CsgCase Study Guide

For CAPE geography, environmental science and biology

THE CROPPER FOUNDATION

Copyright/ Printing:Users may download, reuse, reprint, or copy text and figures from Case Study Guide: for CAPE geography,environmental science and biology, so long as the original source is credited.

Citation:The document may be cited as, Rawlins, Maurice and Mary Alkins-Koo. 2009. Case Study Guide: for CAPE Geography, Environmental Science and Biology. Port of Spain, Trinidad:The Cropper Foundation (TCF).

For further information, please contact:The Education OfficerThe Cropper FoundationBuilding 7, Fernandes Industrial Centre,Laventille, Trinidad and TobagoTel: (868) 626-2628 Fax: (868) 626-2564E-mail: info@thecropperfoundation.org

Photographs: Maurice Rawlins, Tina Holley, and Roger M. Smith Cover, Layout and Design: Christian Alexis • idesigneverything.comEditorial Support: Anu Lakhan

CsgCase Study Guide

For CAPE geography, environmental science and biology

THE CROPPER FOUNDATION

AcknowledgementsThe Cropper Foundation acknowledges the contributions made by many persons in the preparation of this docu-ment. Special thanks are extended to Angela Cropper, the Environment and Resource Education (IERE) Adviso-ry Committee; the University of the West Indies (UWI); the Ministry of Education in Trinidad and Tobago; the Environmental Management Authority of Trinidad and Tobago (EMA); the Buccoo Reef Trust; the Caribbean Natural Resources Institute (CANARI); the Chaguaramas Development Agency (CDA); the Caribbean Exami-nations Council (CXC); the University of Trinidad and Tobago (UTT); and the following individual experts for their interest and contribution towards preparation of this document:

Authors:Maurice Rawlins and Dr. Mary Alkins-Koo

Other Contributors:Joseph Cazabon, Edmund Charles, Talisha Cox, Simone Dieffenthaller, Myrna Ellis, Keston Finch,Keisha Garcia, Nadia Mohammed, Omar Mohammed, Jeet Ramjattan, Tessa Sooklal

IERE Advisory Committee:Prof. John Agard, Dr. Mary Alkins-Koo, Robyn Cross, Prof. Julien Duncan, Carol Keller, Dr. Dani Lyndersay,Cerronne Prevatt, Henry Saunders, Prof. John Spence, Nordia Weekes, Dr. Rachael Williams.

Reviewers:Joseph Cazabon (St. Mary’s College)Robyn Cross (EMA)Keisha Garcia (EMA)Nicole Leotaud (CANARI)Barry Lovelace (Buccoo Reef Trust)Dr. Michael Oatham (UWI)Sundar Seecharan (Ministry of Agriculture, Land and Marine Resources of Trinidad and Tobago)Dr. Rachael Williams (UTT)

We acknowledge the financial support of The Packard Foundation for the preparation of this document.

Table of Contents (click the link to access the section) Introduction Guidelines to Learning Activities Swot Analysis and Stratagic Matrix Leopold Matrix 5 Whys Conducting SurveysSampling Methodologies Good Field and Laboratory Practices Measuring Ecosystem Diversity using a species area curve Estimating Habitat Area using the Grid Overlay Method Estimating Slope Angle and Gradient Soil texture Estimating Stream Depth, Stream Velocity and Stream Flow Measuring Turbidity of a Water Body Measuring Total Suspended Solids in a Water Sample Estimating Plankton by Mass of a Water Sample Sampling Benthic Invertebrates Measuring Dissolved Oxygen levels of a Water Sample Measuring Nitrate levels of a Water Sample Measuring Phosphate levels of a Water Sample Estimating pH Values of a Water Sample Measuring Faecal Coliform levels of a Water Sample (Filtration Method) Bird Counts Arima Valley Case StudyAripo Savannas Case StudyBuccoo Reef Case StudyChaguaramas Peninsula Case StudyNorth Caroni Plains Case StudyPort of Spain Case Study

The CAPE curriculum encourages flexibility in teaching and learning methods. The development of critical-thinking, as well as analytical and research skills, enhance the students’ ability to manipulate basic academic knowledge.

Need for a Case Study BookletAt a 2006 seminar, CAPE geography, environmental science and biology teachers met with The Cropper Foundation, the Ministry of Education of Trinidad and Tobago and the Environmental Management Authority of Trinidad and Tobago (EMA) . to discuss their needs in meeting curriculum requirements, and to determine how the Foundation might work with the Ministry to help meet these needs. The CAPE environmental science and geography syl-

labi place significant emphasis on building and using case study material which teachers generally find dif-ficult to access. Some of the challenges that teachers face include, inter alia: i. How to decide what information needs to beincluded in a case study? What stories can be told, what issues can be highlighted, and what conclusions can be made from the available data? Is there a frame-work to guide this process?ii. Accessing information to build case studies. Information is often scattered across various govern-ment reports, scientific and technical papers making data collection difficult. In some cases, acquiring the data also poses problems because of the bureaucratic processes required by some agencies and organisations to make such data publicly available.

Situation Analysis

In the past fifty years, the way teachers teach has changed considerably. In Trinidad and Tobago and the rest of the English-speaking Caribbean, we’ve been revising the way that we think and act in education. The traditional top-down delivery of curricula is giving way to an increasingly interactive style. Our assessment structures have also changed as part of the evolution of education systems.

Since 1998, many Caribbean countries and territories have been phasing out the General Certificate of Educa-tion (GCE) Advanced level examinations administered by the University of Cambridge in favour of the Ca-ribbean Advanced Proficiency Examinations (CAPE). The CAPE curriculum, administered by the Caribbean Examinations Council (CXC) is designed to provide certification to students who, having attained a Caribbean Secondary School Certificate (CSEC), wish to pursue two additional years of study at the secondary school level. This curriculum gives more focus to the nature and scope of issues relevant to the Caribbean. This is es-pecially important because of the ever-growing challenges to sustainable development being faced in the region, and the high rate of emigration of highly qualified and skilled individuals from the Caribbean. CAPE’s emphasis on the Caribbean does not exclude the integration of global affairs; rather, it places the Caribbean in the context of larger international topics and issues.

Introduction

iii. Difficulty in assessing and interpreting available data.In addition to case studies, the syllabi also call for a heavier fieldwork component, for which some teachers feel unprepared. In 2007, the Foundation, in collabora-tion with the Ministry embarked on a three-year joint programme that includes the delivery of a set of prod-ucts and activities designed to develop teacher capac-ity and make relevant materials available.

These teaching aides include a handbook on sustain-able development terms and concepts; a brochure and accompanying series of posters on the main findings and conclusions of an assessment of the Northern Range of Trinidad; a series of capacity-development workshops and tutorials for teachers; and a case study guide. Through the case study guide the Foundation hopes to contribute to CAPE’s transformative approach to education.

The Case Study GuideBecause case studies are used across many different disciplines, several definitions exist. For example, case studies used in law are summaries of actual court cases; for business studies, case studies can be evaluations of a client’s experience and results regarding a service offered. For the purposes of the case studies developed by The Cropper Foundation, we will use the following definition:

A case study is a written summary of real-life situations basedon data and research.

Case studies can be used to:• Analyze real problems and events• Draw out patterns, relationships, and themes• Illustrate theories and how they are applied• Present information on a particular event or situationA well designed case study should identify a clear objective or desired outcome.

This guide created by The Cropper Foundation offers teachers, students and practitioners a set of tools and ap-proaches that can be used for developing case studies. It is divided into four sections: • Case studies of select areas in Trinidad and Tobago• Guide for developing case studies • Generic activities that can be used to help bridge gaps in understanding• Generic methodologies for undertaking fieldwork

The case study guide is also meant to complement the other educational materials produced by the Foundation. It is expected that teachers and students will find ways of using the full suite of materials to advance different areas of the syllabi. For example, in the Aripo Savannas case study some management options are explored, and the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is identified as a key input for developing a framework for man-agement. But what is the CBD? Go to the Handbook of Sustainable Development Terms and Concepts: a Refer-ence for Teachers and Students and see the section on Selected Conferences, Conventions, Agreements involved in Sustainable Development. Teachers and students may find that when theoretical information, like the notes on the CBD, is applied to practical situations, it is easier to understand and to remember.

Looking aheadFurther work on the guide for developing case studies will be based on the lessons gleaned from the current guide. The Cropper Foundation is creating a programme of workshops, seminars and consultations on develop-ing case studies to be rolled out over a period of three to five years. Through the programme, the Foundation will continue to work closely with teachers and practitioners to help them use and adapt the guide. The experi-ences of teachers and practitioners in using this guide will provide inputs for improvement of the current guide.

SWOT Analysis and Strategic Matrix What is it?

SWOT analysis is used to evaluate the Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats of a project or activity. It can help students evaluate the challenges to achieving a particular objective, and identify solutions.

Strengths and weaknesses are usually inherent properties of an area, such as the availability or lack of resourc-es. The absence of certain strengths is sometimes considered as weaknesses. For example, a large variety of specialised insect species that are endemic to an area could be a strength. This could become a weakness if the insect population faces a catastrophe from which it cannot recover because of lack of genetic variability because of the high level of specialisation. Opportunities and threats are usually external such as the enforcement or lack of enforcement of legislation guiding activities in an area.

The SWOT matrix has four cells, referred to as strategies or interventions:

Guidelines to Learning Activities

• SO are strategies or interventions that use strengths to create opportunities.• WO are strategies or interventions that overcome and create opportunities from weaknesses.• ST are strategies or interventions that use strengths to mitigate or reduce vulnerability to threats.• WT are strategies or interventions to minimize weaknesses and reduce threats.

The following information is taken from a SWOT analysis of the sustainability of the conservation of Mongo-lia’s wild horses, the takhi, in Hustai National Park. The example is provided to show some strengths, weak-nesses, opportunities and threats as they relate to conservation of a species.

How it works• Because SWOT analysis is used to evaluate the challenges of achieving a particular objective associated with a project or activity, the objective should first be defined.• The next step is to identify the strengths, weaknesses, threats and opportunities associated with achieving the objective. Students are encouraged to properly research an area before attempting this step and to spend some time thinking through this step, as there will be SWOTs that will not be immediately obvious, but do affect achieving the objective. For example, the close proximity of a fragile ecosystem to a major roadway can be a weakness, or multilateral environmental conventions, treaties and agreements can be opportunities for an area. SWOTs are not always physical. For example, a threat to the management of the Aripo Savannas as an Environmentally Sensitive Area can be the non-enforcement of legislation that can encourage illegal squatting in the savannas.

Objective: to build a viable, self-sustainable, free roaming population of some 400 to 500 takhi in Hustai National Park (HNP).

Leopold MatrixThe Leopold matrix was designed to assess the impact of an activity or activities on the environment. It is wide-ly used in undertaking environmental impact assessments (EIAs) and employs a method of weighting impacts. For the purposes of the classroom, the weighting of impacts does not need to be as rigourous as for official or state-regulated EIAs, and we can represent the environment as one or a set of ecosystems.

Often, activities are carried out in an ecosystem, and it appears that the ecosystem remains unaffected. This may occur because the resilience of ecosystem components varies. Therefore, it is often useful to separate ecosys-tems into different components and to then analyse the impacts of activities on the individual components. The table below provides some components that can be used in the classroom:

How the matrix works• The Leopold matrix draws on relevant examples of similar situations in which activities have impacted the environment. Begin by researching examples of similar activities in similar environments.• Create a matrix, with activities running vertically and ecosystem components running horizontally.• Within the matrix, identify impacts as positive, negative, neutral, high, medium or low. Explain and discuss the impacts beyond simply labelling them.• Although this method has several advantages, including the ability to establish cause and effect relatio ships, quantifying the impacts as high, medium or low can be difficult. Processes are often undervalued because we do not yet fully understand how they work, and because they operate behind the scenes. We tend to more easily identify with the tangible things associated with ecosystems such as water or animals or plants. Teachers should spend time carefully examining with students the magnitude of impacts on any one ecosystem component.• The impacts can then be prioritised and managed accordingly.

An example of how the Leopold matrix can be used is provided below. The information presented is theoretical and not relevant to a particular site.

5 WhysThe main of objective of the 5 Whys exercise is root cause analysis. Root cause analysis (RCA) is a problem-solving method that attempts to correct or eliminate root causes instead of addressing the immediately obvious problem-treating the cause and not the symptom. In the long term, it may be more expensive to keep treating symptoms instead of addressing the cause.

In its initial stages, RCA is a reactive method of problem solving. However, by gaining experience and exper-tise, it becomes a proactive method which helps forecast problems before they occur. Still, while this is impor-tant, it does not replace the need for scientific evidence to support any assertions.

Management and other issues are often multi-layered and it may be impossible to identify a single root cause. Although students are encouraged to think broadly, speculation can lead to errant information and conclusions. As far as possible, draw on facts and seek out the correct information.

How it works• The 5 Whys make up a series of questions and answers. After the initial problem is stated, each question is based on the answer given for the previous one. Think of it as questioning the questions.• The 5 Whys do not comprise a hard and fast rule and RCA can be accomplished in fewer or more than 5 Whys. However, studies and trials suggest that 5 Whys is often best for identifying root causes.• Think critically about the Whys. In addition to helping to develop critical and analytical skills, this activity helps to develop logical thought processes, encourages creative thinking and the resourcefulness to pull information from a variety of sources.• This activity can be done in pairs and questions and answers shared with the class and discussed.

Note that this example is oversimplified, and in reality issues tend to have multiple causes. This activity should be repeated to include a variety of answers for the Whys. This can help students to appreciate the multitude of complex factors surrounding any one issue.

An example of how the 5 Whys can be used is provided below.

Conducting SurveysA survey is a research tool used to measure variables based on people’s responses to questions. It asks questions about the individual’s feelings, opinions, values and expectations; the responses can then be synthesised to make definitive conclusions. Surveys are good because they are:• quick and inexpensive;• an efficient way of collecting data from large numbers of people or those widely dispersed geographically;• flexible – can be in-depth or superficial;• able to collect data on numerous variables in a short period of time.

As an effective instrument, surveys can fall short because:• analysing the data collected can be difficult without the right tools and experience;• questionnaires may be biased based on the surveyor’s experience or situation;• they may not get a truly representative view or opinion of the public if those surveyed only represent a small portion of the population.

Developing a Surveyadapted from Creative Research Systems (2009).

1) Establish the goals of the projectDecide what you want to learn. The goals of the project determine who you will survey and what you will ask them. If your goals are unclear, the results will probably be unclear. The more specific you can make your goals, the easier it will be to get usable answers.

2) Determine your sample populationThere are two main components in determining who you will interview. The first is deciding what kind of people to interview. Researchers often call this group the target population. Correctly determining the target population is critical. If you do not interview the right people, you will not successfully meet your goals.

Avoiding a biased sample - A biased sample will produce biased results. Totally excluding all bias is almost impossible; however, if you recognize that bias exists, you can intuitively discount some of the answers. For example, a survey that wants to get the general public’s views on quarrying in a watershed would be biased if only the people living in or around the watershed are interviewed.

The next thing to decide is how many people you need to interview. Statisticians know that a small, representa-tive sample will reflect the group from which it is drawn. The larger the sample, the more precisely it reflects the target group. However, the rate of improvement in the precision decreases as your sample size increases. For example, to increase a sample from 250 to 1,000 only doubles the precision. You must make a decision about your sample size based on factors such as: time available, budget and necessary degree of precision.

Quota - A quota is a sample size for a sub-group. It is sometimes useful to establish quotas to ensure that your sample accurately reflects relevant sub-groups in your target population. For example, men and women have somewhat different opinions in many areas. If you want your survey to accurately reflect the general popula-tion’s opinions, you will want to ensure that the percentage of men and women in your sample reflect their percentages of the general population.

3) Choose interviewing methodologyThe choice of interviewing method will depend on time, cost, literacy levels of your target population, andsensitive questions. Sensitive questions are those questions that people may be hesitant to answer becausethey draw on personal situations. These questions may include topics such as income, sexual preference,and religious practices. Three popular survey methodologies are provided on the following page.

Remember: if you want a sample of 1,000 people,and you estimate a 10% response level, you needto mail 10,000 questionnaires.

4) Create your questionnaireThe first rule is to design the questionnaire to fit the interview method. Phone interviews cannot show pictures. People responding to mail surveys cannot easily ask “What exactly do you mean by that?”, if they do not un-derstand a question. Intimate, personal questions are sometimes best handled by mail where anonymity is most assured.

If you present a twenty-page questionnaire most potential respondents will give up in horror before even start-ing. Ask yourself how you will use the information from each question. If you cannot give yourself a satisfacto-ry answer, leave it out. Avoid the temptation to add a few more questions just because you are doing a question-naire anyway. If necessary, place your questions into three groups: must know, useful to know and nice to know. Discard the last group, unless the previous two groups are very short.

Allow a “don’t know” or “not applicable” response to all questions, except to those in which you are certain that all respondents will have a clear answer. In most cases, these are wasted answers as far as the researcher is concerned, but are necessary alternatives to avoid frustrated respondents. Sometimes “don’t know” or “not applicable” will really represent some respondents’ most honest answers to some of your questions. Respon-dents who feel they are being coerced into giving an answer they do not want to give often do not complete the questionnaire.

Researchers use three basic types of questions: multiple choice, numeric open end, and text open end (sometimes called "verbatims"). Examples of each kind of question follow:

Multiple Choice Where do you live? North South East West

Numeric Open End How much would you pay to use this beach? ______

Text Open End How can pollution of the Caroni River be reduced? ___________________________________ ___________________________________

Rating scales and agreement scales are two common types of questions that some researchers treat as multiple choice questions and others treat as numeric open end questions. Examples of these kinds of questions are: Rating Scales How would you rate the Northern Range as an eco-tourist destination? Excellent Good Fair Poor

On a scale where 10 means you have a great amount of interest in a subject and 1 means you have none at all, how would you rate interest in each of the following topics: Multilateral environmental agreements ___ Health and well-being ___ Business ___

Agreement Scales How much would you agree with the following statement: Enough is being done to raise environmental awareness in the Caribbean region. Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree

Question-and-answer choice orderThere are two broad issues to keep in mind when considering question-and-answer choice order. One is how the choice order can encourage people to complete your survey. The other issue is how the order of questions or the order of answer choices could affect the results of your survey.

Question order• Ideally, the early questions in a survey should be easy and pleasant to answer. These kinds of questions encourage people to continue the survey. In telephone or personal interviews they help build rapport with the interviewer. Grouping together questions on the same topic also makes the questionnaire easier to answer. • Whenever possible, leave difficult or sensitive questions until near the end of your survey. The more comfortable people get during the interview is the greater chance of eliciting a response. • Question order can affect the results in two ways: 1. Mentioning something in one question can make people think of it while they answer a later question, where they might not have thought of it if it had not been previously mentioned. In some cases you may be able to reduce this problem by separating related questions with unrelated ones. 2. When a series of questions have the same answer choices some people will usually start giving the same answer, without really considering it. Consider changing the answer choices by rewording or simply omit repetitive questions.

Answer choice order• Answer choice order can make individual questions easier or more difficult to answer. Whenever there is a logical or natural order to answer choices, use it. Always present agree-disagree choices in that order. Presenting them in disagree-agree order will seem odd. For the same reason, positive to negative and excellent to poor scales should be presented in those orders. When using numeric rating scales, higher numbers should mean a more positive or more agreeing answer. • The order in which the answer choices are presented can also affect the answers given. People tend to pick the choices nearest the start of a list when they read the list themselves on paper. People tend to pick the most recent answer when they hear a list of choices read to them.

5) Conduct interviews and enter data

6) Analyze the dataData analysis is a bit tricky and students and teachers should do some background reading on analysing survey data before attempting it. Some tips on tools for data presentation are provided below:

Pie chartsGood for showing how some whole amountof something is divided. For example how thepopulation of an area is divided into personswho are unemployed, work in the formal sector and work in the informal sector.

!

14%

53%

33%

Unemployed

Employed in

Formal Sector

Employed in

the Informal

Sector

Bar GraphsGood for comparing discrete non-continuous data. For example, comparisons among people who agree, disagree or have no opinion that a road should be constructed through the Aripo Savannas.

HistogramsHistograms are used for comparing discretecontinuous data. For example comparisons among the number persons of different ages that have visited the Buccoo Reef.

Line GraphsA line graph is used to show trends in data. For example, over 10 years rainfall increased in the Vassar watershed.

!

!

Sampling Methodologies

The aim of this section is to describe some of the methodologies for undertaking fieldwork at the upper second-ary school level. Also included in this section are some tips for field and laboratory work which go a long way to ensuring the success of the study.

Good Field and Laboratory PracticesField practices• Label all samples and sample bottles.• When sampling in aquatic environments, do not sample too close to the shoreline because dislodged sediments may affect both data and results; samples obtained from deeper waters where fewer sediments are encountered are preferred.• Samples should be taken in duplicate in case of any errors encountered during the sampling procedure• Some samples should be kept in an ice-packed cooler to avoid bacterial growth. • Samples should be processed within fifteen minutes after removal from the field, if there is no equipment present to conduct the relevant tests. Generally, samples can be used within twenty four hours of sampling if they are stored under refrigerated conditions. • Gloves should be worn at all times to avoid body oils from contaminating samples and equipment.

Laboratory Practices• Always wear proper laboratory attire when conducting experiments.• Sterilize lab stations before any work is conducted.• Sterilize equipment. • Calibrate electronic or battery powered equipment before it is used to avoid inaccurate readings.• Turn off gas after use.• Dispose of hazardous liquids in a wastewater system and solid substances in a clearly marked hazard disposal bag.• Sanitize stations after work is complete.• Wash hands after experiments are conducted.

SampleBottles

General Plot and Transect Sampling NotesQuadratsQuadrats are used to define sample areas within a study site. “Quadrat” also refers to a square or rectangular marker made out of any material such as wood, metal or rigid plastic. For large areas a tape measure can be used to define the boundaries of the quadrat. The type and size of quadrat used depends on the objectives of the study, as well as what is being sampled. Rectangular quadrats have been found to yield better results for sam-pling vegetation than other shapes. The following quadrat areas are suggested:• For closely spaced herbaceous vegetation – 1 (m2).• For bushes, shrubs and saplings up to 3 or 4 m tall – 10 (m2)• For forest trees over 3 or 4m – 100 (m2)For sampling soil macroinvertebrates or benthic invertebrates in a stream, a square quadrat with area of 0.1 m2 can be used.Quadrats are used for both plot and transect sampling.

Plot sampling In sampling, an area - referred to as a plot - of known size, is used to identify, count and measure all individuals within it. Plot sampling is most widely used for land plants, but may also be used for sampling relatively ses-sile or slow-moving animals; benthos in aquatic environments; and animal burrows, nests or hills. Quadrats can be used for sampling within plots particularly when plots are large and resources are not available for identify-ing, counting or measuring all individuals within the plot. Here, estimation is used to determine the number of individuals in the plot. The location of quadrats within the plot can be determined by a systematic method such as a grid or by standard random procedure. For random plot sampling, the centre of the plot can be determined by tossing a stick over your shoulder and using where the stick lands as the centre of the plot, or using a random set of coordinates to define plot boundaries. Plot sampling is used in the methodology for Measuring Ecosystem Diversity using a Species Area Curve. (Brower et al. 1998)

Transect sampling Transects are lines along which populations can be sampled. They are used mainly for sampling contiguous stages of ecological succession, or for surveying changes in vegetation along an environmental gradient or through different habitats. Three commonly used transect methods are belt transect, line intercept, and gradsect or gradient directed transect. Transect sampling is advantageous over plot sampling for sparse or large and distinct vegetation. One way that quadrats can be used for sampling along a transect is shown below.

Quadrat Sample

Figure 1: Quadrat sampling along a line transect

Measuring Ecosystem Diversity using a Species Area CurveAdapted from Oatham (2006)

Diversity in communities can be considered in terms of numbers of species or other taxonomic categories, for example, species diversity. There are two main constraints to describing the diversity of communities. First, the sample from the community must be large enough to represent the community adequately. This means that large numbers of samples must be taken. The second constraint is the time and other resources needed to take these samples. Generally, as sample size increases, the study becomes more expensive in terms of time and resources and these are usually limited in availability. One of the main methods to determine a balance between these two constraints is a species-area curve.

A species-area curve is derived by sampling a larger and larger area of the community until no new species are added to a cumulative species list (Figure 2). When no new species are encountered in new quadrats, the cumu-lative number of species remains the same for a further increase in sampling area. This is taken as the optimum sample size (in terms of area) for sampling this community.

Materials

• Three to six 0.25m2 or 0.5m2 quadrats• Measuring tape• Magnifying glass

Field methods1. Identify similar sites of vegetation at the sample site.2. The arrangement of quadrats outlined in Figure 3 is not fixed and can be extended or reduced according to the size of class, or the required sample effort.

Figure 2: Species-area curve

Figure 3: Arrangement of sampling quadrats

3. Using a 0.5m2 quadrat, lay the measuring tape down for a length of 2.0 m, and locate along this the first four quadrats at the top of the sampling area. Mark the corners of the quadrats 1 to 4 and move the quadrats along to the new positions for the second set of samples (5 to 8). When these are completed, the other eight quadrats can be set up in a similar fashion so that they are all contiguous.

4. For each quadrat, identify each species by giving it a letter name (AA, AD, BB, etc.). Use the magnifying glass to identify minute features on plants. Draw up a list of letter names and a rough sketch and description of identifying features, for example: hairy grass, short herb with purple flowers. For each quadrat, note the presence of each of these species and the quadrat number.

