jika engkau tidak tahu mau kemana, maka jalan mana saja yang akan kamu pilih tidak akan membuat engkau tersesat. Toh Alice tidak mempunyai tujuan / tempat yang hendak dituju… “
VISI : Suatu keinginan perusahaan terhadap keadaan di masa datang yang diinginkan/dicita-citakan oleh seluruh personel perusahaan dari jenjang yang paling atas sampai yang paaling bawah ( sampai pesuruh sekalipun )
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Three Mission StatementsThree Mission Statements
Figure 8.4
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Reduces theReduces theImpact of ChangeImpact of Change
ProvidesProvidesDirectionDirection
Minimizes WasteMinimizes Wasteand Redundancyand Redundancy
Sets Standards toSets Standards toFacilitateFacilitateControlControl
ReasonsReasonsfor Planningfor Planning
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Specific Plans
Directional Plans
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Three Steps in PlanningThree Steps in Planning
Figure 8.1
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Planning Process StagesPlanning Process Stages✔ Determining the Organization’s Mission and Goals
✴Defining the organization’s overriding purpose and its goals.
✔ Formulating strategy✴Managers analyze current situation and develop
the strategies needed to achieve the mission.✔ Implementing strategy
✴Managers must decide how to allocate resources between groups to ensure the strategy is achieved.
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52Figure 5.2Figure 5.2Types of PlanningTypes of Planning
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Levels of Planning at General ElectricLevels of Planning at General Electric
Figure 8.3
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Planning and Strategy FormulationPlanning and Strategy Formulation
Figure 8.5
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Strategi TingkatKorporasi
Strategi Tingkat UnitBisnis
Strategi Tingkat UnitBisnis
Strategi TingkatFungsional
Strategi TingkatFungsional
Strategi TingkatOperasional
Strategi TingkatOperasional
Bisnis apa yg. Akan diterjuni ?Apa harapan setiap unit bisnis ?Bagaimana alokasi sumber daya ?
Bgm. Perusahaan harus bersaing ?Produk yg. Bg,. Yang akan ditawarkan ?Pasar mana yang akan dilayani ?
Bgm. memproduksinya ?Bgm memasarkannya ?Bgm. Mengendalikan SDM ?
Bgm. Memperoleh bahan baku yg. baik ?Bgm. Skeduling produksinya ?
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What is Change?What is Change?
✔Alterations in people✔Alterations in structure✔Alterations in technology
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Categories of Change Categories of Change (Exhibit 13-1)(Exhibit 13-1)
STRUCTUREAuthority relationshipsCoordinating mechanismsJob redesignSpans of control
PEOPLE
AttitudesExpectationsPerceptionsBehaviour
TECHNOLOGY
Work processesWork methodsEquipment
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The “Calm Waters” MetaphorThe “Calm Waters” Metaphor
Unfreezing Changing Refreezing
Lewin’s Three-Step Process
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External Forces of ChangeExternal Forces of Change
✔Marketplace✔Government laws and regulations✔Technology✔Economic
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60Changes in Political and Economic Changes in Political and Economic ForcesForces
Figure 6.4
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Change: Organizational and Individual PerspectivesChange: Organizational and Individual Perspectives
✔ Types of Organizational Change✴ Anticipatory changes: planned changes based on
expected situations.✴ Reactive changes: changes made in response to
unexpected situations.✴ Incremental changes: subsystem adjustments
required to keep the organization on course.✴ Strategic changes: altering the overall shape or
direction of the organization.
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Why Do Employees Resist Change?Why Do Employees Resist Change?✔ Surprise
✴ Unannounced significant changes threaten employees’ sense of balance in the workplace.
✔ Inertia✴ Employees have a desire to maintain a safe, secure,
and predictable status quo.✔ Misunderstanding and lack of skills
✴ Without introductory or remedial training, change may be perceived negatively.
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Why Do Employees Resist Change? Why Do Employees Resist Change? (cont’d)(cont’d)
✔ Emotional Side Effects✴ Forced acceptance of change can create a sense of
powerlessness, anger, and passive resistance to change.
✔ Lack of Trust✴ Promises of improvement mean nothing if
employees do not trust management.✔ Fear of Failure
✴ Employees are intimidated by change and doubt their abilities to meet new challenges.
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✔ Personality Conflicts✴ Managers who are disliked by their managers are
poor conduits for change.✔ Poor Timing
✴ Other events can conspire to create resentment about a particular change.
✔ Lack of Tact✴ No showing sensitivity to feelings can create
resistance to change.
Why Do Employees Resist Change? (cont’d)
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✔ Threat to Job Status/Security✴ Employees worry that any change may threaten
their job or security.✔ Breakup of Work Group
✴ Changes can tear apart established on-the-job social relationships.
✔ Competing Commitments✴ Change can disrupt employees in their pursuit of
other goals.
Why Do Employees Resist Change? Why Do Employees Resist Change? (cont’d)(cont’d)
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Reducing Resistance to ChangeReducing Resistance to Change
✔Education and communication✔Participation✔Facilitation and support✔Negotiation✔Manipulation and co-optation✔Coercion --> Have to do
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Managing Teams
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When Selected Companies Began When Selected Companies Began Using Work TeamsUsing Work Teams
Boeing 1987Caterpillar 1986Champion International 1985Cummings Engine 1973Digital Equipment 1982Ford 1982General Electric 1985LTV Steel 1985Procter & Gamble 1962
Adapted From Table 13.1
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69The Advantages of TeamsThe Advantages of TeamsIncreasedIncreased::
CustomerSatisfactionCustomer
Satisfaction
Productand
ServiceQuality
Productand
ServiceQuality
Speed andEfficiency in
ProductDevelopment
Speed andEfficiency in
ProductDevelopment
Employee SatisfactionEmployee Satisfaction CrossTraining
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The Disadvantages of TeamsThe Disadvantages of Teams
InitiallyHigh
Turnover
InitiallyHigh
Turnover
SocialLoafingSocial
LoafingSelf-Limiting
BehaviorSelf-Limiting
Behavior
Legal RiskLegal Risk
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When to Use TeamsWhen to Use TeamsUse Teams When:Use Teams When:
✔There is a clear purpose
✔The job can’t be done individually
✔Team-base rewards are possible
✔Ample resources exist
✔Teams have authority
Don’t Use Teams When:Don’t Use Teams When:✔There is no clear
purpose✔The job can be done
individually✔Only individual-based
rewards exist✔Resources are scarce✔Management controls
Adapted From Table 13.4
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72Back to the FutureBack to the FutureIs Your Office Ready for Teamwork?Is Your Office Ready for Teamwork?