Data analysis1. Using the quadrat label from Figure 3, randomly select one of your quadrats and note which species are present and count them.2. Randomly select another quadrat and count the number of species that occur in this second quadrat that did not occur in the first. Add these to the number of species in the first quadrat for a cumulative total for both quadrats.3. Calculate the cumulative number of species for three quadrats using step 2 and repeat until all sixteen quadrats have been analysed. Construct a table of number of quadrats and the cumulative number of species. The total number of species is the species richness. 4. Plot a line graph of cumulative number of species (y-axis) against numbers of quadrats (x-axis).5. Identify the minimum number of quadrats required for deriving a species-area curve.

Estimating Habitat Area using the Grid Overlay Method(Adapted from Field and Laboratory Methods for General Ecology)

Materials• Map of area• Grid (can be drawn on tracing paper)• Ruler

Method1. Determine the scale of the map or the aerial photo to be used. The scale is usually printed on the map or photograph in a ratio. For example 1:24,000 as a map scale means that every one metre or foot on the map represents 24,000 metres or feet on the earth’s surface. Some smaller maps have their scales in units of centimetres.2. Reduce the scale to a smaller unit of measurement if it is too large. It may be difficult to use the grid overlay when working in metres, this can be reduced to centimetres.3. Create a sketch map of the area to be measured.4. Superimpose a grid onto the map, for which the area of each square is known. If each square is 2cm x 2cm on the map then on the earth’s surface, the squares would represent an area of 48,000cm X 48,000cm or 230,400 m2.

5. To estimate the total area, count the number of squares that overlay the area – including partially overlaid squares – and multiply this total number by the area of each square.

Figure 4: Grid Overlay

Estimating Slope Angle and Gradient Adapted from Field and Laboratory Methods for General Ecology

The gradient of a slope between two points may be expressed as the difference in elevation (h) relative to the horizontal distance (d) between the two points. For example the gradient of a slope may be expressed as 1m per 3m, or as a percentage (33%). A simple method for determining the gradient of a slope is outlined below.

Materials:• Straight stick• Metre rule or measuring tape• Trigonometrical tables or scientific calculator

Method:1. The observer stands at the lower point of the slope, and the subject (a person in this case) is situated at the upper point of the slope. The arrangement shown in Figure 5 shows how the method for estimating height is applied to measuring the height of a flagpole.2. The observer holds a straight stick at eye level away from the body. 3. Measure the perpendicular distance along the line of sight from the eye to the stick, and record as d’.4. The observer sights up the slope to the top of the person’s head. The distance along this line of sight from the eye to the stick is measured and recorded as h’.5. The gradient of the slope can be found by h’/d’. 6. The angle of the slope is the tangent of h’/d’.

Soil Texture

Soil texture refers to the percentage by weight of sand, silt and clay in a soil sample. The soil texture class is determined by the ratio of different soil particles (sand, silt or clay) in a soil sample. These classes include clay, silt and sand, and various combinations of these such as sandy clay, or silty loam. Some soil texture classifica-tions also include material greater than 2mm in diameter, and these soils are categorised as gravely or stony. Because several soil classifications exist, the texture of a soil sample may differ according to the classification used. One of the most commonly used soil texture classifications is the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) system.

Figure 5: Estimating the height of an object on a slope [Source: Brower et al. (1998)]

Qualitative “feel” method

Method:1. Place about 25 grams of soil in the palm of your hand. Add water drops to the soil and start kneading to break up aggregates. Stop adding water when the soil is moldable.2. Shape the soil into a ball: - If it does not form a ball, it is predominantly sand. - If it forms a ball, go to 3.3. Hold the ball of soil between the thumb and forefingers, pushing and squeezing to form the ball into a ribbon: - If the soil does not form a ribbon, it is loamy sand, silt loam or coarse silt loam. - If the soil forms a ribbon of length 2.5cm before breaking, go on to 4. - If the soil forms a ribbon of length 2.5 - 5.0 cm before breaking, go on 5. - If the soil forms a ribbon longer than 5 cm before breaking, go on to 6.4. Wet and rub the ribbon with the forefingers: - If the soil feels gritty, it is sandy loam; if it is very smooth with no grit at all, it is silt. - If it feels smooth with only a little bit of grittiness, it is silt loam, and if neither grittiness nor smoothness predominates, then it is loam.5. Wet and rub the ribbon with the forefingers: - If the soil feels gritty, it is sandy clay loam. - If there is no grit and it feels smooth, it is silty clay loam. - If neither grittiness nor smoothness predominates, the soil is a clay loam.6. Wet and rub the ribbon with the forefingers: - If the soil feels gritty it is a sandy clay. - If it feels smooth then it is a silty clay. - If it is neither predominantly smooth nor gritty it is a clay.

Considerations• The methodology outlined is not very precise and is most useful in the field, or for preliminary measurements. For a more precise analysis of soil texture, a method of sieving the soil and weighing the soil fractions may be used.• Soil texture using this kind of analysis varies from person to person as a function of tactile stimulation.

Sampling tip• Repeated measurements by different persons can increase the accuracy of the measurements.

A method for determining the texture of a soil sample is outlined below.

Table 1: Fractions of soil particles based on diameter

Estimating Stream Depth, Stream Velocity and Stream FlowAdapted from IOWATER: Volunteer Water Quality Monitoring

Materials• A length of calibrated rope with weight at the end• Stopwatch

AbbreviationsSD = stream depth (metres; SD1 is the stream depth at spot 1)1, 2, etc = spots along the stream transectn = number of spots along the transectW = width of box at each spot; 1 metre is usedSV = stream velocity (1 metre divided by seconds measured; metres per second)* = multiplier/ = divider

Average Stream Depth (metre)Average Stream Depth = [SD1 + SD2 + SDn ] / n NOTE: The calibrated rope can be used to measure stream depth at each spot.Be sure to convert the measurement from centimetres to metres. Total Flow (cubic metres per second or m3/s)

For total flow, imagine a box placed around each spot on your stream transect. A flow is determined for each box and summed for all boxes. Flow associated with each box is calculated by multiplying the width of the box at each spot (1 metre) by stream depth (which you measure) by the velocity of the spot (in the field you measure the number of seconds it takes for the tennis ball to travel one metre; velocity is one metre divided by the num-ber of seconds). The flow of each box is given in cubic metres per second (m3/s). The flow of each box is added to give total flow.

Total Flow = (W1*SD1*SV1) + (W2*SD2*SV2) + (Wn *SDn *SVn )

Average Stream Velocity (metres per second or m/s)

Average stream velocity is calculated by dividing total flow by the cross-sectional area of your transect. The cross-sectional area is determined by calculating a cross-sectional area for the box at each spot of your transect and then summing the cross-sectional areas.

Average Stream Velocity = Total Flow / [(W1*SD1) + (W2*SD2) + (Wn *SDn )]

Figure 6: Cross-sectional view of a stream.

ConsiderationsStream velocity is influenced by: • the slope of the surrounding terrain• the depth of the stream• the width of the stream • the roughness of the substrate or stream bottom

The method for measuring stream velocity does not consider acceleration, and should only be used for short, straight sections of a stream.

Measuring Turbidity of a Water BodyAdapted from Field and Laboratory Methods for General Ecology and Microbial Life: Educational Resources

Turbidity is a physical property of water that affects its light transparency. As turbidity increases the ability of light to transmit through a water body decreases. In natural water bodies turbidity is affected by dissolved chemicals; suspended particles such as clay, silt and organic matter; and density of micro organisms such as plankton. Determining turbidity is important particularly in deep water environments where light penetration is inhibited by depth, and where photosynthetic plants are affected by light penetration. Several methods exist for measuring turbidity; the one described below is subjective and as such the accuracy is not very high. However, this method is adequate for preliminary analysis of turbidity of water.

The Secchi Disk Turbidity MethodThe Secchi disk works as a contrast instrument.It disappears when the human eye can no longersee it, meaning that there no longer remains anycontrast between the disk and its background.

Materials• A disk with dimensions: 20cm diametre and 6mm thickness (The disk can be made of plexiglass, hard plastic, PVC or any kind of material that is rigid.)• Metal disk or metal ring that can weigh down the disk• Eyebolt with nuts and washers • A length of calibrated rope• Black and white paint

MethodMaking a Secchi Disk1. Divide the disk into equal quadrants, and paint the quadrants alternating black and white.2. Attach the metal disk or ring to the unpainted side of the Secchi disk using the eyebolt, nuts and washers.3. Attach the rope to the eyebolt.

Sampling1. Slowly lower the Secchi disk into the water until it is no longer visible, and record the depth from the surface of the water to the disk. As far as possible sampling should not occur in direct sunlight.2. Slowly raise the Secchi disk until it is visible again. Record the depth from the surface of the water to the disk.3. Take the average of the two recorded depths as the Secchi disk reading. 4. Turbidity is measured as the depth of visibility of the Secchi disk. Generally, where the depth of visibility is greater, turbidity tends to be lower, and the opposite applies.

Considerations• The depth of visibility for the Secchi disk is dependent on external factors such as sunlight intensity and waves. These are highly variable, and therefore, as many readings as possible should be taken to increase precision of the measurements.• The depth of visibility for the Secchi disk varies from person to person as a function of vision.

Sampling Tips• Repeated measurements by multiple observers can increase the accuracy of the measurements.• For marine environments all-white Secchi disks are best, as the background colour of marine environments tends to be black. • For freshwater environments alternating black and white quadrant Secchi disks are best, as the black quadrants provide a constant background thus standardizing the contrast.

Measuring Total Suspended Solids of a Water Sample

Total suspended solids (TSS) are a measure of the amount of suspended material in a sample of water. Suspend-ed materials include particles that are light in weight such as pollen grains; particles that are relatively small in size; and particles that have a large surface area relative to their weight such as clay. TSS and turbidity are related: as TSS increases, turbidity generally increases. TSS can be estimated from mea-surements of turbidity or transparency. However, a more accurate measurement of TSS involves weighing the suspended solids in a sample of water. A method for this is outlined below.

Materials• Vacuum pump and manifold • Desiccator and desiccant that contains a colour indicator for moisture content • Drying oven for use between 103°C and 105°C • Analytical balance or electronic scale capable of weighing to 0.1 mg • Heat-resistant tongs or tweezers• 2 μm filter paper• Aluminium dish or glass Petri dishes • 100 mL glass graduated cylinder• 100 mL conical flask• 250 mL sample bottle

Field work1. Remove the stopper (bottle cork) and rinse the sample bottle with distilled water.2. Submerge the sample bottle beneath the surface of the water and tilt so that water flows into it. 3. Cover bottle and store sample in a refrigerator for a maximum of seven days before laboratory analysis.

Laboratory analysis1. Place filter paper in dessicator to remove excessive moisture. When the colour indicator shows that the paper is dry, remove from the dessicator and weigh on the analytical balance. Record the weight as A in mg. Use tongs or tweezers to transfer when handling the filter paper as bare fingers may transfer oils and moisture from the skin. 2. Place filter paper on the vacuum manifold. Wet the filter with deionized water in order to seat the filter in the vacuum manifold. Turn on the vacuum. If there is a hole in the filter, you may hear an abnormal hissing or whistling. 3. Thoroughly mix the sample to be analyzed by shaking vigorously. Carefully measure 100ml of the water sample using a graduated cylinder.

4. Assemble the conical flask as shown in Figure 7. Pour water from the graduated cylinder into the beaker that is attached to the conical flask. Turn on the vacuum.5. Allow the vacuum to continue until all of the water has been filtered. 6. Alternatively, where a vacuum pump assembly is not available, the water sample can be left to filter on its own using gravity to pull the water down. Although this method takes more time, it is as effective as using the vacuum pump. 7. Place the filter paper into the aluminium or Petri dish in the oven to dry for 48 hours at 103° C. 8. After drying in the oven, transfer the filter paper to a desiccator to cool. When the filter paper has cooled sufficiently, weigh the dried and cooled filter paper on the analytical balance. Record the weight as B in mg. 9. Use the following calculation to determine the weight of solids per litre of the water sample:

where: B = weight of filter + dried residue, mg, and A = weight of filter, mg

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Figure 7: Assembly of vacuum pump filtration system Source: Cooke (2009)

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Estimating Plankton by Mass of a Water Sample

Plankton are floating microscopic plants (e.g. phytoplankton) and animals (e.g. zooplankton) that live in ma-rine, estuarine or fresh water. Phytoplankton is photosynthetic and is a primary producer, it forms the basis of aquatic food webs. Phytoplankton depends on sunlight and nutrients to grow and is found in – but not restricted to - shallow waters. Because human activities can affect the availability of plankton, it is important to assess the impacts of our activities on plankton populations. One way of measuring plankton populations is by estimating the mass of plankton per unit of water.

Materials• 250 ml sample bottle• Fine mesh net (e.g. 80μm)• Nylon string• Rubber band• Stiff wire• Vacuum pump and manifold • Desiccator and desiccant that contains a colour indicator for moisture content • Drying oven for use at between 103° and 105° C • Analytical balance or electronic scale capable of weighing to 0.1 mg • Heat-resistant tongs • 2 μm filter paper• Aluminium dish or glass Petri dishes • 100 mL glass graduated cylinder• 100 mL conical flask

MethodMaking the plankton tow net1. Bend the wire into a circle. The diametre of the circle will depend on how big you want the plankton tow net to be. 2. Attach the mesh to the circular frame.3. Attach the other end of the mesh to the sample bottle and use a rubber band to secure the mesh around the neck of the sample bottle.4. Attach the nylon string to the top of the circular frame.

!Figure 8: A Plankton tow netAdapted from Sutherland (1996)

Field work1. Remove the stopper (bottle cork) and rinse the sample bottle with distilled water.2. Assemble the plankton tow net.3. Submerge the net below the surface keeping the open end against the current and drag the plankton tow net using the nylon string or keep it fixed. The plankton tow net directs the plankton in the water into the sample bottle.4. Remove the sample bottle from the net assemblage, cover bottle and store sample in a refrigerator for a maximum of seven days before laboratory analysis. See laboratory analysis for total suspended solids.

Sampling tips• Shallow streams are unlikely to have a plankton community. Use shallow pond instead.

Additional methods for sampling aquatic organisms are available from Ecological Census Techniques: A handbook.

Sampling Benthic InvertebratesThe majority of invertebrates in rivers and streams are found amongst the stones and gravel on the stream bed. One of the methods used for obtaining a sample of these benthic invertebrates is kick sampling. Kick sampling involves dislodging invertebrates in the river or stream bed by kicking and disturbing the substrate and catch-ing the dislodged invertebrates in a net held a short distance downstream. The net can be made with two broom handles and 1m square mesh material.

Considerations• This method is biased against heavy species which are unlikely to be carried by the water and caught in the net.• The method under estimates, for example, species firmly attached to stones and boulders.

Measuring Dissolved Oxygen of a Water SampleDissolved oxygen (DO) levels can be determined using a variety of tests. AccuVac checks, electronic monitor-ing and drip titration are just a few of the methods available. Most tests involve a colourmetric change.The method described below uses the Winkler drop titration method.Materials• Hach test kit including DO reagents and powdered pillows • Sample bottle• A pair of clippers

Field work1. Remove the stopper (bottle cork) and rinse the sample bottle with water to be sampled and empty the bottle.2. Submerge the sample bottle beneath the surface of the water and tilt so that water flows into it. Keep the bottle tilted and submerged for two to three minutes to ensure that air is not trapped in the bottle. 3. Replace the stopper quickly while ensuring that you do not trap any air bubbles. The best way to do this is to place the sample bottle on a level, flat surface and then carefully drop the stopper into place.4. Store bottle in a refrigerator for a maximum of twenty four hours before laboratory analysis. However, laboratory analysis should be undertaken as soon as possible to avoid contaminating the sample with oxygen. 5. Avoid shaking or agitating the sample because this can produce excess air bubbles.

Laboratory work6. The instructions for determining the DO levels of the sample are provided with the Hach test kit.

Measuring Nitrate Levels of a Water SampleNitrates can be tested for in a variety of ways. Most tests involve a colourmetric change. Some kits measure this change through electronic means, others use a simple colour wheel comparator. Testing procedures vary for different levels of nitrates. The following method uses the Hach test kit to determine nitrate levels in a water sample.Materials• Hach test kit including NitraVer 5 Nitrate reagent • Sample bottle• A pair of clippers

Fieldwork1. Remove the stopper (bottle cork) and rinse the sample bottle with distilled water.2. Submerge the sample bottle beneath the surface of the water and tilt so that water flows into it. 3. Replace the stopper and store bottle in a refrigerator for a maximum of twenty four hours before laboratory analysis.

Laboratory work4. The instructions for determining the nitrate levels of the sample are provided with the Hach test kit.

Measuring Phosphate Levels of a Water Sample

Phosphates can be tested for in a variety of ways. Most tests involve a colourmetric change. Some kits measure this change through electronic means, others use a simple colour wheel comparator. The following method uses the Hach test kit to determine phosphate levels in a water sample.

Materials• Hach test kit including PhosVer 3 reagent • Sample bottle• A pair of clippers

Fieldwork1. Remove the stopper (bottle cork) and rinse the sample bottle with distilled water.2. Submerge the sample bottle beneath the surface of the water and tilt so that water flows into it. 3. Replace the stopper, and store bottle in a refrigerator for a maximum of 24 hours before laboratory analysis.

Laboratory work4. The instructions for determining the phosphate levels of the sample are provided with the Hach test kit.

Estimating pH Values of a Water SampleThe number of hydrogen ions (H+) in a solution is expressed as a pH measure. If a solution has more H+ ions than OH− (hydroxyl) ions the solution is acidic, and if it has less H+ than OH− ions then it is alkaline. The pH scale of measurement ranges from 1 to 14, tells us if a solution is acidic (closer to pH 1), alkaline (closer to pH 14), or neutral (pH 7).The pH of a water body is usually measured using a pH pen or a pH probe. One of the commonly used pH probes is the YSI 63 probe. Both the pH pen and pH probe generate pH readings automatically once turned on, calibrated and inserted into a solution. Follow the manufacturer’s instructions to calibrate the specific meter and take readings.

Measuring Faecal Coliform Levels of a Water Sample (Filtration Method)

Listed below are sources and reference materials which can be used to identify the presence of faecal coliform bacteria within a water sample using the filtration method.

• Hach Water Analysis Handbook –

http://www.hach.com/fmmimghach?/CODE%3ABACTERIA_MF_COLIFORM7529%7C1

• Pathfinder Science –

http://pathfinderscience.net/stream/cproto4.cfm

• American Public Health Association, American Water Works Association, Water Environment Federation, Lenore S. Clesceri, Arnold E. Greenberg, Andrew D. Eaton, and Mary Ann H. Franson. 1998. Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater. Washington, DC: American Public Health Association.

Bird Counts

Table 2: Some methods for bird counts

Source: Sutherland (1996)

Foundation for the Preservation and Protection of the Przewalski Horse (FPPPH). Sustainability of the conservation of takhi in Hustai National Park. http://www.treemail.nl/takh/future/swot.htm(accessed June 17, 2009).

Creative Research Systems. 2009.How to Begin your Survey Design Project.http://www.surveysystem.com/sdesign.htm#methods(accessed June 26, 2009).

Ramakrishnappa, Kamalappa. 2003.Impact of Cultivation and Gathering of Medicinal Plants on Biodiversity: Case Studies from India.Biotechnology Centre, Bangalore, India. Case Study No. 8.http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/005/Y4586E/y4586e09.htm(accessed June 17, 2009).

Scientific Community on Problems of the Environ-ment (SCOPE). 1975.Environmental Impact Assessment: What are avail-able methods? UNESCO-SCOPE-UNEP. http://www.icsu-scope.org/downloadpubs/scope5/chapter04.html(accessed June 17, 2009).

Bledzki, Leszek A. 2008. Secchi Disk. The Ency-clopaedia of the Earth.http://www.eoearth.org/article/Secchi_disk(accessed May 08, 2009).

Bruckner, Monica Z. 2009. Measuring Lake Turbid-ity Using a Secchi Disk. Montana State University.http://serc.carleton.edu/microbelife/research_meth-ods/environ_sampling/turbidity.html (June 15, 2009).

Brower, James E. Jerrold H. Zar, Carl N. von Ende. 1998. Field and Laboratory Methods for General Ecology. Boston, US: WCB/McGraw-Hill

Carlson, R.E. 1995. The Secchi disk and the volun-teer monitor. LakeLine. 15(1): 28-29, 35-37.

Carlson, R.E. and J. Simpson. 1996. A Coordina-tor’s Guide to Volunteer Lake Monitoring Methods.North American Lake Management Society. 96 pp.

Carlson, R.E. 1997. The Secchi disk in black and white. LakeLine. 17: 14-15, 58-59.

Cooke, Rosa-lee. 2009. Total Suspended Solids (TSS). Water/ Wastewater Distance Learning.http://water.me.vccs.edu/courses/ENV211/tssb.htm (accessed June 16, 2009).

IOWATER Volunteer Water Quality Monitoring. (undated). How to Calculate Average Stream Depth, Average Stream Velocity, and Stream Flow.http://www.iowater.net/CurrentVolunteers/Calcula-tions.htm(accessed June 16, 2009).

Loftus, Tim. 2003. pH Analysis. Lagoon Systems in Maine http://www.lagoonsonline.com/laboratory-articles/ph.htm (accessed June 15, 2009).

Oatham, Michael, 2006. Measuring Species Rich-ness of Plants on the Aripo Savannas. Field Manual. Dept. of Life Sciences, The University of the West Indies.

Sutherland, William J. 1996. Ecological Census Techniques: A Handbook. United Kingdom:Cambridge University Press.

Bibliography

In this case study:

AvArima valley

THE CROPPER FOUNDATION

In this section: • NorthernRangewatershedarea:contributiontoTrinidad’sfreshwaterresources • Ecosystems:forests,freshwaterandbiodiversity

In1952WilliamBeebeundertookastudyontheArimaValley.Hisstudiesyieldedveryimportantinformationontheecologyandecosystemsinthearea,andarestillextensivelyusedinworkontheArimaValley.1ManyofthedescriptionsprovidedinthesectionsonLocationandTopography,Climate,Vegetation,

andFauna,aredrawnfromthisstudy.

TheArimaValleyliesparallelandmidwaybetweenapproximatelyfifteenvalleysthattransectthesouthernsideoftheNorthernRange.Allofthesevalleysareorientednorth-south.TheArimaValleyislocatednorthofthetownofArima,andextendsfromthefoothillsoftheNorthernRangetotheridgeoftheNorthernRangeforadistanceofabout8.45kmalongtheground.Morespecifically,theValleyislocatedbetween10o37’and10o43’Nlatitudeand61o16’and61o18’Wlongitude.TheValleyrisestoaheightofabout840m,withsteephillsidegradientsof1:3insomeareas.

Section 1

Location & Topography

Figure 1: Map of Arima Valley Source: Ordnance Survey (1930)!

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1WilliamBeebe,“IntroductiontotheEcologyoftheArimaValley”,Zoologica37(1952)

RainfallRainfallintheArimaValleyisinfluencedbytwodistinctseasons:thewetseason(fromJunetoDecember)andthedryseason(fromJanuarytoMay).ThepatternofthewetanddryseasonsisdeterminedbythemovementoftheInterTropicalConvergenceZone(ITCZ)–aglobalweathersystemthatinfluencestheclimateofmanyareas.Theaverageannualrainfallrangesbetween2000and2400mm.Approximately70%to80%ofallprecipitationoccursintherainyseason,withamajorcontributionofthisfromtheITCZ.2

OrographicrainfallgeneratedfromtheupwardmovementoftheNortheastTradeWindsoncontactwiththeNorthernRangealsocontributestorainfallintheValley,andismoresignificantinthedryseason.

TemperatureTemperaturevariesalongthevalley,usuallydecreasingfromthevalleybottomtothetopofthevalley.Thistemperaturechangeiscausedbyadiabaticcoolingduetothedifferencesinelevationoftheland.TemperatureintheValleyaveragesbetween18–30oCbutcanfallaslowas17

oCathigherelevationsintheValley.

Humidity and WindsHumidityintheArimaValleyalsovarieswithadirectrelationshiptotemperature.HumidityintheValleyisusuallyintheupper70sorlower80s.TheprevailingwindsaretheNortheastTrades,whichgenerallyblowinasouth-westdirection.Notethatwindsarenamedafterthedirectionfromwhichtheyblow.

Climate

Figure 2: Isohyetal Map of the Northern Region of Trinidad Source: Piarco Meterological Office(unpublished; pers comm.. 2004) in NRA (2005)

2EMA,“StateoftheEnvironmentReport”,1998.

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Figure 3: Geology of the Northern Range Source: Brown and Bally (1966) in NRA (2005)

TheformationoftheAndeanmountainchainoccurredinthemiddleoftheMioceneperiod.3ThetectonicforcesbuildingtheAndeanmountainchainwerealsoinfluencingthenorthernpartofTrinidad.Trinidadbecamehighlydisturbedbythecompressionalandtangentialtectonicmovements,leadingtotheformationofalltypesofstructuresincludingsimpleanticlinalmountainslikethoseoftheNorthernRange.4TwogeologicalrockformationsarefoundintheArimaValley:theMayaroformationandtheMaracasformation.Therocksthatmakeuptheseformationsarecomprisedofquartzites,hardmassivelimestones,marbles,schists,sandstones,sandsandclays.5ThehardmassivelimestonesareextensivelyminedintheArimaValley,andseveralothervalleysoftheNorthernRange.6

ThesoiltypevarieswithintheValleybecauseofdifferencesinparentmaterialsandsituationintheValley.TheDiegoMartinsoilseriesoverliesmuchofthesteeperareasoftheArimaValley.7Thesesoilsarecoarse,loamyandcarbonaticwithgoodinternaldrainage.Erosion is a potential problem with these soils, primarily because of the steep slopes on which they are situated.Thesoilsinthevalleybottomcomprisecolluvialandalluvialdepositsandarealsofreelydrained.Thesesoilstendtobequitefertileandaregoodforagriculture.

Geology & Soils

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3 A.G.A.Sutton,“ReportonthegeneralgeologyofTrinidadtoaccompanyGeologicalmap”,(Trinidad:GovernmentPrintingOffice,1955).4Ibid5HansG.Kugler,“TreatiseontheGeologyofTrinidadPart4:ThePaleocenetoHoloceneFormations”,H.M.BolliandM.Knappertsbusch,(Basel:TheMuseumof NaturalHistory).6 NRA,“ReportofanAssessmentoftheNorthernRange,TrinidadandTobago”,EnvironmentalManagementAuthority2005.7 Ibid

TheArimaValleyispartofthelargerWesternPeninsulaCaroniwatershed,butformsawatershedorcatchmentareaofitsown.TheArimaRiverflowsthroughtheArimaValley,anddrainsthemajorityofthewatercapturedintheArimaValleycatchmentsouthwardsintotheCaroniRiver.TheArimaRiveralsocontributestowaterrechargeintheNorthernRange.

Drainage Area & Water Resources

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The Northern Gravels is a major aquifer in the Northern Range, and consists of wedge-shaped alluvial deposits and gravel fans along the southern foot of the Northern Range. These extend from east Port of Spain to approximately three kilometres east and southward to the Caroni Plains. 8

OnitswaytotheCaroniRiver,theArimaRiverflowsoverandrechargestheArimaGravelsaquiferlocatedalongthesouthernfootoftheNorthernRange.TheArimaGravelsaquiferisapartofthelargerNorthernGravelsaquifer.

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Figure 4: Northern Range Major Water-catchment areas

Figure 5: Arima Valley

Source: NRA (2005)

8 EMA1998

TheArimaRiverandothersurfaceriversintheNorthernRangehavebeenidentifiedasmajorsourcesofwaterforhumanuse.9 Of the surface water exploited in Trinidad and Tobago by the Water and SewageAuthority (WASA), 80% originates within the Northern Range. 10HoweverthewaterqualityinmanyoftheriversintheNorthernRange–includingtheArimaRiver-isbeingdegraded.ThewaterqualityoftheArimaRiverhasdeclinedsincethe1970sduetotheimpactsofpollution.11

Currently,waterisnotextracteddirectlyfromtheArimaRiverbyWASAforpublicconsumption.However,the Arima River contributes to the water that flows into the Caroni-Arena Water Treatment Plant which is used for public consumption. 13

Some existing and potential sources of pollution to the Arima River:Domestic refuse - includes garbage and leachates from solid waste disposal sites Domestic sewage - includes seepage from cesspools and pit latrinesFarm wastes - waste water from animal farms, runoff of fertilisers and pesticidesIndustrial effluents including wash waters from quarries12

9 Ibid10 NRA200511 EMA199812 Ibid13 NRA200514 Beebe1952

Information for this section is drawn from William Beebe’s study in 1952. 14 AdetailedclassificationofthevegetationofArimaValleywasdonebyJ.S.Beardin1946andlaterbyWilliamBeebein1952.Sincethennosuchdetailedclassificationhasbeenundertakenandwestillrelyondataobtainedfromtheirstudies.ThishighlightsaneedfornewstudiesofthiskindparticularlybecausetheNorthernRangevegetation(mainly forests)harbourlargestoresofbiodiversity,andalsobecausetheseforestsplayakeyroleinwaterrechargeandfreshwaterprovision.The Asa Wright Nature Centre (AWNC) continues to play a key role in the conservation of existing forests in the Arima Valley:thiswillbediscussedlaterwhenwelookatconservationeffortsintheArimaValley.

ThevegetationinArimaValleychangesfromthebaseofthevalleytothetopofvalleyasaresultofchanging abiotic conditions like soil, temperature, rainfall and slope. AtthebaseofthevalleyonthefoothillsoftheNorthernRange,thevegetationtypeissecondaryseasonalevergreenforestcomprisingsomeprolificsurvivorsoftheoriginalseasonalevergreenforestlikecocoritepalms.Thisoriginalforestisthoughttohavebeenaclimaxcommunity.AlistoftreesfoundintheseasonalevergreenforestformationisprovidedinAppendixA.Higherupthevalleythevegetationtransitionstoadeciduoussea-sonalforest.Lowermontaneforestoccupiesmostofthevalleynorthwardofthedeciduousseasonalforest.AlistoftreesfoundinthelowermontaneforestsinprovidedinAppendixA.Onthehighestslopesandridgestruemontaneforestoccursinsmallareas.

Vegetation

Figure 6: Lower Montane Forest in Arima Valley

InformationforthissectionisdrawnfromWilliamBeebe’sstudyin1952. 15 TheforestsandfreshwaterecosystemsfoundintheArimaValleyprovidegeneralandspecializedhabitatsandavarietyoffoodsources,forthelargediversityoffaunathatitsupports.

FishfoundintheArimaRiverFrogsandtoads-16speciesoffrogsandtoadswererecordedbyBeebe.Lacertianspecies-15oftheknownlacertilianspecieswererecordedbyBeebe. IguanasandTegulizardsarecommonreptilespeciesfoundinArimaValley.Snakes-ofTrinidad’s38speciesofsnakes,27hadbeenfoundintheArimaValleybyBeebe.Birds-164speciesofbirdswereobservedbyBeebeand170speciesnotedbyGarrawayetal.16 TwocommonspeciesobservedatAWNCaremanakinsandwattledbellbirds.ThirteenspeciesofhummingbirdshavebeenrecordedatAWNC.AnoilbirdcolonylivesintheArimaValley.

Mammals- BeeberecordedalargediversityofmammalsintheArimaValley.Alistoftheseisprovidedin AppendixA.Noresearchorstudieshavebeenundertakentodetermineifthesespeciesarestill presentintheArimaValley.However,Garrawayetalnotesthatsomeofthesespeciescanbe observedatAWNCincludingocelots,brocketdeer,agouti,pacaorlappe,andnine-banded armadilloortattoo.

SomeoftheactivitiescurrentlyoccurringintheValleyhavethepotentialtoaltertheforestandfreshwaterecosystemsthereandasaresultmayalterordestroyhabitats.Forexample,theincreasedturbidityoftheArimaRiverasaresultofupstreamquarryingactivitiesreducesthequalityofthehabitatoffreshwaterorganisms.AlthoughAWNCprotectslargeareasoftheArimaValleythroughitsconservationefforts,somepartsoftheValleyarestillsubjecttosomehumanactivitiesandarepotentialthreatstothefaunaandfloraintheValley.WewilldiscussconservationeffortsintheArimaValleyingreaterdetailinthefollowingsections.

Fauna

The nocturnal oil bird is the only nocturnal, fruit-eating bird in the world. It is found in northern parts of South America and in Trinidad. The oil birds live in caves often in precarious steep cliffs. Several caves in the Northern Range have colonies including in Dunston Cave in Arima Valley and Cumaca Caves.Contributions have been made by the World Wildlife Fund for protection on the colony at AWNC.17

15 Beebe195216JasminGarraway,CarolJamesandHowardNelson,“EcotourismasaStrategyforSustainableDevelopment:TheExperienceoftheAsaWrightCentreTrinidadand

Tobago”,(UNDPTrinidadandTobago,1999).17 AWNC,“AsaWrightNatureCentre”http://www.asawright.org/

Topics covered in this section: : • Conflictinghumanusesandimpactsonecosystemservices • Land-useplanningasamanagementoption

Thissectionwillfocusonthevaryingtypesofland-usethatoccursintheArimaValley,andhowtheimpactsoftheselandusesoneachothercreatechallengesformanagement.Thisisonlyaglimpseintotheissuesthat

surroundland-usemanagement.

TherearefourmaincategoriesoflanduseactivitiesoccurringintheArimaValley:residenceorsettlement;quarrying;agriculture;andconservation/research/ecotourism/recreation.Inthefollowingsub-sections,eachofthesecategoriesoflanduseisdescribed.Howtheselanduseactivitiesinteractisexploredinthefinalsub-section.

Residence or SettlementResidentialsettlementoccursmostlyinthelowerpartsoftheArimaValley:fromthetownofArimauptothe2milemarkalongtheArima-BlanchisseuseRoad.TwootherpocketsofsettlementoccuratTempleVillageandVerdantValeatthe4milemarkand4.5milemarkrespectivelyalongtheArima-BlanchisseuseRoad.

ThemajorityoflandintheArimaValleyisstate-owned.Whenresidentialstructuresarebuiltonstatelandwithoutthepermissionofthegovernment,thehousingstructuresareillegalandtheresidentsaredescribedas“squatters”.In1998thegovernmentattemptedtoprotectsquattersonstatelandsthroughthepassingofTheStateLand(RegularisationofTenure)Bill.

Small-scalefarmingalsooccursalongsideresidences.Theseincludechickenfarms,aswellaschristophene(Sechium edule)andbananacultivation.The runoff from these farms, can introduce mainly nutrientsand faecal coliform into the groundwater and Arima River.Pitlatrinesarealsocommoninsomeoftheseresidences,andthesealsohavethepotentialtopollutethegroundwaterandArimaRiverwithfaecalcoliform.

Section 2

Land Use

Dr.MaryAlkins-KoooftheLifeSciencesDepartmentoftheUniversityoftheWestIndiesdevelopedcasestudiesforuseincoursesattheUniversity.AmongthesewasacasestudyontheArimaValley.

Section2drawsheavilyontheinformationfromthiscasestudyonArimaValley. 18

The State Land (Regularisation of Tenure) Bill, 1998 is an act of Parliament to protect squatters incertain areas from ejection from state land through acquisition of a leasehold title by squatters.The Arima Valley was not one of the areas originally designated for protection of squatters. However,an amendment to the act provides the opportunity for squatters living outside the designated areas to become regularised.

AgricultureAgricultureintheArimaValleyoccursinthelowervalleyadjacenttoresidentialsettlementsuptoVerdantValehigherupintheValley.Hillsideslash-and-burnagricultureispractisedinrelativelysmallplotsbysmallagricul-tural-squatters.Themajorproblemwiththistypeofagricultureisthatitweakenstheslopestabilitymakingithighlysusceptibletowindandwatererosion.Atthe6.5milemarkalongtheArima-BlanchisseuseRoad,thereisanextensivechristophenefarm.

Thechristopheneiscultivatedonsteepslopes,andlookslikeasmoothgreensheetcoveringthehills.Thepreciseareaofthefarmisnotknown,butaerialphotossuggestthatthecultivatedareaisexpanding.19 Largequantitiesofmanureareusedforfertilisingandconditioningthesoil,erosioncontrolappearstobenon-existent,andtheArima-BlanchisseuseRoadisindangeroflandslipsincriticalareasaroundthechristophenefarm.Waterforirrigationisdrawnfromasmalladjacenttributarythroughacomplexnetworkofpipeswhichisvisiblefromtheroad.Anumberofproblemsmayarisefromthistypeofcultivation. • Erosionofthehillsideispossiblewithcultivationonsuchsteepslopes.Thelackofgroundcoverand rootnetworksthathelptobindthesoilmayhelptoincreasesoilerosion.Theproblemiscompounded iftheerodedmaterialgetsintotheArimaRiver,increasestheturbidityanddecreasestheoverallwater qualityoftheriver.Alternatively,thecoverofthechristopheneplantationmayactasaforestcanopy, andprotectthesoilfromtherainsplasherosion.Rainsplasherosioniscausedbytheimpactof rainwaterstrikingthesoilsurface,anddislodgingsoilparticles. • Misuseoroveruseoffertilizerscanintroducenutrientsandpollutantstothegroundwaterand subsequentlytotheArimaRiver. • Withsuchalargecultivationinthemiddleofwhatusedtobelowermontaneforest,theproblemof habitatfragmentationarises.ThiscanfurtherleadtolossofbiodiversityintheArimaValley,particularly formammals.Treecropcultivationofcocoawasextensiveinthepast,butmanyestatesarenowabandoned.Somecultivationofcitrusandanthuriumsstilloccurs

19Garrawayetal.1999

Figure 7: Christophene farm in Arima Valley

QuarryingTherearethreeactivequarriesintheVerdantValeareaextractinglimestone.InthesectiononGeologyandSoils,massivelimestonewasnotedasoneofthemineralscomprisingtherockformationsunderlyingtheArimaValley.ThislimestoneexistsinabandacrosstheNorthernRange:itsquarryingisnotlimitedtotheArimaValleybuttakesplaceinotherNorthernRangevalleys.Thelimestoneishighqualitybluelimestoneandisusedforroadandbuildingconstruction,andbluelimestoneproductslikepavingtiles.

Thequarryingprocessforlimestoneincludesblastingtoweakentherockstructureandtoseparatethemas-sivelimestonerockintoblocks;andexcavationofblocksfromtherockface.WashingisnotpartofthequarryproductionprocessintheArimaValleysoquarryeffluentsarenotamajorproblem.However,therehavebeenseveralproblemsthatmaybelinked.Theseinclude:NoiseandVibrations–TheAWNCisconcernedthatthenoiseassociatedwithblastingactivitiesatthequarrymaydisturbtheoilbirdcolonyandotherorganismslocatedintheforestssurroundingtheAWNC.Residentslowerinthevalleyhavecomplainedthatthevibrationsfromtheblastingactivitiesmaybecausingcracksintheirwalls.

Dust–DustfromthequarriesisparticularlyvisibleonthevegetationthatgrowsalongsidetheArima-BlanchisseuseRoad.Nostudieshavebeendonetodeterminetheeffectsofthequarry-dustonplants,humanwell-being,oronthewaterqualityoftheArimaRiver.

Quarry-floorrunoff–Duringrainfalleventsrunofffromquarriesentersthesurfacewatersourcesintheareaandmaydecreasethewaterquality.

Figure 8: One of the quarries in Arima Valley

Figure 9: Dust from quarries on vegetation

Conservation, Research, Ecotourism, Recreation TheAWNCisresponsibleformajorconservationeffortsintheArimaValley.

In1995,thegovernmentleased250acresofforestreservetoAWNC,specificallyformanagementoftheforestecosystemofthelandssurroundingAWNC.Throughdonationsofland,thecurrentareamanagedbyAWNCis735acres.Bychannellingmostofitseffortstowardsconservationandmanagementofthisforestecosystem,theAWNChasbeensuccessfulatprotectinganumberofspeciesoffloraandfaunaintheArimaValley.

Conservation of the forest ecosystem also maintains the crucial services provided by forests which include freshwater recharge, water purification and soil stability.

AWNCalsomanagestheWilliamBeebeTropicalResearchStationatSimla,wherenumerousstudieswereconductedonthenaturalhistoryofTrinidad’sfloraandfauna.Scientificgroupsusethestationonaregularbasisforbiologicalandecologicalstudies.TheArimaRiverisalsoextensivelyusedforrecreation.Forexample,Manette’sRanch–atthe1.5milemarkalongtheArima-BlanchisseuseRoad–isusedforpicnicsandotherrecreationalactivities.20

AWNC was first purchased by Joseph Holmas from the government in 1934, and resold to Dr. Newcome Wright and his wife Asa in 1946. The William Beebe Tropical Research Station – run by Dr. William

Beebe – was also located in the Arima Valley in close proximity to the Wright property. By the 1960s the Wrights were accommodating birdwatchers and naturalists who came to visit the

research station. In 1967, the property was sold and in that same year the Asa Wright Nature Centre was established as a non-profit trust. With closure of the research station in 1970,

the research facility was handed over to AWNC as a gift in 1974.AWNC’s overarching goal is natural resource conservation in the Arima Valley and other areasof Trinidad and Tobago. AWNC has maintained its ability to accommodate visitors to the valley,

and is currently recognised as one of the best ecotourist lodges in the world.One of its priority issues is conservation of the rare oilbird.

Figure 10: Ducks at Asa Wright Nature Centre

20MaryAlkins-Koo,“Environmental,EvaluationandImpactAssessment”,(Dept.ofLifeSciences,UniversityoftheWestIndies,2007).

Oneaspectofland-useplanninginvolvescoordinatingdifferentland-useactivitiestominimizeconflictsbetweentheseactivities,andtoreducetheimpactstheseactivitiesmayhaveoneachother.Aland-usemanage-mentplanactsasaguide.Thereareanumberoffactorswhichaland-useplanmustincorporate.Theseinclude:

Landcharacteristics– theseincludesoiltype,drainagearea,topography,areaofland, geologyandvegetation.

Potentialimpactsof– theseincludeboththepositiveandnegativeimpactsoftheactivitiesonthelandarea.activitiesonarea Positiveimpactsmayincludeeconomicreturnsfromanactivity.Negativeimpacts mayincludethedegradationoflandbytheactivity.

Potentialimpactsof– Activitiescanhaveapositive,negativeorneutralimpactoneachother.activitiesoneachother Forexample,wherecommercialactivityissituatedneartoresidences, thecommercialactivitymayprovideemploymentfornearbyresidents,andthe residentialareainturnmayprovidelabourforthecommercialarea:that’sapositive impact.Iffactoriesaresituatedneartoresidences,pollutionfromthefactorymay causepeopleinnearbyresidencestobecomeill:that’sanegativeimpact.

Itisnotpossible,inthiscasestudy,todiscussallofthefactorsthatareconsideredinaland-usemanagementplan.Instead,wewilllookatoneofthefactorsusedtocreateamanagementplan:potential impacts of activities on each other.Usingtheinformationfromtheabovesections,wewillcreateanactivity-conflictmatrix.Thismatrixwillhelpustoidentifytheimpactsofvariousactivitiesoneachother.Itcanalsohelptoprioritizetheimpactsofactivities,andthinkaboutthetradeoffsofreducingorstoppingcertainactivitiesinfavourofothers.

Land-Use Planning in The Arima Valley as a Management Option

A tradeoff is a situation that involves losing one aspect of something in order to gain another aspect.For example, the government may use a parcel of land – previously used for recreation activities -

to build houses. The tradeoff in this case is recreation for housing.

Using the matrix • Theverticalcolumnofactivitiesimpactsonthehorizontalrowofactivities,andimpactsarenot interchangeable.Forexample,theimpactofquarryingonagricultureisnotthesameastheimpactof agricultureonquarrying. • Theimpactscanbedescribedashigh,mediumorlow,andpositiveornegative. • Thereasonfortheimpactshouldbedescribed. • Itispossibleformultipleimpactsofoneactivityonanother,andtheseshouldbeincludedinthematrix. • Afterthematrixiscompletetheimpactsshouldbeprioritizedtodeterminewhichismostimportantto dealwithwith.Studentsshouldbeencouragedtothinkofwaystoreduceimpactsaccordingtopriority.

Table 1: Some ecosystem services provided by the Arima Valley 21

Discussion Questions

21 NRA2005.

Source: NRA (2005)

• Howdoanytheactivities–conservation,recreation,agriculture,residentialsettlement- affecttheservicesprovidedbytheArimaValley?(See Table 1) • DoanyoftheecosystemservicesprovidedbytheArimaValleyhavesubstitutesoralternatives? • Issustainablequarryingpossible? • Howisnoiseconsideredapollutantunderthesecircumstancesandwhatregulationsexisttoprevent excessiveimpactsofnoise?

Suggested Learning Activities(See Generic Learning Activities) • SWOTAnalysisandStrategicMatrix • LeopoldMatrix • FiveWhys

Suggested Fieldwork(See Sampling Methodologies) • SlopeAngleandGradient • Waterqualitytesting–totalsuspendedsolids;turbidity; phosphates;nitrates;faecalcoliform;dissolvedoxygen • Streamdepth,velocityandstreamflow

Alkins-Koo,Mary.2003-2007.CaseStudy–ArimaValley.BIOL2461,Dept.OfLifeSciences,Univer-sityoftheWestIndies,St.Augustine,TrinidadandTobago.

Alkins-Koo,Mary.2005.EcologicalAssessmentandHumanImpacts.BIOL2461,Dept.OfLifeSci-ences,UniversityoftheWestIndies,St.Augustine,TrinidadandTobago.

Alkins-Koo,Mary.2007.EnvironmentalEvaluation&ImpactAssessment.BIOL2461,Dept.OfLifeSciences,UniversityoftheWestIndies,St.Augus-tine,TrinidadandTobago.

Anderson,EdricJ.M.1989.RealEstateDevelopment in the Northern Range A developer’s Viewpoint.TheMinistryofEnvironmentandNationalService,TrinidadandTobago.

AsaWrightNatureCentre(AWNC).(undated)Asa Wright Nature Centre.http://www.asawright.org/(AccessedMarch16,2009)

Beebe,William.1952.IntroductiontotheEcologyoftheArimaValley.Zoologica37:157-183.

EMA.1998.Trinidad and Tobago State of theEnvironment Report 1998.EnvironmentalManagementAuthorityofTrinidadandTobago.

Garraway,Jasmin,CarolJamesandHowardNelson.1999.Ecotourism as a Strategy for Sustainable Development: The Experience of the Asa Wright Centre Trinidad and Tobago.UNDP,TrinidadandTobago.

GoogleEarth.2009.

Kugler,HansG.2001.Treatise on the Geologyof Trinidad Part 4: The Paleocene to Holocen Formations.EditedbyH.M.BolliandM.Knappertsbusch.Basel:TheMuseumofNaturalHistory.

NorthernRangeAssessment(NRA).2005.Report of an Assessment of the Northern Range, Trinidad and Tobago: People and the Northern Range.StateoftheEnvironmentReport2004.EnvironmentalManagementAuthorityofTrinidadandTobago.184pp.

NorthstoneLtd.QuarryingProcessandQuarryProducts.http://www.northstone-ni.co.uk/about-us/education/quarrying-process-and-quarry-products/ (AccessedMarch27,2009).

Sutton,A.G.A.1955.Report on the general geology of Trinidad to accompany Geological map.Trinidad:GovernmentPrintingOffice.

Ritter,Michael.E.2006.The Physical Environ-ment: an Introduction to Physical Geography.http://www.uwsp.edu/geo/faculty/ritter/geog101/textbook/title_page.html(AccessedMarch27,2009)

TheCropperFoundation(TCF).2009.Sustainable Development Terms and Concepts: A Reference for Teachers and Students.PortofSpain,Trinidad.

TrinidadandTobago.TownandCountryPlanningDivision.1982.The National Physical Development Plan Trinidad and Tobago. Volume 1 Survey and Analysis.MinistryofFinanceandPlanning.

Bibliography

APPENDIX A: Flora and Fauna in Arima Valley

Table 1: List of Trees Found in the Seasonal Forest

Table 2: List of Trees Found in the Lower Montane Forest

Source: Beebe (1952)

Source: Beebe (1952)

Table 3: List of Animals Found in the Arima Valley

Source: Beebe (1952); Garraway et al (1999)

Note that these were undertaken by William Beebe in 1952 - it is possible that somespecies no longer exist in the Valley while new ones may have been introduced.

APPENDIX B: Acronyms used in this case study

AWNC Asa Wright Nature Centre

EMA Environmental Management Authority of Trinidad and Tobago

NRA Northern Range Assessment

WASA The Water and Sewage Authority of Trinidad and Tobago

WRA Water Resources Agency

APPENDIX B: Glossary of terms used in the case study

Adiabatic cooling Whenaparcelofairrisesitexpandsasaresultofreducedatmosphericpressure. Asitexpandsitcoolsatarateof0.65oCdecreaseintemperatureforevery100mrise inelevation.

Alluvial deposits Sedimentdepositedbyflowingwater,asinariverbed,floodplain,ordelta.

Anticlinal Ridgesformedbyaconvexcurve,turnorfoldoftheexistingstrata.mountains

Aquifer Anundergroundbedorlayerofearth,gravel,orporousstonethatyieldswater.

Catchment area Theareadrainedbyariverorbodyofwater.

Climax community Whenthevegetationofanareaovertimehasreachedasteadystateandiscomposed ofspeciesbestadaptedtotheconditionsofthearea.

Colluvial deposits Aloosedepositofrockdebrisaccumulatedthroughtheactionofgravityatthebase ofaclifforslope

Community Anassemblageofspeciesoccurringthesamespaceand/ortime,andisoftenlinked(ecological) bybioticinteractionssuchascompetitionorpredation.

Deciduous Thisforestistypicalofenvironmentsthatarewarmandreceivehighoverallrainfall,Seasonal Forest suchasinthetropics.Theseforestsareconsidereddeciduousbecausethetreesdrop theirleavesduringinthedryseason.

Ecosystem services Thesearethebenefitspeopleobtainfromecosystems.Theyincludeprovisioning servicessuchasfoodandwater;culturalservicessuchasspiritual,recreational,and culturalbenefits;andregulatingandsupportingservicessuchasfloodanddisease control;nutrientcyclingthatmaintaintheconditionsforlifeonEarth.Theconcept of“ecosystemgoodsandservices”issynonymouswithecosystemservices.

Environmental Therateofdecreaseoftemperaturewithelevationintheatmosphere.lapse rate Thisrateisusuallytakenas0.65oCdecreaseintemperatureforevery100mrisein elevation.