✔Office layout may hinder teamwork✔Use low-rise, rather than high-rise office
buildings✔Open offices with fewer walls and barriers
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Work Team CharacteristicsWork Team Characteristics
Norms Cohesiveness Size Conflict
Stages of Team Development
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Stages of Team DevelopmentStages of Team Development
Forming
Storming
Norming
Performing
De-Norming
De-Storming
De-FormingTeam
Per
form
ance
Time
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Motivation
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What Would What Would YouYou Do? Do?
✔What motivates employees?✔How can you get them excited about
their work?✔How can you improve morale?
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Components of MotivationComponents of Motivation
Initiation Persistence
Direction
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A Basic Model of Work Motivation A Basic Model of Work Motivation and Performanceand Performance
Effort•Initiation•Direction•Persistence
Performance
Adapted From Figure 16.2
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Effort and PerformanceEffort and Performance
✔Job performance✴how well someone performs the job
✔Motivation✴effort put forth on the job
✔Ability✴capability to do the job
✔Situational Constraints✴external factors affecting performance
Job Performance = Motivation X Ability X Situational Constraints
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80Needs Classification of Different Needs Classification of Different TheoriesTheories
Maslow’sHierarchy
Self-ActualizationEsteem
Belongingness
SafetyPhysiological
Alderfer’sERGGrowth
Relatedness
Existence
McClelland’sLearned NeedsPowerAchievementAffiliation
HigherOrderNeeds
LowerOrderNeeds
Adapted From Table 16.1
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Adding Need Satisfaction to the Adding Need Satisfaction to the ModelModel
Adapted From Figure 16.3
UnsatisfiedNeed Tension
Energized to Take Action
Effort•Initiation•Direction
•Persistence
PerformanceSatisfaction
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Leadership
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Managers versus LeadersManagers versus Leaders
• Do things right• Status quo• Short-term• Means• Builders• Problem solving
• Do the right thing• Change• Long-term• Ends• Architects• Inspiring & motivating
Managers Leaders
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Leadership TraitsLeadership Traits
Desire toLead
CognitiveAbility
EmotionalStability
Drive
Honesty/Integrity
Self-confidence
Knowledgeof the
Business
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Fiedler’s Contingency TheoryFiedler’s Contingency Theory
GroupPerformance
Leadership Style
SituationalFavorableness
=
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Situational FavorablenessSituational Favorableness
✔How a particular situation affects a leader’s ability to lead
✔Three factors✴Leader-member relations✴Task structure✴Position power
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Situational FavorablenessSituational Favorableness
Leader-MemberRelations
Good Good Good Good Poor Poor Poor
TaskStructure
High High Low Low High High Low
PositionPower
Strong Weak Strong Weak Strong Weak Strong
Situation I II III IV V VI VIIFavorable Moderately Favorable Unfavorable
Adapted From Figure 17.5
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Leadership StylesLeadership Styles✔Directive
✴clarifying expectations and guidelines✔Supportive
✴being friendly and approachable✔Participative
✴allowing input on decisions✔Achievement-Oriented
✴setting challenging goals
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89When to Use Each of the Four When to Use Each of the Four Leadership StylesLeadership Styles
Directive Leadership Supportive Leadership• Unstructured tasks• Inexperienced workers• Workers with low perceived ability• Workers with external locus of
control• Unclear formal authority system
• Structured, simple, repetitivetasks
• Stressful, frustrating tasks• When workers lack confidence• Clear formal authority system
Participative Leadership Achievement-Oriented Leadership• Experienced workers• Workers with high perceived
ability• Workers with internal locus of
control• Workers not satisfied with rewards• Complex tasks
• Unchallenging tasks
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StyleStyle Explanation Explanation
AI - AutocraticAI - Autocratic Solve the problem yourself using the information Solve the problem yourself using the information you have.you have.
AII - Less autocraticAII - Less autocratic Obtain the needed information from workers; then Obtain the needed information from workers; then solve the problem yourself. Workers provide solve the problem yourself. Workers provide
information but not alternatives.information but not alternatives.
C1- ConsultativeC1- Consultative Share the problem with workers individuallyShare the problem with workers individually
(but not as a group), seeking suggestions &(but not as a group), seeking suggestions &
possible alternatives. Solve the problem yourself.possible alternatives. Solve the problem yourself.
CII - More consultativeCII - More consultative Share the problem with workers as a group, seeking Share the problem with workers as a group, seeking suggestions & possible alternatives. Solve yourself.suggestions & possible alternatives. Solve yourself.
GII - Group decisionGII - Group decision Share the problem with workers as a group,Share the problem with workers as a group,
seeking suggestions & possible alternatives.seeking suggestions & possible alternatives.
Attempt to reach a consensus & be willing to Attempt to reach a consensus & be willing to
accept & implement the workers’ solution.accept & implement the workers’ solution.
Decision StylesDecision Styles
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