Gravel fan Adepositofmaterials(mainlygravel)fromariveratthebaseofavalley. Thegraveldepositspreadsoutfromthebaseofthevalleyinafan-likeshape.

Lacertian OforrelatedtothesuborderLacertilia,whichisagroupofreptileswithoverlapping scales.Thissuborderincludeslizardsbutnotsnakes.

Miocene 23.03to5.33millionyearsago

Montane Forest Forestthatgrowsonmountainsandaboveanaltitudeof1,006metres.

Precipitation Anyformofwater,suchasrain,snow,sleet,orhail,whichfallstotheearth’ssurface.

Quartzites Hardmetamorphicrockwhichwasoriginallysandstone.Sandstoneisconverted intoquartzitethroughheatingandpressureusuallyrelatedtotectoniccompression betweenbelts.

Orographic Rainfallresultingfromtheverticalmovementofmoistairthatisenforcedbyarainfall mountainbarrierintheairstream.

Rock formation Aformationconsistsofanumberofrockstratathathavesimilarlithologyor properties.

Soil series Afamilyofsoilshavingsimilarprofiles,anddevelopingfromsimilaroriginal materialsundertheinfluenceofsimilarclimateandvegetation.

Strata Thelayersorbedsfoundinsedimentaryrock.Alsoreferstothedifferentheight(stratum sing.) groupingsoftreesinaforest.

Tectonic forces Forceswhichcausedeformationorstructuralchangesoftheearth’scrust. Theseforcesmayoriginatefromigneousactivityorfrommovementoftheplatesthat comprisetheearth’scrust.

Watershed Anareaoflandthatcatchesprecipitationanddrainsorseepsintoamarsh,river, stream,lakeorgroundwater.

AsAripo savanna

THE CROPPER FOUNDATION

In this case study:

The Aripo Savannas are a natural savanna ecosystem situated between the Northern and Central Ranges in Trinidad. In August 2007, the Aripo Savannas and some of the surrounding forest ecosystems were giventhe designation of Environmentally Sensitive Area (ESA) under the ESA Rules 2001.The Aripo Savannas Environmentally Sensitive Area (ASESA) includes - in addition to the savanna ecosystems - marsh forest and palm marsh. This case study will focus on the ASESA.

A recent history of the Aripo Savannasis provided in this table:

The Aripo Savannas

History & BackgroundMany of the descriptions of the Aripo Savannas provided in this and other sec-tions are drawn from a study that was undertaken by the Caribbean Natural Resources Institute (CANARI) to prepare a literature review on the Aripo Savannas Environmentally Sensitive Area. 1

Table 1: A recent history of activity in the ASESASection 1

1 EMA, “Aripo Savannas Environmentally Sensitive Area Literature Review to Facilitate the Preparation of Management Plans,” (Prepared by CANARI, 2007a).2 The Long Stretch Forest Reserve was established in January, 1934 under the Forest Ordinance Chapter 141 of 1916. The Long Stretch Forest Reserve is part of the Cumuto/ Arena Range under the management of the North West Conservancy.

3 SPNPPA has three main objectives: preservation of species, conservation of species, and protection of wildlife. The plan included 61 protected areas in six categories. SPNPPA was approved in principle by the Cabinet of Trinidad and Tobago. However, the legislation failed largely because of bureaucratic bickering and resource managementconflict.

Location & Topography In 1962, W.D. Richardson undertook vegetation and ecological studies of the Aripo Savannas. His studies yieldedveryimportantinformationabouttheflora,faunaandecosystemsthatexistinAripoSavannas.Manysubsequent studies have been based on these fundamental studies undertaken by Richardson, and information for his studies is still used quite extensively. Many of the descriptions provided in the sections on Climate, Soils, Vegetation and Flora are based on Richardson’s work. 4

The ASESA is located at latitude 100 35’ 30’’ N and longitude 610 12’ 0’’, and is bordered to the north by the Valencia River, to the east by the Eastern Main Road between Valencia and Sangre Grande, to the West by the Aripo River and to the south by the Trinidad Government Railway Reserve (now abandoned) - (see Figure 2). The area of the ASESA is 1788 hectares. The open savannas cover a total area of 267 hectares, and comprise three large savannas between 60.7 hectares and 80.9 hectares, one a little under 40.5 hectares, and a number of smallsavannasalllessthan10.1hectares.Thesavannasaregenerallyflatandrisegentlytothenorth.The microtopography, however, is undulating or broken up into hummocks in some places. The savannas are situated on old alluvial terraces elevated 30 to 45m above sea level. These terraces fan out from the foothills of the Northern Range and consist of layers of gravel, sands and clays representing depositional environments believed to be of Pleistocene age.

!Figure 1: Old Army Bunker

4 W. D. Richardson, “Observations of the Vegetation and Ecology of the Aripo Savannas Trinidad,” The Journal of Ecology, 51 no.2 (1962), 295-313.

The ASESA is delineated by the redlineinthefigureopposite.The savannas are numbered 1 to 10. Savannas 9 and 10 are not showninthisfigure.Savanna1 is generally used for public visits to the savannas.

Figure 2: Map of Aripo Savannas Source: EMA (2008 b)

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RainfallAverage annual rainfall ranges from 2400 to 2600mm, with twodistinctseasonalfluctuations;thedry(JanuarytoMay)andwet(June to December) seasons. 5 The seasonal variation of the rainis determined mainly by the annual north-south migration of theInter Tropical Convergence Zone.

Temperature and SunlightMonthly temperatures in Trinidad range from minimum of 22.7oC to a maximum of 31.3oC. 6The average number of hours of sunshine forTrinidad is 7.2 hours.

Most of the soil in the savannas has some claycomponent and can be divided into four slightlydifferentsoilprofiles.(See Table 2.) These differences are attributed principally toslight textural variations in the parent material.

Weathering and groundwater movements havemodifiedalluvialmaterialandcreatedahardpanlayer (claypan) of cemented clays that isimpervious to water movement. The claypanunderlies the ASESA at varying depths, and inplaces where the claypan is close to the surfacefloodingoccurs.Theclaypanisthemajordrivercontributingtofloodingofthesavannas.

Someofthesavannasbecomefloodedonlyaftera rainfall event, for example savanna 1, whilethere are others that remain inundated for theentire wet season, for example savanna 9. The waterlogged conditions during the wet season inhibit root growth and function due to a lack of oxygen - a condition called “physiological drought”. Alternatively, in the dry sea-son, the sandy soils dry out rapidly and give rise to physical drought. Also, as the claypan and fragipan dry out, they become extremely hard so that roots can no longer penetrate to the lower horizons, nor can water move upwards through the soil. Plants, however, have adapted to the conditions of low nutrient availability and the floodingordroughtinthesavannasandspecialisedformsofplantscontinuetothriveinthearea.Someoftheadaptations of plants to the conditions in the ASESA will be described in the section on vegetation.

In 1953, W. P. Panton produced a study on the soils of the Aripo Savanna district.7 Panton’s workprovides the majority of the information used in this section. 7

Climate

Soils

! Figure 3: Flooded Section of Savanna 1

Humidity and WindsDuring the night and pre-dawn, relative humidity (RH) may be at 100%. In the dry season RH may be 60% in the af-ternoon and in the wet season 75%. The prevailing wind direction changes from dry season to wet season. During the dry season prevailing winds are from the north-east, whilst during the wet season prevailing winds are from the south-east. Wind speeds seldom exceed 40 kph and are higher during the dry season - particularly in the afternoon.

5 EMA, “State of the Environment Report”, 1998.6 CSO, “First Compendium of Environmental Statistics Trinidad and Tobago”, (Ministry of Planning and Development of Trinidad and Tobago, 2007).7 W. P. Panton, “Field and Laboratory Studies of the Soils of the Aripo Savanna District”, (Dip. diss. Imperial College of Tropical Agriculture Trinidad, 1953).

The uniqueness of the ecosystems (high density of rare, threatened and endemic species) of the ASESA has promptedmanagementoftheAripoSavannassince1980.AnumberofstudiesonthefloraofASESAhavebeenundertaken by J.S. Beard in 1946, W.D. Richardson in 1962, S.I. Schwab in 1985 and others, and recorded atotal of 457 plant species of which 39 are restricted to the Aripo Savannas, 16 to 20 are rare or threatened, and two are endemic. 9 Three main ecosystem types comprise the ASESA: open savannas, palm marsh and marsh forest.

Open SavannasThe soils of the open savannas are generally thin, low in nutrients and are underlaid by a claypan layer.Theshallownessoftheclaypanpreventslargestandsoftreesfrombeingestablished;individualtreesspacedfar-apart from each other are more common. 10 Sedges, grasses and herbs dominate the savanna landscape.Some examples of these include Lagenocarpus tremulus (herbaceous sedge), Lagenocarpus guianensis (herbaceous sedge), Chrysobalanus icaco var. pellocarpa (shrub), Miconia ciliate (shrub), Paspalum pulchellum (herb),and Rhynchospora barbata (herb). Ground orchids like Otostylis brachystalix, Pogonia tenuis, and Epistephium parviflorum are also found in the savannas. Anumberofspeciesarerareorconfinedtothesesavannas;theyincludeclubmoss and several species of bladderwort. 11 The sundew is an insectivorous (consumes insects) plant growing in the savannas. Insectivorous plants, likethe sundew, are typical of environments where nitrogen and other nutrientsare limited. The plants consume insects for nitrogen. In this way, the sundewcompensates for the low soil nutrition of the savanna soils.

Vegetation

Figure 4: Sundew

Table 2 Soil types of Aripo Savannas 8

!8 Panton 19539 EMA 2007a10 EMA,“AdministrativeRecordfortheEnvironmentallySensitiveArea:AripoSavannasScientificReserve”,(PortofSpainTrinidad,2007b).11 Forestry Division Ministry of Agriculture, Lands, and Fisheries, “Technical Document Forestry Division/ OAS Project on the Establishment of a system of National Parks and Protected Areas”, (Port of Spain Trinidad, 1980).

Marsh Forest

The marsh forest covers most of the land area of the ASESA. This forest surrounds the other two plant communities and in places it joins the palm marsh community. The marsh forestisfloodedforseveralmonthsoftheyear (during the wet season), and the plants in the marsh forest have adapted to thesealternatingfloodinganddryconditions.Flooding is a result of the claypan which underlies the marsh forest (see explanation in section on soil). The claypan under the marsh forest is thinner and deeper than in the open savannas. The root systems of some plants, such as palms, penetrate deep into the claypan where other roots cannot.This feature allows the palms to accesswater during drought periods and to protect the roots from physiological drought.

Another example of a plant which has adapted to the conditions is the moriche palm whichhasaerialrootsthatallowforapartoftheroottobeoutofthewaterinfloodedconditions.The difference in plant communities between the open savannas and the marsh forest is stark and the ecotone therefore is very narrow and sharp. The plant community in the marsh forest can be separated into strata:the upper stratum trees consist of wild kaimit, yellow mangue, bois bande and cajuca and the lower stratumconsists of biscuit-wood and agalie. 12 There are a few species of plants that are restricted to the marsh forest,for example, the lady slipper orchid.

Palm MarshThe palm marsh community is foundfringing the savannas in a belt usually20m wide, and in clumps in the opensavannas. 13 The palm marsh usuallycomprises a moriche palm - fat porkassociation.Inecology,an“association”isdefinedas a group of organisms that livetogether in a geographical region andconstitute a community with a fewdominant species. The moriche palmsform evenly spaced stands with athick understory of shrubs or tallsedges or grasses. 14

Figure 5: Marsh Forest

Figure 6: Palm Island

12 Forestry Division 198013 J. S. Beard, “The Natural Vegetation of Trinidad”, (Oxford Forest Mem. 20, 1946).14 EMA 2007b

The Aripo savannas support a diverse group of organisms many of which are rare or threatened. These include the red brocket deer, armadillo, agouti, lappe, opossum and porcupine. Earthworms also inhabit the opensavannas.Inthewetseason,earthwormactivitybecomesvisibleonthesavannaseveninlow-floodedconditions;theworm casts build up mounds of dirt that rise above the water surface. 15 Worm casts are biologically active mounds containing thousands of bacteria, enzymes and remnants of plant materials that were not digestedby the earthworm. 16 Termites are also found on the savanna landscape and their ground nests can be foundscatteredovertheopensavanna.Inflatareasthenestsareoftenfoundassociatedwithsmallclumpsofvegetation. The plant communities in ASESA provide a diverse array of habitats for birds. Rare species ofbirds include the scarlet-shouldered parrotlet, the white-tailed golden-throat hummingbird, the savanna hawk, thesulphuryflycatcherandred-belliedmacawwhichfeedsontheseedsofthemorichepalms.17 Duringthefloodedconditionsthesavannassupportseveralspeciesoffishes,frogsandreptiles.Waterboasandcaimans are common in the savannas occupying the palm marsh and marsh forest communities. 18

15 Richardson 196216 MaryAppelhof,“WormsEatMyGarbage”,(MichiganUSA:FlowerfieldEnterprises,2006),68.17 EMA, “Managing Together: a summary of the management plans for the Aripo Savannas, and environmentally sensitive area”, (prepared by CANARI, 2008a).18 Forestry Division 1980

Fauna

19 EMA 2007a20 EMA 2007b

Figure 7: Some of the driving forces that impact on Aripo Savanna Environmentally Sensitive Area

This section focuses on one of the options that exist for addressing some of the drivers that impact on the Aripo Savannas and surrounding ecosystems. Teachers and students are encouraged to identify other possible driving forces acting on the Aripo Savannas, and some responses to these challenges. See the Administrative Record fortheEnvironmentallySensitiveArea:AripoSavannasScientificReserveorAripoSavannasEnvironmentallySensitive Area Resource Management Plan: A Framework for Participatory Management for more information on drivers.

Section 2

Information for section 2 is drawn from two main sources. These are “Aripo Savannas Area Literature Review to Facilitate the Preparation of Management Plans” 19 and “Managing together: a summary of the management plans for the Aripo Savannas, an environmentally sensitive area” 20: both of these documents were prepared by CANARI.

QuarryingAreas within the ASESA – mainly along the Aripo River - have been mined for gravel, sand and clay for use in thelocalconstructionindustrysincethe1960s.KPQuarrieswasthefirstquarryingcompanytominetheAripoSavannas. In 1979, KP began operations on 16 hectares of the northern part of the Aripo Savannas on a one year lease. Mining operations continued until 1996 when KP Quarries pulled out of the ASESA. During the seven-teen-year period, the company mined approximately 60 hectares of the area. However, KP Quarries was not the only mining operator during this time. In 1982, six companies were known to be operating on 162 hectares of the savannas and royalties were being accepted by the government on a gravel load basis.

Mining operations physically damaged the savannas, and in some areas intense excavation and wash plant ac-tivities irremediably destroyed the ecology. Comparison of aerial photos of the Aripo Savannas taken in 1969 and 1994 showed that the area in the south-western part of the savannas to the north of Savanna 1 and immediately to the east of the Aripo River was destroyed by quarrying. The EMA has noted that quarrying has disturbed 2 to 5% of the marsh forest and palm marsh communities. Although quarry operations have been stopped in the ASESA, the effects are still felt (Box 1). The high demand for aggregates for the local construction industry puts theASESA at risk for quarrying in the future. This demand from the local construction industry is an example of an indirect driver.

Mining operations physically damaged the savannas, and in some areas intense excava-tion and wash plant activities irremediably destroyed the ecology. Com-parison of aerial photos of the Aripo Savan-nas taken in 1969 and 1994 showed that the area in the south-western part of the savannas to the north of Savanna 1 and immediately to the east of the Aripo River was destroyed by quarrying. The EMA has noted that quarrying has disturbed 2 to 5% of the marsh forest and palm marsh communities. Although quarry operations have been stopped in the ASESA, the effects are still felt (Box 1). The high de-mand for aggregates for the local construction industry puts the ASESA at risk for quarrying in the future. This demand from the local con-struction industry is an example of an indirect driver.

!Figure 8: Black River

One of the forest marsh communities situated to the north-western edge of Savanna 1 is an example of the effects of quar-rying on the savannas. KP Quarries - while in operation - con-structed a road through the savannas for ease of access to the quarrying site. The road acted as a dam to the Black River and causedfloodinginoneoftheadjacentforestmarshcommuni-ties. The damming of the Black River causes water to inundate that forest marsh community for almost the entire year, and has a detrimental effect on the growth of palms. The palms in that forest marsh community are now experiencing crown thinning disease. Crown thinning disease is usually a result of chronic stress;inthiscasethestressisthecontinuouspresenceofwaterto which the palms are unaccustomed. 21

21 Edmund Charles, Interview, September 2008.

Discussion:Can the problems due to quarrying be reversed? If yes, how can it be done?

See the Administrative Record for the Envi-ronmentally Sensitive Area: Aripo Savannas ScientificReserveorAripoSavannasEnviron-mentally Sensitive Area Resource Management Plan: A Framework for Participatory Manage-ment for more information. These two docu-ments are available on EMA’s website.

FireisamajorproblemforthebiodiversitywithintheASESA.Thedirectimpactoffireisinjuryormortalityoffloraandfauna.Theindirectimpactincludesthepossiblelossorchangeinbiodiversity.Whenfiresburntrees, understory plants or ground vegetation, the microclimate of the area can be radically altered, and this can subsequently affect recovery of the forest. For example, the removal of trees can result in a decrease in humidity of an area, which can cause leaf litter to dry out, and increase the susceptibility to burning.Thechangeinmicroclimatealsoreducestheabilityoftheforesttorecoverfromdisturbance.Largefiresoc-curredin1987and2003,anditissuggestedthattheseweretheresultofhumancarelessness.Thesefiressignifi-cantlydamagedlargeareasofpalmswampandmarshforest.Itissuggestedthatfiresareactuallysetbyhunt-erstolureanimalsoutoftheforestedareas.IllegalfarmersmayalsosetfirestoclearareasoftheASESAforagriculture.

HuntingHunting for animals in the Aripo Savannas occurred on a regular basis during pre-Colombian and historicAmerindian times. Trapping and removal of birds – particularly for the brilliantly-coloured feathers of thered-bellied macaw – was common in the savannas. Indigenous peoples kept birds as pets and also used the feathers for decorative purposes.Legal restrictions linked to the protected area status of Aripo Savannas prohibit unlawful entry into the areafor hunting. The lack of adequate surveillance over the savannas, coupled with the lucrative price of wildmeat (that is, the meat of animals not reared for human consumption) encourages illegal hunting of smallgameincludingdeerandlappe.Illegalcollectionoffloraandfaunaforprivatecollectionsandforsaleisalsoa common occurrence.

DisturbanceResidential and agricultural squatting is highlighted as a major problem in the management of the Aripo Savan-nas. In 2003, it was estimated that approximately 375 hectares of land within the savannas was squatted upon. Clearingthelandforagriculture,aswellasextensivefiresandquarryinghavegreatlyimpactedontheecologyof some areas in the savannas. Forester Edmund Charles notes that squatting takes place on the borders of the savannas. From comparisons of aerial photos of the Aripo Savannas taken in 1969 and 1994, ecologist Michael Oatham concluded that the status of the savanna ecosystems changed between those years as Savannas 9 and 10 in the north of the reserve were heavily disturbed.

Fire

Discussion:Squatting is not occurring in the

savannas but on the fringes:why is this a problem?

See the Administrative Record for the Envi-ronmentally Sensitive Area: Aripo Savannas ScientificReserveorAripoSavannasEnviron-mentally Sensitive Area Resource Management Plan: A Framework for Participatory Manage-ment for more information.

TheEMAhasidentifiedpossiblethreatstothearea:1. The development of the eTeck industrial park and the University of Trinidad and Tobago.2. The extension of the road network in the area by the Ministry of Works and Transport of Trinidad and Tobago using the abandoned railway line that is the southern boundary of the reserve. The road has a number of associated problems including habitat disturbance, light, sound and gaseous pollution, and increased access to the savannas.3. A town planning initiative by international consultants may lead to fragmentation of habitats, which could lead to species loss. Species loss is a problem of particular concern fortheASESAasitishometoasignificantnumberofrare species.

What is an Environmentally Sensitive Area or ESA?An ESA is a portion of the environment where the landscape, wildlife or ecological functions require special legal protection so that its value can be preserved for the present and future generations. 22 The EMA has selected some criteria for the designation of an area as an ESA. These include, but are not limited to an area that is: - The actual or prospective habitat of any environmentally sensitive species. - Requiredforprotectionbythegovernmentbecauseitfallsundertheauspicesofaratifiedoracceded international convention. For example, the Ramsar Convention or the SPAW Protocol. - Unique or rare in its ecosystems, geological features or biological features. - Regardedbythescientificcommunityashavingsignificantvaluefornon-destructiveresearch. - The Aripo Savannas was declared an environmentally sensitive area on 5 June 2007.

What does designation as an ESA mean for management?SpecificobjectiveswereoutlinedbytheEMAinthedesignationoftheAripoSavannasasanESA.These include:1. Protection of habitatsTo ensure the protection of the integrity of the Aripo Savannas, actions or activities that alter or upset theintegrity of the natural functioning of the ecosystems of the savannas, or cause undue stress to plant andanimal communities, are prohibited.

Table 3: Recommendations/ Interventions for prohibited actions and activities in ASESA

Aripo Savannas EnvironmentallySensitive Area (ASESA)

22 EMA, “Aripo Savannas Environmentally Sensitive Area Resource Management Plan: A Framework for Participatory Management”, (Prepared by CANARI, 2008b).23 EMA 2007a

There are activities that encourage preservation and sustainable management and these are permitted in thesavannas.Theseactivitiesincludescientificandculturalresearch,educationalactivities,andanynon-destruc-tive activity that is in keeping with the enjoyment and experience of the environment of the savannas.

2. Conservation of natural resources and the environment and support of environmental education and information sharing Education is a major aspect of any plan for management of resources. It helps to transform attitudesandbehaviour,whichinturninfluencepeople’sactions.IntheASESAresourcemanagementplan,severalrecommendations are made for education and information programmes which should: - Target local primary and secondary schools and communities in the areas surrounding the ASESA with activitiesthatfocusonsomeoftheissuesthatASESAfaces,suchasfiremanagement. - Include lectures, informational brochures and posters for local community groups, corporate entities and businesses. - Establish a visitor centre which would be a hub of information for the ASESA, but would also provide a facility for training, meetings and storage of equipment. - Provide opportunities for research in the ASESA. This research can be used to guide future management of the area. The ASESA resource management plan has outlined a number of research priorities for the ASESA.

Who is responsible for management?Trinidad and Tobago has signed several multilateral environmental agreements (MEAs) such as the SPAW Protocol 24 , CITES 25 and the CBD 26 which obligate the state to support protection, preservation and sustainable management of the ASESA. Under the umbrella of the government and through support from MEAs, the EMA has the ultimate responsibility of management of the ASESA, with the Forestry Division undertaking the admin-istrative and day-to-day responsibilities of the ASESA. A cabinet appointed committee - Aripo Savannas Stake-holder Management Committee (ASSMC) - which includes representatives from public and private sectors, NGOs, CBOs and community representatives is supposed to provide guidance and strategic direction for the management of the ASESA.

In addition to the Government of Trinidad and Tobago, a number of stakeholders including community groups, individuals, NGOs, and organisations like the Sundew Tour-guiding Services play an active role in helping to manage the ASESA. One of the major challenges to management is to ensure that the efforts of the stakeholders (includingthestate)oftheASESA,arecoordinatedtoavoidconflictingeffortsorduplicatingefforts.

Discussion:Compare ASESA with other ESA areas in Trinidad and Tobago andthe region - are the management

systems effective there?What could be done to improvemanagement systems in ASESA

and other ESAs?

24 SPAW Protocol available at http://www.cep.unep.org/pubslegislation/spaw.html 25 CITES available at http://www.cites.org/ 26 CBD available at http://www.cbd.int/

Leopold Matrix An example of how the Leopold Matrix can be used is provided below.For more information on the Leopold Matrix refer to Guidelines for Learning Activities.

Five WhysAn example of how the Five Whys exercise can be used is used is provided below.For more information on the Five Whys exercise refer to Guidelines for Learning Activities.

Suggested Activities

Notethatthisexampleisoversimplified,andinrealityissuestendtohavemultiplecauses.Thisactivityshouldbe repeated to include a variety of answers for Whys to help students appreciate the many complex factorssurrounding any one issue.

Measuring Species Richness of Plants on the Aripo Savannas This activity is drawn from a field exercise designed by Dr. Michael Oatham of the Life Sciences Departmentof the University of the West Indies. 27

Background Diversity in communities can be considered in terms of numbers of species or other taxonomic category, e.g. species diversity. There are two main constraints to describing the diversity of communities. First, the sample from the community must be large enough to represent the community adequately. This means that large numbers of samples must be taken. The second constraint is the time and other resources needed to take these samples. Generally, as sample size increases, the study becomes more expensive in terms of time and resources and these are usually limited in availability. One of the main methods to determine a balance between these two constraints is by deriving a species-area curve.

A species-area curve is derived by sampling larger and larger areas of the community until no new speciesare added to a cumulative species list. When no new species are encountered in new quadrats, the cumulative number of species remains the same for a further increase in sampling area.This is taken as the optimum sample size (in terms of area) for sampling this community.

Suggested Sampling Methodology For The Aripo Savannas

!

27 Michael Oatham, “Measuring Species Richness of Plants on the Aripo Savannas”, (Field manual Dept. of Life Sciences Univ. of the West Indies, 2006).

Figure 9: Species-area curve

Species-area curve At the end of the activity students should be able to: 1. Conduct quadrat sampling in a grassland community. 2. Construct a species-area curve for this community and derive from this an estimate of species richness and the optimum number of quadrat samples needed for sampling this community. 3. Distinguish between the common species of plants in the Aripo Savannas.

Objectives

1. To sample a community of plants in the Aripo Savannas using quadrats. 2. To draw a species-area curve for this community. 3. To estimate the species richness (the number of species) of plants in the Aripo Savannas. 4. To estimate the minimum number of quadrat samples needed for this sampling community.

Materials 1. Three to six 0.25m2 or 0.5m2 quadrats 2. Measuring tape 3. Magnifying glass

Field methods 1. AttheAripoSavannasstudysitesimilarareasofsavannavegetationneedtobeidentified. Be careful not to trample the vegetation within your study area. 2. The arrangement of quadrats outlined is not mandatory and can be extended or reduced depending on the size of class, or the required sample effort.

3. Using a 0.5m2quadrat,laythemeasuringtapedownforalengthof2.0m,andlocatealongthisthefirst four quadrats at the top of the sampling area. Mark the corners of the quadrats 1 to 4, and move the quadrats along to the new positions for the second set of samples (5 to 8). When these are completed, the other 8 quadrats can be set up in a similar fashion so that they are all contiguous. 4. For each quadrat, identify each species by giving it a letter name (AA, AD, BB, etc.). Use the magnifying glass to identify minute features on plants. Draw up a list of letter names and a roughsketchordescriptionofidentifyingfeatures,e.g.hairygrass,shortherbwithpurpleflowers. For each quadrat, note the presence of each of these species and the quadrat number. Remember that the Aripo Savannas is a protected scientific reserve and environmentally sensitive area and no collecting of plants or animals or damage to the habitat is allowed.

Data analysis 1. Using the quadrat labels from Figure 10, randomly select one of your quadrats and note which species are present and count them. 2. Randomly select another quadrat and count the number of species that occur in this second quadrat that didnotoccurinthefirst.Addthesetothenumberofspeciesinthefirstquadratforacumulativetotalfor the 2 quadrats.

! Figure 10: Arrangement of sampling quadrats

3. Calculate the cumulative number of species for 3 quadrats using step 2 and repeat until all 16 quadrats have been analysed. Construct a table of number of quadrats and the cumulative number of species. 4. Plot a line graph of cumulative number of species (y-axis) against numbers of quadrats (x-axis). 5. Identify the minimum number of quadrats required for deriving a species-area curve for this community.

Alkins-Koo, Mary. 2005. Ecological Assessment and Human Impacts. BIOL 2461,Dept. Of Life Sciences, University of theWest Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago. Alkins-Koo, Mary. 2007. Environmental Evaluation & Impact Assessment. BIOL 2461,Dept. Of Life Sciences, University of theWest Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago.

Appelhof, Mary 2006. Worms Eat My Garbage. Michigan,USA:FlowerfieldEnterprises.Pp68.http://www.kitsapezearth.com/contactus.html[accessed 20 August 2008]

Beard J.S. 1946. The natural vegetation of Trinidad. Oxford Forest. Mem. 20

Beeby, Alan and Anne-Maria Brennan, 1997.First Ecology. London: Chapman and Hall.

CentralStatisticalOffice(CSO).2007.First Compendium of Environmental Statistics Trinidad and Tobago. Ministry of Planning andDevelopment, Trinidad and Tobago.

Charles, Edmund, 2008.Interview on 4th September, 2008.

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). 2009. The Convention on Biological Diversity.http://www.cbd.int/ (accessed 20 August 2008).

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES). http://www.cites.org/ (accessed 20 August 2008.)

Environmental Management Authority (EMA). 2007a. Aripo Savannas Environmentally Sensitive Area Literature Review to Facilitate thePreparation of Management Plans.Prepared by the Caribbean Natural ResourceInstitute (CANARI).

Environmental Management Authority. 2007b.Administrative Record for the Environmentally SensitiveArea:AripoSavannasScientificReserve.Port of Spain, Trinidad.

Environmental Management Authority. 2008a. Managing together: A summary of the management plans for the Aripo Savannas, an environmentally sensitive area. Prepared by the Caribbean Natural Resource Institute for the EnvironmentalManagement Authority. Port of Spain, Trinidad

Environmental Management Authority. 2008b. Aripo Savannas Environmentally Sensitive Area Resource Management Plan: A Frameworkfor Participatory Management. Prepared by theCaribbean Natural Resources Institute for theEnvironmental Management Authority.Port of Spain, Trinidad.

Forte, Maximilian C. 2006.We the Carib Community of Trinidad and Tobago. Santa Rosa Carib Community.http://www.kacike.org/srcc/weone.htm[accessed 12 August 2008].

Johnson, Kim. (2002, June 23). Aripo: A scarred National Treasure. The Trinidad Guardian, p.20.

Bibliography

Oatham, Michael, 2006.Measuring Species Richness of Plants on the Aripo Savannas. Field Manual. Dept. of Life Sciences,The University of the West Indies.

Panton, W.P. 1953. Field and Laboratory Studies of the Soils of the Aripo Savanna District. Dissertation for Diploma, Trinidad: Tropical Agriculture of the Imperial College of Tropical Agriculture, Trinidad.

Richardson, W.D. 1962. Observations on theVegetation and Ecology of the Aripo Savannas, Trinidad. The Journal of Ecology 51 (2): 295 - 313

Trinidad and Tobago. Forestry Division Ministry of Agriculture, Lands, and Fisheries. (1980).Technical Document Forestry Division/ OASProject on the Establishment of a system of National Parks and Protected Areas.Port of Spain: Forestry Division, OAS.

UNEP. 2007. Global Environment Outlook 4 (GEO4): Environment for Development. Malta: Progress Press Ltd.

United Nations Environment Programme Caribbean Environment Programme (UNEP-CEP). Overview of the SPAW Protocol.http://www.cep.unep.org/cartagenaconvention/spaw-protocol(accessed 12 August 2008)

Additional references include:

Comeau, P.L., Y. S. Comeau, and W. Johnson. 2003. The Palm Book of Trinidad and Tobago including the Lesser Antilles. International Palm Society.

Schwab, S. 1988. “Faunal checklist of the AripoSavannas(ScientificReserve)”.Living World: Journal of the Trinidad and Tobago Naturalist Field Club. pp. 8-11

Schwab, S.I. 1988. Floral and faunal compostion, phenologyandfireintheAripoSavannasScientificReserve, Trinidad, West Indies. Unpublished M.Sc. Thesis. University of Wisconsin, Stevens Point.

APPENDIX A: ScientificNamesofPlantsandAnimalsmentionedinthetext

Table 1 Common and Scientific Names of Plants Mentioned in the Text

Table 2 Common and Scientific Names of Animals Mentioned in the Text

Sources: EMA (2007a); EMA (2007b); EMA (2008b)

APPENDIX B: Acronyms used in this case study

ASESA Aripo Savannas Environmentally Sensitive Area

ASSMC Aripo Savannas Stakeholder Management Committee

ASSR AripoSavannasScientificReserve

CBD Convention on Biological Diversity

CBO Community based organisation

APPENDIX B: Acronyms used in this case study

CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora

EMA Environmental Management Authority of Trinidad and Tobago

ESA Environmentally Sensitive Area

GoRTT Government of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago

LSFR Long Stretch Forest Reserve

MEAs Multilateral Environmental Agreements

NGO non-governmental organisation

OAS Organisation of American States

RH Relative Humidity

SPAW Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife

SPNPPA Systems Plan of National Parks and other Protected Areas

US United States of America

WASA Water and Sewage Authority of Trinidad and Tobago

APPENDIX C: Glossary of terms used in this study

Aggregate Unit of soil structure generally < 10 mm in diameter and formed by natural forces and substances derived from root exudates and microbial products which cement smaller particles into larger units.

Alluvial Flat elevated benches composed of unconsolidated alluvium found on either side of a streamterrace channel.Formedwhenastreamdowncutsintoitsfloodplain.Alluviumisthematerial deposited by a stream.

Biodiversity The variability of among living organisms from all sources: terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems, as well as the ecological complexes of which they are part. Biodiversity includes diversity within and among species (genetic and species diversity) and diversity within and among ecosystems (ecosystem diversity). Biodiversity is considered at three main levels: genetic, species and ecosystem.

Claypan A layer of compact, stiff, relatively impervious non-cemented clay.

Clays Mineral particle with a size less than 0.004 mm in diameter.

Communities An assemblage of species occurring in the same space and/ or time, and is often linked by(ecological) biotic interactions such as competition or predation.

Driver/Driving Any natural or human-induced factor that directly or indirectly causes a change in anforces ecosystem.

Ecosystems Dynamic complex of plant, animal and micro-organisms communities and their non-living environment interacting as a functional unit.

Ecotone The transitional area between two adjacent ecosystems or ecological communities.

Endemic Nativetoandfoundonlyinaspecifiedarea.

Ferns A group of about 11,000 species of vascular seedless plants that belong to the division Pterophyta. About 75 percent of the various species of ferns are found in the tropics. Some ferns grow on the branches of trees as epiphytes.

Floral A group of organisms that live together in a geographical region and constitute a communityassociation with a few dominant species.

Fragipan A dense, natural subsurface layer of hard soil with relatively slow permeability to water, mostly because of its extreme density or compactness, rather than its high clay content or cementation.

Grasses Type of plant that has long slender leaves that extend from a short stem or the soil surface.

Gravel A term used to describe unconsolidated sediments composed of rock fragments. These rock fragments have a size that is greater than 2 mm.

Herbs A non-woody angiosperm whose above ground vegetation dies off seasonally.

Historic This period was around the 16th – 17th century.Amerindianperiod

Hummock A general geological term referring to a small knoll or mound above ground that are typically lessthan1.5minheightandtendtoappearingroupsorfields.

Inter Tropical Zone of low atmospheric pressure and ascending air located at or near the equator.Convergence Rising air currents are due to global wind convergence and convection from thermal heating.Zone (ITCZ) Location of the thermal equator.

Liana A species of plant that grows on the trunk or branches of woody plants.

Microtopography Surface features of the earth of small dimensions, commonly less than 50 ft. (15 m).

Palms Any of numerous plants of the family Palmae, most species being tall, unbranched trees surmounted by a crown of large pinnate or cleft leaves.

Pleistocene 1.8 million - 10,000 years ago

Pre-Colombian Of, or relating to the time before the arrival of Columbus to the Americasperiod

Relative The ratio between the actual amounts of water vapour held in the atmosphere compared tohumidity theamountrequiredforsaturation.Relativehumidityisinfluencedbytemperatureand atmospheric pressure.

Sand Mineral particle with a size between 0.06 and 2.0 millimeters in diameter.

Savanna A tropical or subtropical region of grassland and other drought-resistant vegetation. This type of growth occurs in regions that have a long dry season, but a heavy rainy season, and continuously high temperatures. May also occur as a result of soil conditions e.g. Aripo Savannas.

Shrub A woody plant species that is smaller than a tree. Shrubs usually do not have a trunk.

Soil horizon Layerwithinasoilprofilethatdiffersphysically,biologicallyorchemicallyfromlayers above and/or below it.

Squatting The act of occupying an abandoned or unoccupied space or building that the person committing the act (squatter) does not own, rent or otherwise have permission to use.

Stakeholder The individuals, groups or organizations that are involved in, or may be affected by a change in the conditions governing the management and use of a resource, area or sector.

Strata The layers or beds found in sedimentary rock. Also refers to the different height groupings of(stratum sing.) trees in a forest.

Vegetation The cover of plants, above and below ground, commonly but not always differentiated into layers (storeys, tiers).

BrBuccoo reef

THE CROPPER FOUNDATION

In this case study:

1 Richard Laydoo, Kurt Bonair and Gerard Alleng, “ Buccoo Reef and Bon Accord Lagoon, Tobago, Republic of Trinidad and Tobago”,

Coastal Region and small island papers, 3 (1998).2 IMA, “The formulation of a management plan for the Buccoo Reef Marine Park”, volume 2 Socioeconomic aspects, (Institute of Marine Affairs, 1994).

In 1998, Richard Laydoo, Kurt Bonair and Gerard Alleng authored a paper on the ecology and coralreef ecosystem of the Buccoo Reef and Bon Accord Lagoon in Tobago. 1 This paper, together with work undertaken by the Institute of Marine Affairs (IMA) to formulate a management plan for the Buccoo Reef Marine Park, 2 provide the majority of information for the sections dealing with location, andbiodiversity.

LocationThe Buccoo Reef is located on the leeward southwest coast of Tobago between 11o08’N and 11o12’N latitude and 60o40’W and 60o51’W longitude. Buccoo Reef comprises five emergent fringing reefs, a shallow sandy lagoon with a patchy distribution of coral communities, and an adjacent sheltered lagoon (Bon Accord Lagoon). Together these cover an area of 7km2.

The reef flats are generally characterized by narrow seaward reef crests and a more extensive back reef toward the reef lagoon. Between the reef flats are sandy bottom channels, the widest and deepest is the Deep Channel located between the Western and Northern Reefs. The fore reef is most extensive in the northern part of the reef system, and here it slopes to depths of 10 to 15m in depth. West of the reef flats the fore reef slopes to a depth of 20m; to the east the fore reef slopes to a depth of 15m. The Bon Accord Lagoon is located to the south of the Nylon Pool and to the west of the Eastern Reef Flat. The lagoon is poorly flushed, and the water in the lagoon circulates every 2 to 5 days.

Section 1

Adapted from Laydoo et al. (1998)Figure 1: Map of Buccoo Reef Ecosystem

!

!

3 G.J. Edgar and Steve Parish, “Coral Reef Fact, Great Barrier Reef interesting facts about the reef”, Autstralian Marine Life,

http://www.barrierreefaustralia.com/the-great-barrier-reef/coralfacts.htm4 Teresa Zubi, “Coral Reefs: Reef Formation”, http://www.starfish.ch/reef/reef.html5 Ibid6 Science Clarified, “Biology of corals, Formation of coral reefs”, http://www.scienceclarified.com/Ci-Co/Coral.html7 TDE, “Tobago Diving Temperatures and Visibility Table”, Tobago Dive Experience, http://www.tobagodiveexperience.com/tde/temperature.aspx8 Laydoo et al. 1998

Coral polyps are the building blocks of any coral reef. They are soft-bodied, tubular-shaped, invertebrateanimals that grow to a length and height between 3mm and 56mm. 3 Coral polyps have evolved a symbioticrelationship with a type of algae called zooxanthellae. 4 The zooxanthellae give the coral its characteristic colour. Zooxanthellae produce sugars and oxygen through photosynthesis and aid the polyp in the process of producing limestone or calcium carbonate. 5 The polyp secretes the limestone to form a hard shell around its body and attach itself to a stable substrate. During reproduction, coral polyps move across the substrate to extend coral colonies or to make new coral colonies. When the polyps die the calcium carbonate skeletons of the polyps, together with limestone deposits of coralline algae fuse to form coral reefs. Reefs grow upward as generations of coral polyps produce limestone skeletons, die and become the base for new generations.

Table 1: Conditions for growth of coral reefs 6

The Buccoo Reef is a fringing reef. Fringing reefs are relatively young coral reefs that grow close to the shore; they grow upwards to sea level or just below and outwards toward the open oceans. Buccoo Reef is of Holocene origin, and lies on a Pleistocene carbonate platform which is similar to the terrestrial geology of the low lying south-western region of Tobago. 8

Geology/ Formation

Source: Carothers (2007)Figure 2: The zones profile of a typical coral reef!

OceanographyThis section draws heavily on J.S. Kenny’s studies of the Buccoo Reef/ bon Accord Complex.

Buccoo Reef is exposed to the prevailing North East trade winds for most of the year, except for periods in the dry season (January to May) when the prevailing wind direction is westerly. As a result, the Outer and Eastern Reef flats are subject to high wind and wave energy particularly in the dry season when the winds are stronger. During November and December strong oceanic swells are common, and the north-eastern fringe of the reef experiences high wave action.

Water movement in the Buccoo Reef is wind-driven and generally westerly, with some reversal in the BonAccord Lagoon and the south west channel near Pigeon Point during flood tide. Surface circulation to the west of Buccoo Reef is apparently more influenced by north-westerly water movement between Trinidad andTobago. 9 Discharges from the Orinoco River reduce the salinity and increase the turbidity of this water during the wet season, which reduce light availability needed for coral growth. 10 However, this chronic seasonal stress has not prevented the development of massive and biologically diverse reef formations in the Buccoo Reef. 11

9 Ibid10 Brain E. Lapointe, “Impacts of land-based nutrient pollution on coral reefs of Tobago”, (Prepared for Buccoo Reef Trust, 2003).11 Ibid

BiodiversityCoral ReefsVarious coral communities exist in the Buccoo Reef area, and the diversity of the area is dependent on spatial characteristics of the reef such as water depth, slope of the substrate and wave action.

Along the fore reef, the coral community is stratified according to depth. On the shallow forereef areas (2 to 6m depth) the elkhorn coral is common, although much of this coral is dead standing elkhorn coral skeletons or rubble. Star coral (which is more wave resistant than other coral types) is also present here. 12 In deeper areas of the fore reef, large colonies of brain coral, starlet coral and star coral dominate the reef. In the deepest areas of the fore reef, colonies of leaf coral, gorgonians and sponges are common.

A number of small coral formations characterised by one or few species, occur throughout the shallow backreef lagoon and the Bon Accord Lagoon. The coral formation in the northern areas of the backreef lagoon comprises large boulder-like reefs of star coral and brain coral, in association with sea fans.

The formations in the western areas of the backreef lagoon consist of thickets of staghorn coral. In the eastern areas the coral formations also comprise staghorn coral as well as fire coral. To the south and in Bon Accord Lagoon, patches of finger coral occur in association with a calcareous green alga.

Fish and Marine AnimalsIn 1994, the IMA reported that there are about 70 species of fish in the reef. However, with continual degrada-tion of the reef, this figure may now be reduced. Some of the fish species include blue tang; blue striped grunt; four-eye butterfly fish; creole wrasse and queen angel fish. 14 Some other fauna include banded coral shrimp; Christmas tree worm; Caribbean reef squid; hawksbill turtle; spotted moray; and yellow tube sponge. 15 The many varied habitats – different types of corals, mangrove, seagrass beds – facilitate a wide diversity of species. Although the diversity is well represented in terms of fish and coral species, Buccoo Reef is not as diverse as other areas of Tobago. The lower diversity is due to stress on the reef because of the close proximity to theOrinoco River discharge. The report also highlighted that these natural stresses may have some important man-agement implications since the reef’s plant and animal communities will be much more sensitive and suscepti-ble to human activities which result in direct or indirect negative impacts on the quality of the reef environment.

Seagrass BedsIn the western area of the Bon Accord Lagoon, the plant and animal community comprises an extensive seagrass bed of which turtle grass is the dominant seagrass.Other marine organisms found there include macroalgae, sea urchins, molluscs, oysters and sea cucumbers. 13

Mangrove WetlandsMangrove communities comprised of species of red, white and black mangrove trees border the south and east of the Bon Accord Lagoon in a belt several hundred metres wide.

12 Kenny 197613 Ibid14 Keisha Sandy, “ Buccoo Reef Marine Park Tour Operator’s Companion”, Department of Marine Resources and Fisheries, Tobago.15 Ibid

Figure 3: Coral Reefs Figure 4: Seagrass Beds Figure 5: Fish & Marine Animals

Table 2: Number of marine species of various taxa recorded for Buccoo Reef and Bon Accord Lagoon 16

Note: Some taxa may contain more species than indicated in the table.

16 IMA (1994)

In 2008, a report 17 was produced by Lauretta Burke, Suzie Greenhalgh, Daniel Prager and Emily Cooper based on an economic valuation of coral reefs in Tobago and St. Lucia. The valuation project was led by the World Resources Institute, in close collaboration with IMA, Buccoo Reef Trust, CANARI and UWI. The report provides much of the information that was used in Section 2. Some important economic find-ings of the report are presented as “Revenue Sheets”.

Section 2

The next section will apply the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment18(MA) Conceptual Framework to theBuccoo Reef ecosystem to help examine some of the benefits and services that the Buccoo Reef ecosystemprovides; to look at some of the problems affecting the reef; and to look at how some of these problems arebeing solved. The MA conceptual framework will also help us to examine the links between human wellbeing, the benefits and services that the reef provides, and the problems affecting the reef.

Box 1: Parts of MillenniumEcosystem AssessmentConceptual Framework

17 Lauretta Burke, Suzie Greenhalgh, Daniel Pragerand Emily Cooper, “Coastal Capital - Economic Valuation of Coral Reefs in Tobago and St. Lucia”, World Resources Institute, 2008.

18 From 2001 – 2005, UNEP undertook an assessment of the consequences of ecosystem change on human well being and established a scientific basis for actions needed to reduce the harmful effects that humans have on ecosystems.

How do we benefit from The Buccoo Reef Ecosystem?Tourism and Recreation (Provisioning and Cultural services)Coral reefs have long been regarded as the treasures of the sea because of their aesthetic beauty, complexity and vast biodiversity. As a result coral reefs tend to be a hub for tourist activity as well as scientific research. The Buccoo Reef ecosystem is still the highlight of Tobago tourist attractions, and boat tours of the reef are the major tourist activity. The areas of the reef used for boat tours include the Outer Reef flat, the Coral Gardens and the Nylon Pool. Other activities include snorkelling on the shallow backreef of the Outer Reef flat, and sport diving at forereef sites. 19 The Coral Gardens experiences one of the highest volumes oftourist activity mainly because many of the other areas of the Buccoo Reef are degradedand have low fish and coral abundances.Coral reef-associated tourism and recreation is a source of employment and livelihood for many people inTobago. Employment is provided directly through hotels, guest houses and boat tours of the island’s reefs,and indirectly from the sale of crafts, transport services, food and beverage services and land tours.In 2005 it was estimated that tourism employed about 60% of Tobago’s workforce. In addition to being a source of employment for many, coral reef-associated tourism and recreation is Tobago’s largest economic sector and contributes about 46% of Tobago’s annual gross domestic product (GDP).

Local residents also utilize the reefs for recreational purposes. Many Trinidadians visit Tobago for vacationseveral times in any one year. A survey undertaken by the University of the West Indies of local residents’use of reefs and coralline beaches estimated a contribution between TT $78 and 264 million to annual GDP.

Fisheries (Provisioning service)The Buccoo Reef supports a high diversity of fish and other marine animal species, particularly in the Coral Gardens and in the forereef area.20 The surrounding mangrove also provides habitats, food sources, andnurseries for many fish and marine animal species. The Buccoo Reef inclusive of the Bon Accord Lagoonand surrounding mangroves supports fisheries which provide livelihoods for many persons in Tobago. 21

Box 2

Box 3

19 Richard Laydoo, “The Forereef Slopes of the Buccoo Reef Complex, Tobago”, Technical Report IMA Trinidad, 1985.20 Chris Bentley, “Effects of Reef Isolation on the rapid colonisation of Artificial Reefs by fishes on Buccoo Reef, Tobago, West Indies”, (Master’s thesis Univ. of Newcastle upon Tyne, 2004).21 FAO, “Shrimp and Pot Fishing”, Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations, http://www.fao.org/fishery/fishtech/1017

Reef-fishing in Tobago is predominantly small-scale and traditional, and operates seasonally. Fishermen use pot fishing as their primary fishing method, and at times may also practice seine fishing. Pot fishing is used to catch mainly shell fish and finfish, while seine fishing can catch more species of fish but is potentially more harmful to the reef than pot fishing.

Information from consultations with stakeholders including staff of the Fisheries Division, the Buccoo Reef Trust, the head of the Tobago Fisherfolk Association, several fishermen, and Tobago Live (a fish exporter), suggests that many coral reefs in Tobago are overfished, and that fish size and overall productivity of the coral fishery is declining.

The economic valuation of Tobago’s reef fisheries undertaken by Burke et al. (2008) revealed some very impor-tant findings about the contributions of fisheries to Tobago’s economy and to livelihoods. Although in this study Tobago’s reefs were considered collectively, the information is quite valuable when considering the contribution that Buccoo Reef’s fisheries make to livelihoods.

Coastal Protection (Regulating service)Coral reefs protect the coastline from wave erosion by reducing the intensity of the waves as they travel towards the coast from offshore. Burke et al. (2008) suggest that coral reefs reduce wave energy by as much as 75 to 95%. High intensity waves have the ability to erode coastlines, remove sand from beaches and destroy coastal property. Mangroves also play an important role in shoreline protection especially for storms of high energy and intensity like hurricanes.

The damage avoided by coral reef protection in Tobago is estimated to range from TT $108 to 198 million per year. This is the amount of money that will need to be spent on damages caused by the effects of waves if coral reefs and mangroves are removed.

Box 4

The Importance of Valuing Ecosystem Services

When we attach a monetary value to an ecosystem service it becomes easier to appreciate the value of theecosystem service. Appreciation of ecosystem services may encourage public participation and support forenvironmental initiatives. The economic valuation studies undertaken in Tobago attached a dollar-value to some of the services that the Buccoo Reef ecosystem provides. Valuing ecosystem services in this way is called economic valuation. Economic valuation applies different techniques for different situations. For example, some ecosystem services like food, fuel and timber are easy to valuate because they can be bought and sold on the market. Other ecosystem services like water purification, aesthetic beauty and climate regula-tion are not easily valuated and other valuation methods must be applied in order to attach a dollar-value to the service. More information on valuation of ecosystem services is available in “Ecosystem Services:A Guide for Decision Makers, available at:http://www.wri.org/publication/ecosystem-services-a-guide-for-decision-makers

The services provided by the Buccoo Reef ecosystem enhance human well-being in a number of ways through livelihoods, food provisioning, recreation and coastal protection. These services, however, are under threat by some drivers acting on the reef ecosystem. Losing these services will mean that we need to find some otheractivity to provide livelihoods, to generate income to purchase food, and to offset costs due to coastal damage. We will explore these drivers in the next sections, and in the section that follows we will explore the linksbetween ecosystem services, human well-being and drivers.

Pollution in Buccoo ReefPollution is one of the main problems affecting the Buccoo Reef, and its effects are evident by the dying corals, lack of fish and general lack of marine life in some parts of the reef. One of the major effects of pollution on the reef is EUTROPHICATION. The accumulation of nutrients in the Buccoo Reef has encouraged macroalgae to thrive and overgrow much of the coral. Overfishing of macroalgae consumers like parrotfish and surgeonfish in the reef has also allowed the macroalgae to grow unchecked. As a result many of the coral species die, the fish and other marine animals move to other areas, and that section of the reef becomes a dead zone.

The source of the nutrient input into the reef is not immediately obvious, and in fact the nutrient input is sug-gested to come from a number of sources. One of the suggested sources is SEWAGE. Many of the houses, hotels and properties located in the reef catchment have septic tanks and soakaways built underground in the limestone rock. The sewage from these septic tanks soaks through the limestone rock in a process called per-colation, and the sewage then enters the underground water table. Water is supplied to surface streams from the underground water table and these surface streams drain into the Buccoo Reef.

Another source of nutrient input to the Buccoo Reef is from AGRICULTURE, including animal farms. Many fertilizers used in agriculture contain nitrogen and phosphorous nutrients, and often not all of the nutrients are absorbed by plants. The runoff from crop fields and from farms into streams in the Buccoo Reef catchment area may also contribute to nutrient enrichment of Buccoo Reef.

The Drivers on The Buccoo Reef Ecosystem

Discussion:If we lose the services that the Buccoo Reef

ecosystem provides:What happens to the many persons dependant on these

services for livelihoods?What economic activities can offset the contribution

made to annual GDP by Reef’s services?What other services and benefits could we lose

if we lose the Buccoo Reef?

Coral damage: the downside of tourismTourism in Buccoo Reef generates a large income for Tobago, however, tourism also comes with a price. One of the activities associated with glass-bottom-boat tours of the Buccoo Reef is reef walking. Reef walking is a practice where persons are allowed to come off of the tour boat and walk over the coral. This practice causes significant damage to the reef as the coral – in most cases - is broken or crushed. Reef walking can also stir up sediments and increase the turbidity of the water which is also detrimental for corals. The boats themselves sometimes destroy the reefs when the bottoms of the boats drag against the coral: this is called boat grounding. Studies have indicated that yacht and boat groundings are for broken and crushed corals. Coral damage can also occur naturally as a result of wave action impacting the reefs. Improper placement of anchors also destroys sections of the reef. In the next section we will look at measures to control these problems.

Corals get sick tooCoral diseases have the ability to destroy the coral polyps that build up the reefs. Although coral diseasesare natural phenomena, the susceptibility of coral to diseases is enhanced by disturbances such as pollution,increased water temperatures or reef damage. White Band Disease Type 1, Type 2 and White pox disease are three major diseases affecting corals in the Caribbean. 22 White Band Disease is characterized by uniform bands of peeled-off tissue on corals. The bands can range from few millimetres to centimetres thick.The alarming characteristic of this disease is that it spreads from the base to the tip of the coral at a rate of 5mm per day. White Band Disease Type 1 affects elkhorn and staghorn corals, and is the only one known to cause major changes in the composition and structure of reefs, and mortality of corals.

Discussion:What are some other likely sources of nutrients

into the Buccoo Reef?

Deforestation on the Main Ridge may cause soil erosion. How might this be linked to increasing sediment levels

and turbidity in the Buccoo Reef?

22 Rosie E. Carr, “The Status of Elkhorn Coral, Acropora palmate in Southwest Tobago”, (Master’s Thesis Univ. of Newcastle upon Tyne, 2004).23 S. O’Farrell and O. Day, “Report on the 2005 mass coral bleaching event in Tobago, Part 1: Results from Phase 1 Survey”, Coral Cay Conservation and Buccoo

Reef Trust, 2006.

Box 5

Protecting Buccoo Reef Many measures have been put in place to protect the reef from some of the problems described above. The Tobago House of Assembly and a number of non-governmental organisations (NGOs), and community-based organisations (CBOs) have been making efforts since the early 1970s to improve management of the Buccoo Reef. Some of these are described below. The Buccoo Reef was formally protected in 1973 under the Marine Areas (Restricted Area) Preservation and Enhancement Act of 1970. The Act gives the reef protection against some activities like pollution of the reef, damage of the reef structure and illegal hunting of fish and marine animals.

There are plans to establish the Buccoo Reef as a national park. As a national park the reef would have greater protection against activities like pollution, disturbance to habitats, and protection of coral and other threatened species like the hawksbill turtle.

Buccoo Reef is also protected under international agreements like the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), and the Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife (SPAW) Protocol. When the government signed on to these agreements, it became responsible for meeting the requirements of the agreements.

Scientific research and monitoring of the reefs is a major activity ongoing in the Buccoo Reef. NGOs and CBOs in Tobago play a major role in this activity. Scientific research can help us to determine what is wrong with the reef and to provide solutions to problems. Research will also enable us to act pro-actively to prevent damage to the reef. Monitoring allows us to keep an eye on the health and state of the reef ecosystem.

To reduce the damage due to improper use of anchors the Buccoo Reef Trust, the Department of Marine Resources and Fisheries of the THA and the Tobago Diving Association embarked on a project to install reef demarcation buoys. The buoys will help to prevent anchors being placed on the reef.

Reef walking is now prohibited on the reefs. Reef tour operators are trained before becoming licensed tour operators. Part of the training includes general information on the Buccoo Reef and avoiding actions that damage the reef like reef-walking. Reef walking is also prohibited under the Marine Areas (Restricted Area) Order Preservation and Enhancement Act of 1970.

Education and public outreach is a major part of protecting the reef. The THA, EMA, along with NGOs and CBOs consider this a priority and are targeting users of the reef like local residents, businessmen, developers, fishermen and reef tour operators and guides.

Education and public awareness are important for people to see how their actions may enhance or degrade the Buccoo Reef Ecosystem, and also how the Buccoo Reef Ecosystem is important to their livelihoods, culture and the environment.

Education of local residents is key because it reinforces a sense of ownership of the reef and a greater responsibility for the reef.

The arrows represent the linkagesbetween the different componentsof the framework

Figure 6: The MA Conceptual Framework applied to the Buccoo Reef Ecosystem

An example of how the Five Whys exercise can be used is provided below.For more information on the Five Whys exercise refer to Guidelines for Learning Activities.

Five Whys

Leopold Matrix An example of how the Leopold Matrix can be used is provided below.For more information on the Leopold Matrix refer to Guidelines for Learning Activities.

Suggested Activities to help understand issues

Note that this example is oversimplified, and in reality issues tend to have multiple causes. This activity should be repeated to include a variety of answers for ‘Whys’- this can help students to appreciate the multitude of complex factors surrounding any one issue.

Suggested Fieldwork(See Sampling Methodologies) • Water quality testing – total suspended solids; turbidity; faecal coliform. (See Guidelines for Learning Activities) • Conducting surveys to obtain information on how people value and appreciate the Buccoo Reef.

Alkins-Koo, Mary. 2005. Ecological Assessment and Human Impacts. BIOL 2461, Dept. Of Life Sciences, University of the West Indies, St. Augustine,Trinidad and Tobago.

Alkins-Koo, Mary. 2007. Environmental Evaluation & Impact Assessment. BIOL 2461, Dept. Of Life Sciences, University of the West Indies,St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago.

Bentley, Chris. 2004. Effects of Reef Isolation on the rapid colonization of Artificial Reefs by fishes on Buccoo Reef, Tobago, West Indies. Master’s Thesis. University of Newcastle upon Tyne,United Kingdom.

Brough, David. Blue Tang. Animal World. http://animal-world.com/encyclo/marine/tangs/BlueTang.php (accessed March 03, 2009).

Buchheim, Jason. Coral Reef Bleaching.Odyssey Expeditions. http://www.marinebiology.org/coralbleaching.htm (accessed March 13, 2009).

Burke, Lauretta, Suzie Greenhalgh, Daniel Prager and Emily Cooper. 2008.Coastal Capital – Economic Valuation of Coral Reefs in Tobago and St. Lucia.World Resources Institute.

Carothers, Kyle. 2007. Cayman Islands Twilight Zone 2007 Exploration. National Oceanic andAtmospheric Administration Ocean Explorer.http://oceanexplorer.noaa.govexplorations/07twilightzone/background/plan/plan.html (accessed June 29, 2009).

Carr, Rosie E. 2004. The Status of Elkhorn Coral, Acropora palmata in Southwest Tobago. Master’s Thesis. University of Newcastle upon Tyne,United Kingdom.

Edgar, G. J. and Steve Parish. Coral Reef Fact,Great Barrier Reef interesting facts about the reef.Australian Marine Life.http://www.barrierreefaustralia.com/the-great-barrier-reef/coralfacts.htm(accessed March 02, 2009).

Environment TOBAGO.Focus on Tobago’s Environment.http://www.scsoft.de/et/et2.nsf/KAP2VIEW(accessed February 01, 2009).

FAO. 2003. Shrimp Pot Fishing. Food and Agricul-ture Organization of the United Nations Fisheries and Aquaculture Department.http://www.fao.org/fishery/fishtech/1017(accessed March 11, 2009).

Fry, Jessica. 2004. The Role of herbivory in control-ling the coral-algal phase shift on nutrient impacted reefs. University of New Castle upon Tyne,United Kingdom.

Google Maps. Map Tobago.http://maps.google.com/maps?hl=en&client=firefox-a&rls=org.mozilla:en-US:official&hs=EWE&q=map++tobago&um=1&ie=UTF-8&split=0&gl=tt&ei=gDqsSefwA9yymQe6tInfDQ&sa=X&oi=geocode_result&resnum=1&ct=image(accessed March 02, 2009).

Griffiths, David. 2004. Anthropogenic physicaldamage to coral reefs in Tobago.Marine Ecology Progress Series.

Guy, Allan. Interview by Maurice Rawlins.Department of Marine Resources and Fisheries, Tobago House of Assembly, Tobago, 3rd February, 2009.

Bibliography

Hassan, Rashid, Robert Scholes and Neville Ash, eds. 2005. Ecosystems and Human Well-being:Current State and Trends. Island Press: Washington.

IMA. 1994. The formulation of a management plan for the Buccoo Reef Marine Park. Volume 4,Socio-economic aspects. Institute of Marine Affairs. Prepared for the Tobago House of Assembly.

Kenny, J. S. 1976. A Preliminary Study of theBuccoo Reef/ Bon Accord Complex with Special Reference to Development and Management.Department of Biological Sciences,University of the West Indies, Trinidad.

Lapointe, Brian E. 2003. Impacts of land-basednutrient pollution on coral reefs of Tobago.Prepared for Buccoo Reef Trust.http://www.buccooreef.org/Brian_Lapointe_Nu-trientImpacts.pdf (accessed March 13, 2009).

Laydoo, Richard S. 1985. The Forereef Slopes of the Buccoo Reef Complex, Tobago. Technical Report, Institute of Marine Affairs, Trinidad.

Laydoo, Richard S. Kurt Bonair, and Gerard Alleng. 1998. Buccoo Reef and Bon Accord Lagoon, Tobago, Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, in CARICOMP- Caribbean coral reef, seagrass and mangrove site. Coastal Region and small island papers 3, UNESCO Paris, xiv +347 pp.http://www.unesco.org/csi/pub/papers/laydoo.htm accessed February 25, 2009).

New Jersey Fishing. Trap and Pot Fishing.http://www.fishingnj.org/techpot.htm (accessed March 11, 2009).

NOAA. 2007. Major Reef-building Coral Diseases. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.http://www.coris.noaa.gov/about diseases/#white%20band(accessed March 13, 2009).

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O’Farrell , S. and O. Day. 2006. Report on the 2005 mass coral bleaching event in Tobago,Part 1: Results from Phase 1 Survey. Coral Cay Conservation and Buccoo Reef Trust.

Patton, Casey. Biological Profiles:Four-eye Butterflyfish. Florida Museum of Natural History Ichthyology Department.http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/fish/Gallery/Descript/ButterflyFour/ButterflyFour.htm(accessed March 03, 2009).

Ranganathan, Janet, Karen Bennett, Ciara Raud-sepp-Hearne, Nicolas Lucas, Frances Irwin, Monika Zurek, Neville Ash and Paul West. 2008. Ecosystem Services A guide for Decision Makers. Washington: World Resources Institute.

Robinson, Laura. 2004. The Influence of Adjacent Habitats on Artificial Reef fish Assemblages onBuccoo Reef, Tobago, West Indies. Master’s Thesis.University of Newcastle upon Tyne,United Kingdom.

Sandy, Keisha. Buccoo Reef Marine Park TourOperator’s Companion. Department of MarineResources and Fisheries, Tobago House of Assembly.

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The Cropper Foundation (TCF). 2009.Sustainable Development Terms and Concepts:A Reference for Teachers and Students.Port of Spain, Trinidad.

Turtles.org. 2005. The Hawksbill Turtle.http://www.turtles.org/hawksd.htm (accessed March 03, 2009).

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Zubi, Teresa. 2008. Coral Reefs: Reef Formation. http://www.starfish.ch/reef/reef.html(accessed March 02, 2009).

APPENDIX A: Scientific names of plants and animals mentioned in the text

Banded coral shrimp Stenopus hispidusBluestriped grunt Haemulon sciurusBlue tang Paracanthurus hepatusBrain coral Colpophyllia spp.; Diploria spp.Caribbean reef squid Sepioteuthis sepioideaChristmas tree worm Spirobranchus giganteusCreole wrasse Clepticus parraeElkhorn coral Acropora palmataFire coral Millepora spp.Finger coral Porites poritesFour-eye butterflyfish Chaetodon capistratusGreen alga Halimeda spp.Hawksbill turtle Eretmochelys imbricataMacroalgae Bryopsis spp.; Dictyota spp.; Chaetomorpha spp.Molluscs Phylum MolluscaOysters Pinctada radiataStriped parrot fish Scarus isertiQueen angelfish Holacanthus ciliarisSea fan Gorgonia ventalinaSea urchin Lytechinus variegatusSpotted moray Gymnothorax moringaStaghorn coral Acropora cervicornisStarlet coral Siderastrea sidereaStar coral Montastrea cavernosa; Montastrea annularisTurtle grass Thalassia testudinumYellow tube sponge Aplysina fistularisZooxanthellae Symbiodinium microadriaticum

APPENDIX B: Acronyms used in the case study

CANARI Caribbean Natural Resources Institute

CBO community based organisation

CITES Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna

EMA Environmental Management Authority of Trinidad and Tobago

FAO Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations

GDP gross domestic product

IMA Institute of Marine Affairs

MA Millennium Ecosystem Assessment

NGO non-governmental organisation

SPAW Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife

THA Tobago House of Assembly

UWI University of the West Indies

Algae Primitive non-flowering photosynthetic plant of a large assemblage that includes mainly aquatic forms like seaweed and plankton.

Anemone A cnidarian of the class Anthozoa that possesses a flexible cylindrical body and a central mouth surrounded by tentacles.

Annelid Belonging to the phylum Annelida, and comprises the segmented worms, and includes earthworms, leeches, and a number of marine and freshwater species.

Ascidians A solitary or colonial sea squirt of the phylum Chordata, class Ascidiacea.

Biodiversity The variability among living organisms from all sources: terrestrial, marine, and other aquatic ecosystems, as well as the ecological complexes of which they are a part.

Black corals Colonial cnidarians in the Order Antipatharia. They are found throughout the world’s oceans, but are most common in tropical deep water habitats from 30-80 m depth. These species of black coral have rigid, erect skeletons that form branched, bush-like colonies.

Cnidaria A phylum containing over 9,000 species of animals found exclusively in aquatic mostly marine environments. Includes sea anemones, corals and jelly fish.

APPENDIX C: Glossary of terms used in the case study

Coralline beach A beach where instead of sand bits of coral of various sizes covers the shore.

Coral polyp Soft-bodied, tubular-shaped, invertebrate animals that grow to a length and height between 3mm and 56mm.

Crustacean A subphylum of Arthropoda that includes shrimp, mantis shrimp, lobsters, crabs, water fleas, copepods, crayfish and wood lice. There are almost 40,000 described species of crustaceans.

Dead zone A part of a water body so low in oxygen that normal life cannot survive. The low oxygen conditions usually result from eutrophication caused by fertilizer runoff from land.

Driver Any natural or human induced factor that directly or indirectly causes a change in an ecosystem.

Echinoderms Belonging to the animal phylum Echinodermata that contains starfishes, sea cucumbers, sand dollars, brittlestars, basket stars, sea lilies, feather stars, and sea urchins.

Ecosystem Dynamic complex of plant, animal and micro-organism communities and their non-living environment interacting as a functional unit.

Ecosystem services The benefits people obtain from ecosystems. These include provisioning services such as food and water; cultural services such as spiritual, recreational, and cultural benefits; and regulating and supporting services such as flood and disease control; nutrient cycling that maintain the conditions for life on Earth. The concept of “ecosystem goods and services” is synonymous with ecosystem services.

Eutrophication Eutrophication occurs when there is an over accumulation of nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorous in an ecosystem, causing changes to the ecosystem.

Gorgonians An anthozoan of the subclass Octocorallia, commonly called sea fans and sea whips.

Holocene 10,000 years ago to present.

Horny corals Coral species in the order Gorgonacea that embeds calcium carbonate in a semi-soft, flexible material called keratin. This allows for the flexibility sea fans and sea whips require to survive in strong currents.

Hydrozoan Belonging to the class Hydrozoa within the phylum Cnidaria. The Hydrozoa contains five orders that include: small medusae with no polyp generation; colonial forms with alternating polyp and medusa stages and a chitinous exoskeleton; solitary polyps that lack a medusoid stage; colonial forms with

massive aragonite skeletons (e.g., fire coral); and complex colonial forms, with individual polyps specialized for feeding, swimming, prey capture, and reproduction.

Livelihood Means of living or supporting oneself.

Macroalgae Algae that project more than one centimetre above the substratum.

Mangrove Evergreen trees and shrubs that grow in dense thickets or forests along tidal estuaries, in salt marshes, and on muddy coasts in the tropics and subtropics. The name also refers to the vegetal communities formed by these plants.

Pleistocene 1.8 million to 10,000 years ago.

Reef catchment The reef catchment is the entire area that is considered to be part of the reef. The catchment also includes areas surrounding the reef that have a direct impact on the reef. In the case of Buccoo Reef, the catchment would include the reef itself, the mangrove wetlands, the Bon Accord Lagoon, and areas of the coast adjacent to the reef.

Seagrass A flowering plant, complete with leaves, a rhizome (an underground, usually horizontally-oriented stem) and a root system. They are found in marine or estuarine waters. Most seagrass species are located in soft sediments. However, some species are attached directly to rocks with root hair adhesion. Seagrasses tend to develop extensive underwater meadows.

Sponges Belonging to the phylum Porifera. There are approximately 5,000 living species classified in three distinct groups, the Hexactinellida (glass sponges), the Demospongia, and the Calcarea (calcareous sponges).

Stony corals A coral in the anthozoan order Scleractinia, also known as the hard corals. These organisms possess a hard external calcareous skeleton.

Symbiotic relationship A relationship between two species that appears necessary and inseparable.

Wave resistant Can buffer the impact of waves. However, most materials are not completely wave resistant and will eventually degrade with time.

Well-being The extent to which the basic material for a good life, freedom of choice, health, good social relations, security, peace of mind, and spiritual experience are satisfied.

Zoanthids An anemone of the family Zoanthidae, usually found in intertidal areas and coral reefs. In some species the polyps separate from each other almost completely after budding, while in other species, the polyps are all interconnected by a common

CpChaguaramas peninsula

THE CROPPER FOUNDATION

In this case study:

Dr. Mary Alkins-Koo of the Life Sciences Department of the University of the West Indies developed casestudies for use in courses at the University. Among these was a case study on the Chaguaramas Peninsula.The following sections draw heavily on the information from her case study on the Chaguaramas Peninsula. 1

BackgroundThe Chaguaramas Peninsula is situated on the north-western end of Trinidad. The Peninsula forms the western end of the Northern Range, and includes the mainland of Trinidad as well Monos, Huevos and Chacachacare Islands. Other offshore islands – Gaspar Grande, Diego and Five Islands – are not considered as part of the Peninsula, but will be included in this study. (See figure 1: Map of Chaguaramas Peninsula).

The location of the Peninsula and offshore islands make them a hotspot for activities that are influenced by both local and international processes (See figure 2: Local and Regional processes impacting on ChaguaramasPeninsula).

Chaguaramas Peninsula

Figure 1: Map of Chaguaramas Peninsula Source: Ordnance Survey Map (undated)

Figure 2: Local and Regional Processes impacting on Chaguaramas PeninsulaSource: Alking-Koo (2008)

Chaguaramas Peninsula

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1 Mary Alkins-Koo,

“Case Study - Chaguaramas Peninsula”,

(Dept. of Life Sciences, University of the West Indies,

2003-2007).

History• The Chaguaramas Peninsula has a strategic local and regional location that has made it a focus for many civil and military uses. Amerindian sites dating back to 100 to 700 A.D. can be found on Chacachacare Island and the name “Chaguaramas” is of Amerindian origin meaning “palms”.

• Columbus was reported to have anchored off Chacachacare Bay on his third voyage in 1498.

• Remnants of fortifications built by the Spanish and British between 1796 and 1805 can be found at Point Gourde and Gaspar Grande. Admiral Apodaca’s fleet of ships, scuttled off Point Gourde in the British invasion in 1797, still remains in Chaguaramas Bay.

• The good agricultural lands of Tucker Valley were used as a sugar plantation in the late 18th century and later planted with cocoa, coffee and citrus for export. Cotton and citrus were grown on Chacachacare.

• The offshore islands and some areas of the peninsula were private holiday homes from as early as the mid-1800s. Of note, the Five Islands, notably Nelson Island, served as a depot where all East Indian indentured immigrants were quarantined until they were assigned to a plantation. Almost 150,000 persons, ancestors of 50% of the population of Trinidad, spent their first days on these islands.

• Up to the 1930s many of the bays supported small fishing communities. Whaling was also conducted in the Bocas during the 19th century and there were at least four whaling stations on the islands of Gaspar Grande, Monos and Chacacha are. A Leprosarium, run by Dominican sisters, was established on Chacachacare in 1924 and finally closed in 1984.

• During World War II, the Peninsula was leased by the British government to the U.S. for use as a major naval base and all landowners were displaced. Many changes were made; bays were dredged, land was filled, and infrastructure such as administrative and residential buildings, ammunition bunkers, roads and drainage were constructed. American military facilities included a naval air station at Carenage Bay, an Omega submarine tracking station in Chaguaramas Valley and a submarine station at Scotland Bay. The Peninsula was returned to Trinidad & Tobago in 1971.

• The Chaguaramas Peninsula, offshore islands (Gaspar Grande, Gasparillo, Monos, Huevos, and Chacachacare) and nearshore coastal waters were declared a National Park in 1974 and have since been managed by the Chaguaramas Development Authority.

With a large range of activities, processes and ecologi-cal features, associated with Chaguaramas Peninsula, a number of case studies could be undertaken on the area. This case study is presented in two parts.

Part A will look at biodiversity and ecosystems ofthe Chaguaramas Peninsula; and part B will focus onrecreational activities undertaken on the Peninsula.

Chaguaramas Peninsula: Case Study A

Ecosystems & BiodiversityBetween 2003 and 2004, a study of the Northern Range of Trinidad was undertaken to assess the contribution of ecosystem services to human well-being. This assessment was part of a larger global ecosystem assessment called the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. This assessment is used as the Environmental Management Authority’s (EMA) State of Environment Report 2004. Several excerpts are drawn from this report and used in Case Study A. 2

The Chaguaramas Peninsula supports terrestrial and marine ecosystems on different areas of the Peninsula. Although the Peninsula represents a geographically small area of about 5,900 hectares, there are notable differ-ences in the abiotic conditions that some areas experience. The western parts of the Peninsula tend to be drier than the eastern parts because of the “rain-shadow” effect that is experienced. [See Figure 3: Isohyetal map of Trinidad and figure 4: Rain shadow effect]. The differences in rainfall amount lead to the formation of different types of forest ecosystems. These are described below.

Terrestrial Ecosystems: ForestsFour major forest ecosystems include semi-evergreen seasonal forest, deciduous seasonal forest, dry evergreen forest and montane forest. The forest ecosystems are important for: • Protection of slopes against soil erosion. Over 70% of Chaguaramas comprises steep slopes. If the forests on the slopes are removed, the underlying soils will be subjected to severe erosion.

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Figure 3: Isohyetal map of Trinidad Source: Piarco Meterological Office in NRA (2005)

Fig 4: Rain shadow effect!

2 Northern Range Assessment (NRA). Report of an Assessment of the Northern Range, Trinidad and Tobago: People and the Northern Range. (State of the Environment

Report 2004. Environmental Management Authority of Trinidad and Tobago, 2005).

• The process of groundwater recharge in the Tucker Valley and Chaguaramas river Valley is dependant on the maintenance of forest cover. All of the water that is currently used in Chaguaramas is provided by wells in Tucker Valley. The importance of this water source cannot be underestimated. • The forests provide habitats for a wide diversity of mammals, reptiles, fish, amphibians and insects.

Semi-evergreen seasonal forestThis is the main forest type in Chaguaramas and it is found on the steep upland areas of the Chaguaramas main-land. The dominant plant association is the purpleheart-incense-poui. Additional associations include purple-heart-bois lissette, acurel-moussara-jiggerwood, acurel-gommier and moussara-figuier. Other species found here include balata, cedar, Cypre, locust and poui.

Excerpt from the EMA State of Environment Report 2004Semi-evergreen seasonal forest shows physical changes during the dry season with some of the upper canopy trees being deciduous (on average about one-third of the species) while most understorey species remain ever-green where moisture conditions are more favorable. This forest type occurs in drier areas where annual rainfall averages around 1,800mm. Mature trees branch lower on the main stem, between 6m and 9m, than do similar sized trees in seasonal evergreen forest where branching begins around 15m. Buttressing is not a prominentfeature in semi-evergreen forest. This is mainly a near-coastal forest type in Trinidad’s north-west peninsula, and north and north-east coasts, but it can also be found on the south-western flanks of the Northern Range.

Deciduous seasonal forestThis type of forest exists on lower areas of the Chaguaramas mainland and particularly on Pt. Gourde and the offshore islands. The main plant association is Naked Indian-incense-poui ecotone. This association shares similarities with those on the South-American mainland, but is not present in other areas of Trinidad. This is not surprising as the Northern Range is the continuation the Coastal Cordillera of Venezuela and was once attached to the South American mainland.

Excerpt from the EMA State of Environment Report 2004The deciduous seasonal forest is found on the lower slopes of the Northwest Peninsula and on the Gulf islands. This is the driest forest found in Trinidad where annual rainfall rarely exceeds 1,250mm. This results in an open, low canopy forest of small trees, with emergents, often with smaller leaves, barely reaching 20m in height. Common trees in the emergent layer are saltfishwood, yellow savonette, and incense while in the understorey, yellow poui, wild tamarind and wild guava are abundant. The character of the vegetation reflects the drier con-dition that prevails. Most trees shed their leaves in the dry season while the evergreen component tends to have small leathery leaves. Deciduous seasonal forest is confined to areas in the Northern Range such as the offshore islands, Pointe Gourde, and lower slopes of the north-west peninsula.

Dry evergreen forest (Littoral forest)This forest-type is found along the shores of the mainland and the offshore islands. The main plant associations are seagrape-manchineel and Palmiste-balata.

Excerpt from the EMA State of Environment Report 2004 This forest type occurs behind beaches, along cliffs and headlands and shows the ravages of coastal exposure with wind-trimming and stunted growth on the seaward side. The vegetation is dense – almost impenetrable – and lianas are sometimes well established. The evergreen vegetation displays salt spray adaptations with thick, leathery cutinized leaves and is present along the north-east coast. Cacti and century plant (Agave evadens) are also common.

Montane forestThe plant association found here is serrette-bois gris (lower).

Excerpt from the EMA State of Environment Report 2004 Montane forests include all the natural forest cover above the 240m contour line in the Northern Range and can be further subdivided into lower montane, seasonal montane, montane, and elfin woodland. In moving from lower to higher elevations, temperatures decrease and moisture levels increase. Rainfall levels in montane forests can be as much as 400cm per annum above the 760m contour line. Lower montane, montane, and elfin woodland occur on schist soil while seasonal montane is found on limestone above 450m

Biodiversity: WildlifeThis section is adapted from the case study on Chaguaramas Peninsula by Dr. Mary Alkins-Koo.

The vertebrate fauna of Chaguaramas includes approximately 90 species of birds, 17 species of reptiles and 11 species of mammals including the red howler monkey, deer, tayra and ocelot. The fishing bat, Noctilio, can be seen regularly foraging along the coastline at night. The terrestrial arthropod fauna includes remarkably large millipedes and centipedes (up to 30 cm long) on the offshore islands (hence the local name for Gasparillo “Centipede Island”).

During the latter half of the 18th century there was a thriving whaling industry in Chaguaramas. There were whaling stations at Chacachacare, Gaspar Grand and Monos islands. The whales that were targeted in thewhaling industry are thought to be humpback whales although pilot whales also occasionally occurred inthe area. Dolphins are seen regularly around boats moving between the offshore islands.

Coastal Ecosystems and CommunitiesThis section is adapted from the case study on Chaguaramas Peninsula by Dr. Mary Alkins-Koo, with additional information from the EMA State of the Environment Report 2004.

Coastal ecosystems surround the Chaguaramas Peninsula including the smaller islands adjacent to the pen-insula. These ecosystems include beaches, seagrass beds and coral reefs. As with other coastal areas around Trinidad, the marine conditions and communities are influenced by the seasonal freshwater outflow from the mainland and local rivers during the wet season. Shallow water coastal communities include: • Patch reefs dominated by finger coral, Porites. Small fringe reefs are found around the Five Islands, Monos and Chacachacare; these develop in areas that are shallow, have regular flushing so that the water is circulated, and little surf. Notably, there are “deep-water” coral communities found at relatively shallow depths (e.g. 25 m) because of the low transparency of these waters as compared with the clear “blue” waters elsewhere in the Caribbean. These communities include ivory coral, non-reef building corals and black corals.

• Rocky substrates covered with an assortment of hydroids and sponges.

• Sand and mud substrates with seagrass beds. Seagrass beds are major primary producers in the marine environment and form the foundation of many food chains. They provide habitats and nurseries for

Activity What features do littoral vegetation-types possess to withstand the strong winds,

sea-spray and sometimes dry conditions associated with coasts? Compare these features, such as leaf characteristics, with semi-evergreen seasonal forest vegetation, and suggest

reasons why the biodiversity associated with these two vegetation types may be different.

Activity Produce an informative poster identifying the major terrestrial and marine ecosystems of the Chaguaramas National Park. For each ecosystem, explain at least one way in which it contributes to people’s well-being e.g. recreational value, provision of freshwater resources.Research and produce a species account for one key species of plant or animal found in the Chaguaramas National Park. It may be terrestrial or marine. Include in your account its sci-entific and common names; its geographic range globally, in the Caribbean and within Trini-dad and Tobago; features of its biology such as size, appearance, natural habitats, nutrition/diet, reproduction, life history, value to humans, and highlight any feature that you found particularly remarkable or interesting. The class can build a booklet of species accounts of local flora and fauna over a period of years. Check the Naparima Girls Cyberfair webpage for an example of a project on local placeshttp://www.moe.gov.tt/cyberfair/websites08/Secondary/naparimagirls/home.html

many of the fish species that we consume such as snappers, croakers, grunts, groupers, sea breams, cirrique crabs, lobsters and shrimp. Seagrass beds also help to stabilize bottom sediments and are important sources and sinks for nutrients. Extensive seagrass beds are found at Williams Bay. In the past, seagrass beds were also found in Scotland Bay, Monos Island and Five Islands, however, human activities have impacted negatively on the beds. Seagrass beds are disturbed by anchoring of boats, boat propellers, heat and oil pollution and the release of excessive organic materials like sewage.

• Chacachacare salt pond - an inland coastal lagoon on Chacachacare Island which attains salinities of more than 3 to 4 times that of sea water because of low rainfall and high evaporation rates. Few aquatic organisms can survive under these conditions and only bacteria, fly larvae (Ephyridae) and water bugs (Corixidae) can be found.

An extensive list of fauna, flora, birds, insects, reptiles and marine organisms found in Chaguaramas is provided by the CDA, and can be accessed at http://www.chagdev.com/Pages/Chag-WildLife-main.htm

Chaguaramas Peninsula: Case Study B

Recreational activities in the Chaguaramas Peninsula have seen notable increases over the last decade. This has been largely due to Chaguaramas Development Authority’s (CDA) efforts to promote tourism of the area, and increase interest of Trinidad as a hotspot for yachters in the Caribbean region.

Sea bathingThe Chaguaramas Peninsula is quite popular for its beaches. Public transport to these beaches is available from Port of Spain, and the beaches are frequented every day of the week, with notable increases in the numbers of sea bathers on the weekend. With the exception of Macqueripe Beach, all ofthe beaches are influenced by the Gulf of Paria and share itscharacteristic slow currents. The beaches are also shallowwith wide inter-tidal flats making them ideal spots for bathing.

Many of these beaches however, through poor managementof waste disposal and runoff from land- and water-basedactivities, coupled with the oceanographic conditions ofthe area are polluted with sewage, solid waste and chemicalpollutants.

A Brief look at the CDAThe CDA is a statutory government agency established by an act of parliament in 1972 to admin-ister and coordinate the development of the North-west peninsula in a manner which meets the requirements of the Town and Country Planning Act (Chap 35:01). While this purpose does sound a bit nebulous, a master plan for development has been put forward which outlines more specific objectives. The one we currently use is the first master plan which was approved (made law) in 1974. Since then a number of reviews of the 1974 master plan have been undertaken with the aim of developing a more current version – no such plan yet exists. The hierarchical structure of these plans developed by CDA is shown below.

It is useful to consider why there has beenno approved development plan since 1974.More information on these plans is availableon the CDA’s website, http://www.chagdev.com/

!Figure 5: Bathymetrical chart of the north Gulf of PariaSource: Hoyte (1986)

Improper waste managementPossible sources of pollution include: • Discharge from broken sewer lines on land that contaminate nearshore waters of the beach via seepage into the underground natural drainage system. • Discharge from a sewer line that runs across the sea bed of Welcome Bay to Point Gourde. This line was found to be a source of pollution in Welcome Bay in the 1980s. • Wastewater from sewage tanks at compounds near to the beach or near to rivers that flow into the beach. For example the Cuesa River drains the Tucker Valley and empties in the northeast end of Chagville Beach. This is important to note as large mega-farms which use fertilizers are located in Tucker Valley. • Kitchen wastewater from nearby compounds, such as nightclubs. • Rubbish left by people visiting the beaches. • Pollutants from industrial and recreational activities (haulout yards and marinas) along the shore of Chaguaramas bay. These pollutants include heavy metals such as copper, lead, zinc and mercury, and harmful compounds like tributyltin (TBT).

Oceanographic conditions • Flushing of the water in most of the bays is poor because of low current speeds, so that pollutants can settle in the bay. • Currents run north-east to south-west along Chagville Beach and turn south near Pointe Gourde. The current causes debris to collect along the coast from Chagville Westwards with the largest amounts being swept into Welcome Bay and deposited in the north-western corner of the bay. • Currents also take solid waste around to Scotland Bay. 3 • The Chaguaramas area is also subject to oil and (diesel) spills occurring in other areas of the Gulf of Paria, because of the prevailing currents. A noteworthy example of this is an oil spill which occurred in Sea Lots (south of Port of Spain) in September 2000 and caused damage to yachts in the Chaguaramas area.

Figure 6: Popular bathing beaches at Chaguaramas Peninsula Adapted from: Alking-Koo (2008)!

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Activity and Discussion: What are some of the effects of these

pollutants on human health?

Is it possible to have these in low amounts and still have a safe beach?

Activity: Measure faecal coliform levels at Welcome Bay and Macqueripe Bay. How do thesecompare? Does the oceanography of each area have anything to do with these differences?

3 P.E. Norman. Report of a Bacteriological Survey on Welcome Bay and Chagville Beach Chaguarmas. 1982.

Chaguaramas National ParkThe Chaguaramas Peninsula was designated a National Heritage Park in 1975 with the objectives of: • Conservation and protection of biodiversity such as the red howler monkey; • Preservation of ecological, historical and archaeological resources.Areas above the 60m contour line are considered to be within the national park, which is about 80% of theChaguaramas Peninsula. There are provisions for special activities in the area such as agriculture in Tucker Valley and hunting of wildlife is prohibited. It is unclear from current information sources whether any national legislation exists to guide the national park.

The Chaguaramas National Park promotes recreational activities which include: • Hikes/ Nature Trails – guided tours are available to waterfalls like Edith Falls; to ecological wonders such as Gasparee Caves and the Chacachacare salt pond; and archaeological sites like Huggins Ruins and Lumber Lane. • Golf course located in Tucker Valley.

National parks or protected areas are large natural or near natural areas set aside to protectlarge-scale ecological processes, along with the complement of species and ecosystemscharacteristic of the area, which also provide a foundation for environmentally andculturally compatible spiritual, scientific, educational, recreational and visitoropportunities. The primary objective of the national park is to protect naturalbiodiversity along with its underlying ecological structure and supportingenvironmental processes, and to promote education and recreation. 4

!Figure 7: Chaguaramas Conservation Areas Adapted from: Caribbean Forest Association (1996)

Discussion:Does Chaguaramas National Park comply with

the definition of an IUCN National Park?4 IUCN.Guidelines for Protected Areas Management Categories.

(IUCN, Cambridge, UK and Gland, Switzerland, 1994), 261.

Night ClubsA number of nightclubs and restaurants are situated on the Chaguaramas Peninsula. Some of these include:Pier 1, MoBS2, The Lure, Anchorage, The Lighthouse and Sails. This type of recreational activity is not without its share of problems. Traffic congestion is a major problem that arises when major events are held in Chaguara-mas Peninsula; this is prevalent during the carnival season (January to March) when events are held simultane-ously at different nightclubs. Waste discharge – sewage and grey water – is a potential problem with all of these activities concentrated in the small area.

MarinasInformation for this section is drawn from a report that was produced by the Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC) in 2002 as part of a larger project to develop a regional marine-based tourism strategy. 5

It is only within the last 15 years that Chaguaramas began to develop a thriving yachting sector. The numberof yacht arrivals at Chaguaramas increased by five times from 1990 to 2000 (See Figure 8). This increase in yacht arrivals has seen both benefits and drawbacks for Chaguaramas. Before looking at the benefits anddrawbacks, let us consider some important questions: - What makes Chaguaramas attractive to yachters? - What activities are associated with yachting? - Where in Chaguaramas do yachting activities occur?

Figure 8: Number of yacht arrivalsto Chaguaramas from 1990 to 2001

Source: ECLAC (2002)

5Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC). Trinidad and Tobago: The Yachting Sector. (Development of a Regional Marine-based Tourism Strategy, 2002).!

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

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1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

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Year

Num

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als

What makes Chaguaramas attractive to yachters?

- Location below the restricted or costly hurricane insurance boundary of 12o40’ North. - Low cost of living compared with the other islands in the eastern Caribbean. - Relatively well skilled labour force derived from an industrial background and synergies with the oil sector. - Private sector initiatives in plant and equipment and the consequent availability of a wide range (and concentration) of services. - Supportive policies by the Customs and Excise and Immigration departments and by TDC. - Efficient system for boats to import parts duty- and VAT- free. - Competitive price levels for yachting services. - Events like Carnival. What activities are associated with yachting in Chaguaramas? - Charter boat companies rent pirogues for trips down to the islands off the peninsula, or boats are rented to host parties. - Marinas: yacht storage; maintenance. - Marine services: sail making, engine repair, marine electronics and out-haul facilities.

Where in Chaguaramas do yachting activities occur?

6 ECLAC 2002

BenefitsOne of the major benefits of the yachting industry in Chaguarmas is its contribution to national GDP.The contribution can be divided into direct and indirect contributions: 1. Direct contributions come from the expenditure of the yachters for the purchase of yacht materials, for repair services, for mooring permits, and for the purchase of food and personal items. 2. Indirect contributions come from the purchase of goods and services by the establishments and employees that are direct recipients of the yachter’s expenditures. These establishments include marinas and marine service stores.Although the yachting industry does contribute to national GDP, it is not recognised as a sector in the senseof national accounting or among national revenue-contributing activities. Another benefit is the employment that is provided through the yachting industry. For example many local persons are hired as repairmen, sales clerks, and food providers.

DrawbacksThe yachting industry in Chaguaramas has come under heavy criticism as a source of heavy metal, sewage and solid waste pollution. What is still largely unclear are the contributions that the yachting industry makes in Chaguaramas because there are so many other activities occurring in Chaguaramas which could all be potential sources of pollution. For example the CL Marine Dry dock located in the northwest area of Chaguarmas Bay is a potential source of heavy metal pollution; mega-farms in Tucker Valley are a potential source of chemical pollution because runoff from the farms drain into the Cuesa River which drains into Chagville Bay; improper functioning sewage plants onshore can release sewage into nearshore areas.In light of the criticism of being a major source of pollution, the Yacht Services Association of Trinidad and Tobago (YSATT) has adopted a policy for solid waste management at the yards and marinas.This policy is outlined in the table below.

Waste Type Waste Container

Type

Method of

Removal

Comment/

Disposal Method

Recyclables

Glass Carib glass eco bin Remove/ replace

bin

Recycled at Carib

Glassworks

Paper Poly-bag shredded Remove bag Recycled at various

paper recyclers

Steel/ Iron -- -- Company may sell externally

Wood General container General bin --

Organic waste General container General bin

Box General container General bin --

Liquid hazardous waste

Waste oils Tank/ drum Suction High temp.

incineration

Others Drum Drum removal High temp.

incineration drum

disposal

Solid hazardous waste

Filters Fixed drum with

poly bag and cover

Poly bag removal High temp

incineration

Batteries N/A N/A Recycle into new

batteries

Plastics/ paint cans General container General bin Recycled at Pirahna

International

Limited

Oily rags Fixed drum/ poly

bag and cover

Poly bag removal High temp

incineration

Fluorescent light

bulbs

Unbroken in box or

wrapped in card

board

Box removal Cement

encapsulation prior

to bury in specific

landfill

Table 1: Waste disposal policy adopted by YSATT. 6

Activity Make an inventory of the waste produced by one land- or water-based activity that takes placeat Chaguaramas which you have observed/studied. Research the best practices for disposalof these wastes. Develop a detailed waste disposal plan for this activity. Include use ofalternative materials or processes if identified wastes cannot be disposed of safely.

Investigate the ways in which one major waste product or activity can affect the biodiversity of the Chaguaramas area. You can consider one of a range of potential pollutants (chemicals, sewage, noise from fetes) or activities associated with recreation (nightclubs, boating,hiking), agriculture (megafarms) or commerce/industry (marinas, boatyards).Biodiversity can be considered at the ecosystem level (e.g. eutrophication), specieslevel (habitat fragmentation on populations of wildlife), or individual level(effect of heavy metal pollution on an organism).

Alkins-Koo, M and J.S. Kenny.1980.A Baseline Survey of Scotland Bay, Trinidad.Institute of Marine Affairs.

Alkins-Koo, Mary. 2005. Case Study - Chaguaramas Peninsula. BIOL 2461, Dept. of Life Sciences,University of the West Indies, St. Augustine,Trinidad and Tobago.

Alkins-Koo, Mary. 2008. Chaguaramas Peninsula Background. Presentation to St. Mary’s College.

Bullock, Christine Ann and Indar Moonesar. 2005. Potential sources of bacteriological pollution for two bays with marinas in Trinidad. International Journal of Tropical Biology and Conservation 53 (1).

Campo Roberts, Gill. 1991. Inventory of theIndigenous Forest of Chaguaramas Peninsula.Prepared for the Chaguaramas Development Agency.

Caribbean Forest Conservation Association. 1996. Report on National Parks and Protected AreasDesign Site Prioritisation. Government of theRepublic of Trinidad and Tobago National Parksand Watershed Management Project.

Chaguaramas Development Authority (CDA).http://www.chagdev.com/ (accessed 25th June, 2009).

De Verteuil, Anthony. 2003. Western Isles ofTrinidad. Port of Spain, Trinidad: Litho Press

Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC). 2002. Trinidad and Tobago: The Yachting Sector. Development of a Regional Marine-based Tourism Strategy.

EMA. 1998. Trinidad and Tobago State of theEnvironment Report 1998. Environmental Manage-ment Authority of Trinidad and Tobago.

Fowler, H.W. and F.G. Fowler. 1991.The Concise Oxford Dictionary. Ed. R.E. Allen.Oxford: Claredon Press.

Hoyte, P.Y. 1986. A preliminary description ofcurrents in the near shore waters of the Gulf of Paria - Diego Martin to Port of Spain coastal area.Technical report, Institute of Marine Affairs,Trinidad and Tobago, p.319.

IUCN.1994. Guidelines for Protected AreasManagement Categories. IUCN, Cambridge,UK and Gland, Switzerland. 261pp.

James, Lisa, Susan Shurland Maharaj and Roget Bibby. 2001. A Socioeconomic Assessment ofYachting Activities in the North West Peninsulaof Trinidad. Institute of Marine Affairs (IMA).

Bibliography

Mangal, Erin. 2008. Report on Commercial Fisheries within the Gulf of Paria and the Impacts of Proposed Port Development Activities on Fisheries in the Claxton Bay Area. Rapid EnvironmentalAssessments Ltd.

Ministry of Planning and Mobilization Town and Country Planning Division. 1988. Planning fordevelopment: Chaguaramas Development Plan.

Norman, P.E. 1982. Report of a BacteriologicalSurvey on Welcome Bay and Chagville BeachChaguarmas.

Northern Range Assessment (NRA). 2005. Report of an Assessment of the Northern Range, Trinidad and Tobago: People and the Northern Range. State of the Environment Report 2004. Environmental Manage-ment Authority of Trinidad and Tobago. 184pp.

Ordnance Survey Map, Land and Surveys Division, Trinidad.

Shurland-Maharaj, Susan and Lisa James. A Safe Haven: History and Growth of the Yachting Industry in Chaguaramas. Trinidad Guardian, June 28.

The Cropper Foundation (TCF). 2009. Sustainable Development Terms and Concepts: A Reference for Teachers and Students. Port of Spain, Trinidad.

APPENDIX A: Acronyms used in this case study

CDA Chaguaramas Development Authority

ECLAC Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean

GDP Gross domestic product

IMA Institute of Marine Affairs

IUCN World Conservation Union

TDC Tourism Development Company of Trinidad and Tobago

TBT Tributyltin

YSATT Yacht Services Association of Trinidad and Tobago

APPENDIX B: Glossary of terms used in the case study

Abiotic Without life. The abiotic elements of an ecosystem constitute its climatic, geological and pedologic (soil) components.

Bathymetry The study of underwater depth

Biodiversity The variability among living organisms from all sources: terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems, as well as the ecological complexes of which they are part. Biodiversity includes diversity within and among species (genetic and species diversity) and diversity within and among ecosystems (ecosystem diversity).

Ecosystem Dynamic complex of plant, animal and micro-organism communities and their non-living environment interacting as a functional unit.

Gross domestic The market value of all final good and services produced within a given country in aproduct (GDP) given period of time. Final goods are those that are consumed rather than used to make another product. For example a car is a final good. Littoral Of or on the shore of the sea or lake

Plant association A group of plants that live together in a geographical region and constitute a community with a few dominant species.

Peninsula A piece of land almost surrounded by water or projecting far into a sea or lake.

Sea bream Bream is a general term for a number of species of freshwater and marine fish.

Common name Scientific name

Acurel Trichilia smithii

Balata Manilkara bidentata

Bois gris Licania ternatensis

Bois Lissette Mouriri marshalii

Cedar Cedrela odorata

Cypre Cordia alliodora

Figuier Ficus yoponensis

Gommier Protium insigne

Tapirira guianensis

Incense Lonchocarpus sp.

Jiggerwood Bravaisia integerrima

Common name Scientific name

Locust Hymenaea courbaril

Manchineel Hippomane mancinella

Moussara Brosimum alicastrum

Naked Indian Bursera simaruba

Poui Tabebuia serratifolia

Purpleheart Peltogyne porphyrocardia

Seagrape Coccoloba uvifera

Serrette Brysonima coriacea

Wild guava Psidium friedrichsthalianum

Wild tamarind Lysiloma latisiliqua

Yellow savonette Lonchocarpus punctatus

APPENDIX C: Plants included in this case study

Common name Scientific name

Black coral Antipathidae (family)

Cirrique crab Callinectes sp.

Croakers Sciaenidae (family)

Deer Mazama sp.

Finger coral Porites porites

Fishing bat Noctilio sp.

Fly larvae Ephyridae (family)

Groupers Epinephelus (subfamily)

Grunts Haemulidae (family)

Ivory coral Ramariopsis kunzei

Ocelot Felis pardalis

Red howler monkey Alouatta seniculus insularis

Snappers Lutjanidae (family)

Tayra Eira barbara

Water bugs Corixidae (family)

APPENDIX C: Animals included in this case study

NcNORTH Caroni Plains

THE CROPPER FOUNDATION

In this case study:

Location & Topography The North Caroni Plains lie on the floodplain of the Caroni River and comprise an area of about 251 km2.It is bounded to the north by the Eastern Main Road at the foothills of the Northern range; to the south by the Caroni River; to the east by the Aripo River; and to the west by the San Juan River. The topography is generally flat to undulating, rising to 30 to 50 metres above sea level at the foothills of the Northern Range.

Section 1

!

North Caroni Plains

Figure 1: Map showing the boundaries of North Caroni Plains in yellow Source: Land & Surveys Dept. (1946)

Drainage Area & Water Resources The North Caroni Plains form part of the Caroni River Basin. [Figure 2]The Basin is situated in the northwest-ern section of Trinidad between the Northern Range and Central Range and comprises an area of 883.4 km2 equivalent to 22% of the Trinidad’s land surface. 1 The Caroni River is the major river system within the Caroni Basin and has a catchment area of about 600km2. 2 The river drains the Northern and Central ranges to the west through the Caroni Swamp and into the Gulf of Paria. Nathai-Gyan and Juman (2005) suggests that the major part of the Caroni River water supply comes from perennial tributaries of the Northern and Central Ranges, with the major contribution from the 12 rivers that drain from the Northern Range; the lesser contribution coming from the six rivers that drain from the Central Range.

All these rivers are grossly polluted by sewage and industrial wastes in their lower reaches. 3 The Mausica River receives treated sewage from the Arima Sewage Treatment Plant as well as chemical and other effluents from the Mausica industrial estate. In a study of organic chemicals derived from industry in local watercourses, the water quality of the Mau-sica River has been described as being more similar to industrial waste water than to potable water supplies yet it is upstream of a major source of drinking water - Caroni-Arena Water Treatment Plant. 4

The Mausica, Arima, Guanapo and Aripo rivers flow south into the Caroni River upstream of the intake of the Caroni-Arena Water Treatment Plant which is located opposite the old Piarco Airport. The plant is part of the Caroni-Arena Water Project established in the early 1980s with the primary intent

of supplying the Point Lisas Industrial Development Project. The capacity of the plant is 60 to 75 million gallons per day (273,000 m3 d-1) and it supplies approximately 40% of the population of Trinidadwest to Port of Spain and south to San Fernando.

The northern tributaries - on their journey to theCaroni River– flow through valleys within which a number of activities occur. For example, the Arima River flows through the Arima Valley which is used for quarrying, agriculture and settlement. Therefore, the various land uses that affect the water quality in these northern tributaries have downstream effects on the Caroni River.

The quality of raw water abstracted from the Caroni

Figure 2: River Basins in Trinidad. Source: EMA (1998)

1 Nadra Nathia-Gyan and Rahanna A. Juman, “Information Sheet on Ramsar Wetlands (RIS)”, Wetlands Intenational, http://www.wetlands.org/reports/ris/6TT003_RIS2005en.pdf, Accessed January 13, 2009.2 Ibid3 EMA, “State of the Environment Report”, 1998.4 R. A. Moore and F.W. Karasek, “GC/MS identification of organic pollutants in the Caroni River, Trinidad”, Journal of Environmental and Analytical Chemistry, 17 (1984), 203-221.

River is therefore dubious and treatment focuses on suspended sediments (flocculation with alum, sedimenta-tion and filtration) and disinfection with chlorine. Water treatment includes use of activated carbon filters for removal of taste and some pollutants, and must be regenerated regularly to maintain its effectiveness. The plant was upgraded and expanded in 2000 and bank-side storage was built. 5

In addition to surface water resources, ground water is extensively utilised. Several large gravel aquifers lieat the base of the Northern Range foothills from eastern Port of Spain to Arima. They include the El Socorro,Valsayn, St Joseph/Maracas, Tacarigua, Arouca and Arima Gravels. They are recharged by their respectiverivers as they flow over the plain. Together these aquifers supply 40% of total groundwater extracted for use in Trinidad.

Flooding is a natural occurrence on the Caroni Plains during high rainfall events. However, flood events have been reduced through modification of the river channel and through construction of levees along the river bank. The latter are visible from the Uriah Butler Highway.

5 WASA, “Water Distribution and Management”, Water and Sewage Authority, http://www.wasa.gov.tt/WASA_AboutUS_history2.html, Accessed July 03, 2009.

GeologyThe Andean mountain chain in South America was formed in the middle of the Miocene period. 6 The tectonic forces building the Andean mountain chain were also influencing the northern part of Trinidad. Trinidad became highly disturbed by the compressional and tangential tectonic movements, leading to the for-mation of all types of structures including simple anticlinal mountains like our Northern Range. 7 At the base of the Northern Range lies the Caroni Plains on a belt of lowlands stretching across the island from east to west, and about 5 to 7 miles wide. 8

Underlying the Caroni Basin is the Cedros Formation. The rocks that comprise the Cedros Formation are en-tirely sedimentary with representatives from the whole sequence between Holocene and lower Cretaceous.9 The sources of the sedimentary material that comprises the formation are deposits from the Orinoco River System. The mineral composition of the formation includes loose fine-grained quartz sand; poorly consolidated yellow, red and brown sands; clay shale; grey blocky clays; soft marl; glauconitic calcareous sandstone; and micaceous schist and phyllite. 10 Generally, the sands are poorly assorted and vary from coarse to fine-grained. Interbed-ded in the sands are lenses of hard iron cemented sandstones and conglomerates - these conglomerates contain pebbles of white quartz, chert, and procelainite. 11 Fragments of leaves and other carbonaceous matter are pres-ent in some clays but are not abundant. 12

6 A.G.A. Sutton, “Report on the general geology of Trinidad to accompany Geological map”, (Trinidad: Government Printing Office, 1955).7 Ibid8 Gerald Waring and G.D. Harris, “The Geology of the Island of Trinidad B.W.I. by Gerald Waring with notes on paleontology by G.D. Harris”, Edward Bennett Mathews (ed.) (Baltimore: John Hopkins Press, 1926).9 Nazeer Ahmad, “Caroni River Basin Study of Agronomist: Land use in the Caroni Basin”, (Trinidad: Government of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago Water and Sewage Authority, 1976).10 Hans G. Kugler, “Treatise on the Geology of Trinidad Part 4: The Paleocene to Holocene Formations”, H.M. Bolli and M. Knappertsbucsh (eds.) (Basel, Museum of Natural History, 2000).11 Ibid12 Ibid13 Ahmad 197614 Kimlin A. Metvier, “The Impact of Agricultural Land Use Management Practices on the Soil Organic Matter Status and Carbon Dioxide Dynamics in some Trinidadian Soils”, (M.Phil. Diss. University of the West Indies, 2004).

SoilsInformation for this section is drawn from two main sources: a report produced by Nazeer Ahmad on land use in the Caroni Basin 13 , and a study undertaken by Kimlin Metvier on the impact of agricultural land use management practices on the soil organic matter sta-tus and carbon dioxide dynamics in some Trinidadian soils.14 Streams that flow through the Northern Range transport large volumes of soil and rock material which is de-posited sequentially according to its mass. The heavier or coarse fractions that are deposited first along with material that slumps off the sides of the hills, give rise to terraces on the foothills of the Range. The soils that form here are considered immature; they are coarse textured with layers of generally water-worn gravel, stones and boulders at varying depths. Pedologically the soil material is much like the materials found on the slopes of the hills being rich in quartz and mica. Gener-ally terrace soils occur in small parcels often with stony phases, they have low fertility and water storage capac-ity, shallow profiles and crusting is sometimes evident. There are two types of terrace soils:

Terrace soils with free internal drainage These are found on the gentle and moderate slopes forming only 7% of soils in the area. While drainage and erosion are not a problem, these soils are not very fertile. Two soil types included in this category of soils are the St. Augustine series and Santa Cruz series.

Terrace soils with impeded internal drainage Impeded internal drainage causes these soils to be waterlogged during the rainy season. Areas with this soil type are prone to flooding, for example, areas near the Piarco International Airport. These soils are also notvery fertile. Overall, terrace soils are not suitable for arable cultivation because of a number of soil properties which include low soil fertility, low water storage capacity or flooding, some susceptibility to drought effects, and restricted use of machinery because of stony phases. These soils are, however, suitable for construction purposes because of their low shrink-swell properties.

Alluvial SoilsDeep alluvial soils with restricted internal drainage are also found on the North Caroni Plains between the Churchill Roosevelt Highway and the Caroni River, and comprise 5% of the soils in the country. Alluvialmaterial comes from sediments deposited by the river system during flood events. Like many other alluvial soils, fertility is good and flooding is not a problem; agricultural communities like Bamboo Settlement have developed in the area.

Figure 3: How flooding creates alluvial soils on floodplains

This section describes land use on the North Caroni Plains and focuses on agriculture as a land use. The nature and type of agriculture is described, and some of the issues affecting agriculture are also highlighted. Note that only a preliminary introduction to agriculture on the North Caroni Plains is provided and further details and observations can be gleaned from field visits, aerial photographs or satellite images (from Google Earth, for example.)

Land UseLike many other areas in Trinidad, the North Caroni Plains have a rich history of development and changing land use. 15 The original land cover was a variety of vegetation types such as seasonal evergreen forest and small areas of edaphic (soil) climax communities such as marsh forest, and savannas at Aripo, O’Meara,Mausica and Piarco. 16 Land use is now very varied with built-up residential, commercial, industrial andeducational use along the East-West corridor extending from Port of Spain in the west to Arima in the east.

Residential and EducationalExpanding populations in pocket settlements have coalesced along the Old Eastern Main Road to form the East-West corridor. The Old Eastern Main Road was an Amerindian trail in pre-European times. Some of the older settlements include San Juan, Petit Bourg, Champ Fleurs, St Joseph, Curepe, St Augustine, Tunapuna, El Dorado,Tacarigua, Arouca and Arima. Many large residential developments have recently arisen some on prime agricultural land, such as Valsayn, Trincity and Tacarigua while further east, Oropune, Maloney, La Horquetta and Santa Rosa are located on less suitable agricultural land. The demand for housing along the East-West cor-ridor has been rising. In 2002 the demand for housing units was about 30,000, accounting for about 25% of the national demand. 17 Within any one settlement a number of activities may occur. For example, in St. Augustine there is residential settlement, some small-scale commercial activity and a number of educational institutions. The Golden Grove Maximum Security Prison is another notable landmark near the Piarco Airport intersection. The University of the West Indies covers large areas adjacent to the Uriah Butler Highway including the Mt Hope Campus, Field Station, Arthur Lok Jack Graduate School for Business and the St Augustine Campus. Within the East-West cor-ridor there are numerous private and public educational facilities at all school levels.

Commerce and IndustryAlong the Churchill-Roosevelt Highway, industrial estates supporting a variety of activities are located atMacoya, Trincity, O’Meara and Tumpuna. The new Central Market facility is also at the Macoya junction.Ad hoc industrial and commercial development exists along the length of both the Eastern Main Road and Churchill-Roosevelt Highway at Champs Fleurs (Carib Brewery, Lever Brothers), Nestlé in Valsayn, Aranguez, Valpark Shopping Centre in Valsayn, Macoya and Trincity Mall in Trincity. Present and projected development in Trincity include a business district, office park, hotel and convention centre, entertainment and recreational facilities, retail shopping mall, transportation hub and PGA-standard 18 hole golf course, with lakes, a driving range and clubhouse.

AgricultureSugar cane was the dominant agricultural crop on the Caroni Plains since its introduction to Trinidad in the 1630s by the Dutch. The cash crop was the mainstay of Trinidad and Tobago’s economy until the 1970s and 1980s. At this time sugar cane cultivation on the Plains began to dwindle as more investment was put into the oil and gas sectors. Subsequently, areas that were previously under sugar cane cultivation like Pasea, Tacarigua, Trincity, Arouca, Maloney and Orange Grove, were converted to other land uses, including residential, commer-cial and small-scale agricultural settlements. Some of the more important agricultural settlements on the North Caroni Plains are described in the table below. 18

Section 2

15 A. De Verteuil, “The Great Estates of Trinidad”, (Trinidad: Litho Press, 2000).16 P.L. Comeau, “Savannas in Trinidad”, Journal of the Trinidad and Tobago Field Naturalists’ Club 90 (1989/90), 5-8.17 CSO, “Compendium of Environmental Statistics18 Jeet Ramjattan, Interview by Maurice Rawlins, (Laventille, Feburary 2009).

Table 1: Some agricultural settlements on the North Caroni Plains

Table 2: Some areas on prime agricultural land and their land uses

Farmers on the North Caroni Plains face numerous problems1. Land tenancy is a major issue for most farmers as they occupy state lands and have no long-term lease agreement. This makes it very difficult for them to secure loans from banks and have access to credit.

2. Labour shortages are a major problem because labour is often attracted away from agriculture to the construction industry, and to government programmes such as the Unemployment Relief Programme (URP) and Community Environmental Protection and Enhancement Programme (CEPEP).

3. Competition for land for housing and commercial activity is one of agriculture’s biggest competitors. Often farmers sell off their land to residential and commercial real estate agencies because the returns from selling land are higher - at that time - than the returns from agriculture. Some prime agricultural land is currently under other land uses.

4. Competition from more attractive employment encourages farmers to leave the land to pursue jobs in the commercial field. Also, farmers are not encouraging their children in a livelihood of agriculture because it is simply not financially profitable.

5. Pollution of irrigation supply comes from a number of sources including soakaways, domestic grey water and factory runoff. This is a serious problem for farmers because of the dangers of using polluted water, and because farmers then have to find a new source of clean water for irrigation.

In 2008, the Ministry of Agriculture, Land and Marine Resources of Trinidad and Tobago (MALRTT) conducted tests on the water quality of the streams used for irrigation in the NCP. The results showed that E. coli was present in the water, but levels were not high enough to affect human health.19 There are no regulations for monitoring of water quality by MALRTT. However, an advisory programme called Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) is run by MALRTT, through which farmers are informed about sustainable agricultural practices including the dangers of using contaminated inputs like polluted irrigation water.

19 Sundar Seecharan, Interview by Maurice Rawlins, (Curepe, March 2009).

Suggested activities to help understand issuesAn example of how the Five Whys exercise can be used is used is provided below.For more information on the Five Whys exercise refer to Guidelines for Learning Activities.

Note that this example is oversimplified, and in reality issues tend to have multiple causes. This activity should be repeated to include a variety of answers for ‘Whys’- this can help students to appreciate the multitude of complex factors surrounding any one issue.

Ahmad, Nazeer. Caroni River Basin Study Report of Agronomist: Land use in the Caroni Basin. Trinidad: Government of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago Water and Sewage Authority, 1976.

Alkins-Koo, Mary. 2003-2007. Case Study - Back-ground. BIOL 2461, Dept. of Life Sciences, Univer-sity of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago.

Alkins-Koo, Mary. 2005. Ecological Assessment and Human Impacts. BIOL 2461, Dept. of Life Sci-ences, University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago.

Alkins-Koo, Mary. 2007. Environmental Evaluation & Impact Assessment. BIOL 2461, Dept. of Life Sciences, University of the West Indies,St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago.

Anthony, Michael. First in Trinidad. Port of Spain: Syncreators Ltd., 1985.

Bacon, Peter R. 1976. Caroni River Basin Study Draft Report of the Marine Ecology and Terrestrial Ecology. Port of Spain, Trinidad: Government of Trinidad and Tobago Water and Sewage Authority, 1976.

Beard, J.S. 1946. The Natural Vegetation of Trinidad. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Comeau, P.L. 1989/90. Savannas in Trinidad. Living World (Journal of the Trinidad and Tobago Field Naturalists’ Club) 1989/90: 5-8

Central Statistical Office (CSO). 2007. First Compendium of Environmental Statistics Trinidad and Tobago. Port of Spain.

De Verteuil, A. 2000. The Great Estates of Trinidad. Trinidad: Litho Press.EMA. 1996. Trinidad and Tobago State of the

Environment Report 1996. Environmental Manage-ment Authority of Trinidad and Tobago.

EMA. 1998. Trinidad and Tobago State of the Envi-ronment Report 1998. Environmental Management Authority of Trinidad and Tobago.

Henry, Eli B. 1987. Rainfall climatology/ flood run-off Caroni Watershed Trinidad and Tobago.Oklahoma Climatological Survey, 1987.

Home Construction Ltd. “Residential”. HCL Group of Companies, January 2006 http://www.hcltt.com/develop/default.html (accessed February 5, 2009).

Home Construction Ltd. “Trincity Millennium Vision”. HCL Group of Companies, January 2006 http://www.hcltt.com/community/trincity/default.html (accessed February 5, 2009).

Kazlez, Alan M. “The Cretaceous Period – 1.” Palaeos. http://www.palaeos.com/Mesozoic/Creta-ceous/Cretaceous.htm (accessed January 20, 2009).

Kazlez, Alan M. “The Holocene.” Palaeos. http://www.palaeos.com/Cenozoic/Holocene/Holocene.htm (accessed January 20, 2009).

Kazlez, Alan M. “The Miocene.” Palaeos. http://www.palaeos.com/Cenozoic/Miocene/Miocene.htm (accessed January 20, 2009).

Kazlez, Alan M. “The Pleistocene.” Palaeos. http://www.palaeos.com/Cenozoic/Pleistocene/Pleisto-cene.htm (accessed January 20, 2009).

Kugler, Hans G. 2000. Treatise on the Geology of Trinidad Part 4: The Paleocene to HoloceneFormations. Edited by H.M. Bolli and M. Knap-pertsbusch. Basel: The Museum of Natural History.

Bibliography

Lands & Surveys Dept. 1946. Map of Trinidad. Land and Surveys Dept., Trinidad.

Library of Congress. 1987. Crops. Federal Research Division. http://www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-3223.html (accessed April 25, 2009)

Metvier, Kimlin Andrea. The Impact of Agricultural Land Use Management Practices on the SoilOrganic Matter Status and Carbon Dioxide Dynam-ics in some Trinidadian Soils. MPhil. Diss.,University of the West Indies, 2004.

Moore, R.A. and F.W. Karasek. 1984. GC/MSidentification of organic pollutants in the Caroni River, Trinidad. International Journal ofEnvironmental and Analytical Chemistry17: 203-221.

Nathai-Gyan, Nadra and Rahanna A. Juman. 2005. “Information Sheet on Ramsar Wetlands (RIS)”. Wetlands International. http://www.wetlands.org/reports/ris/6TT003_RIS2005en.pdf(accessed January 13, 2009).

Neuendorf, Klaus K.E., James P. Mehl, Jr. and Julia A. Jackson. Glossary of Geology. Virginia: American Geological Institute, 2005.

Northern Range Assessment (NRA). 2005. Report of an Assessment of the Northern Range, Trinidad and Tobago: People and the Northern Range. State of the Environment Report 2004. Environmental Management Authority of Trinidad and Tobago. 184pp.

Quentrall. Famous Parang Places in Trinidad. http://www.quentrall.com/Charity/Parang/Pages/History.htm (accessed February 12, 2009)

Ramjattan, Jeet. Interview by Maurice Rawlins. Laventille, Trinidad, 3rd February, 2009.

Ramnarine, Indar W. Tilapia Culture in Trinidad and Tobago: An Update. Department of LifeSciences, The University of the West Indies,St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago, 2000.

Seecharan, Sundar. Interview by Maurice Rawlins. Curepe, Trinidad. 13th March, 2009.

Sutton, A.G.A. Report on the general geology of Trinidad to accompany Geological map.Trinidad: Government Printing Office, 1955.

The Cropper Foundation (TCF). 2009. Sustainable Development Terms and Concepts: A Reference for Teachers and Students. Port of Spain, Trinidad.

Trinidad and Tobago. Town and Country Planning Division. 1982. National physical development plan, Trinidad and Tobago. Chaguaramas: TCPD

United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA). 2006. Terms of Environment: Glossary, Abbreviations and Acronyms. http://www.epa.gov/OCEPAterms/fterms.html (accessed July 09, 2009).

Utah.gov. “What is a formation? – Utah Geological Survey.” http://ugs.utah.gov/surveynotes/gladasked/gladformation.htm (accessed January 30, 2009).

Waring, Gerald and G.D. Harris. The Geology of the Island of Trinidad B.W.I. by Gerald Waring with notes on paleontology by G.D. Harris. Ed. Edward Bennett Mathews. Baltimore: John Hopkins Press, 1926.

Water and Sewerage Authority (WASA). 2008.Water Distribution and Management.http://www.wasa.gov.tt/WASA_AboutUs_history2.html (accessed 03 July 2009).

Williams, Karyn. Present and Future Prospects for Urban Agriculture in the East-West Corridor, Trini-dad. Research Project, School of Urban Planning, Mc Gill University, 2000.

Bibliography

APPENDIX A: Acronyms used in this case study

CEPEP Community Environmental Protection and Enhancement Programme

CSO Central Statistical Office

EMA Environmental Management Authority of Trinidad and Tobago

GAP Good Agricultural Practices

MALRTT Ministry of Agriculture, Land and Marine Resources of Trinidad and Tobago

NCP North Caroni Plains

URP Unemployment Relief Programme

WASA Water and Sewage Authority of Trinidad and Tobago

APPENDIX B: Glossary of terms used in this case study

Alluvial Relating to and/or material usually sand and other coarse fragments deposited by flowing water.

Aquifer An underground geological formation or group of formations, containing water.

Catchment The area drained by a river or body of water.Area

Cretaceous 98 – 65 million years ago

Effluent The discharge of processed liquid from a man-made structure, into a larger body of water.

Flocculation Process by which clumps of solids in water or sewage aggregate through biological or chemical action.

Floodplain The flat or nearly flat land along a river or stream or in a tidal area that is covered by water during a flood.

Formation Refers to any specific sedimentary strata or rock unit(rock)

Ground All water found beneath the surface of the ground which is not chemically combined with anywater minerals present.

Holocene 12,000 years ago to present

Irrigation Applying water or wastewater to land areas to supply the water and nutrient needs of plants.

Lens (rock) A band of minerals in a rock, distinct from the surrounding composition of the rock

Miocene 23 – 5.33 million years ago

Stony phase Containing sufficient stones to interfere with or prevent tillage. To be classified as stony, more than 0.1% of the surface of the soil must be covered with stones.

Surface All water naturally open to the atmosphere, including rivers, lakes, streams, and estuaries.water

Tributary A river or stream flowing into a larger river or lake.

In this case study:

PosPort of Spain

THE CROPPER FOUNDATION

Location & Topography Port of Spain (POS) is a coastal city located on the north-western peninsula of Trinidad. It is situated on the foothills of the Northern Range. Residential settlement in east Port of Spain (Belmont and Laventille) occurs on slopes and ridges, but most of the city is situated on land which slopes gently toward the sea. The City of POS Corporation Area extends from Cocorite in the west, to Maraval Valley in the north, to Laventille/ Morvant near the boundary with Barataria in the east, and to the sea in the south. This area is also known as Greater Port of Spain (GPOS).

However, the study area under consideration does not include all of the GPOS area, and only the following areas are considered: Downtown and Uptown Port of Spain; Woodbrook; Tranquility; Newtown; Queen’s Park Savanna; Sea Lots; Belmont and Gonzales; and Laventille.

Section 1

Figure 1: Map of study area

Population

Early records of POS (c.1757) describe it as a small fishing village with as few as 60 inhabitants.Several events however, have changed both the physical and demographic structure of POS.

Some noteworthy events include: • The settling of the Spaniards in the middle to late 1700s and the establishment of Port of Spain, then called Puerto de d’España, as the capital and a major port for the country. • The introduction of 24,000 slaves to POS in 1838 with the collapse of the Apprenticeship system. • The introduction of East Indian indentured servants around 1845. • Influx of Chinese immigrant labourers from 1853 to 1866.

These events, along with the influx of persons from surrounding islands and from other areas of the country, and increasing infrastructural development quickly made POS one the most populous and racially diverse areas in the country. In 2000, it was estimated in the Greater Port of Spain Local Area Plan (GPOSLAP) that the popula-tion in the city ranged from 40,000 to 45,000. Data from the Central Statistical Office (CSO) in 2000 estimates the population density of POS at 4,096 persons per km2. Although the population numbers of POS are high, the Area Plan indicates that the rate of growth of individual households in POS is decreasing. This is due to out-mi-gration to neighbouring areas, for example Diego Martin, Barataria and San Juan. The reasons for out-migration of resident populations will be described in the section “Port of Spain – An Urban System”. The transient popu-lation, which is the population that passes through the city, is estimated at 500,000 persons daily. This does not mean that at any one time there are half a million persons in the city. Instead, it means that throughout the day 500,000 persons enter and/or exit POS. Some reasons for the high transient population include:

• The city acts as a major corridor from east to west. • POS is the major centre for government and administrative activity. • POS is the major commercial centre of Trinidad and Tobago.

The pattern of resident and transient population, however, is not unique to POS as a coastal city. Coastal cities usually have high resident and transient populations. Estimates put average population density for coastal cities at 80 persons per km2, which is about twice the global average.1 High population densities occur because:

• people derive food from coastal marine ecosystems; • the oceans are critical for shipping and transport industries; • the coast provides livelihoods through fishing and coastal service industries; and • recreational activities such as fishing and diving occur on coasts.

Demographics

1 Liz Creel, “Ripple Effects: Population and Coastal Regions”, Population Reference Bureau, 2003, http://www.prb.org/Publications/PolicyBriefs/RippleEffectsPopulationandCoastaRegions.aspx

!

Note: Figures taken from the GPOSLAP may not be entirely relevant to the area used in this study.This is one of the challenges faced when redesigning study areas for which discrete or disaggregatedinformation is not available.

Employment

Almost 40% of the jobs in POS are inthe government sector. This is a factorto be considered in land use planningif decentralisation is an option.

• Why do coastal areas have high population densities? • Why do coastal cities develop as large urban centres? • How do coastal cities of small islands such as those in the Caribbean, compare with coastal cities found in larger countries such as those in South-East Asia? Topics for consideration may include population size, population density and history of development of the area.

Activity Identify coastal cities in the

Caribbean region and compare their average population densities with the average population densities for the

respective country.

Discussion An excerpt from Climate Change in the Caribbean

and the Challenge of Adaptation 2:

Approximately 70 per cent of the Caribbean population lives in coastal cities, towns and villages, a consequence of: the abundance of relatively easy to navigate and, therefore, very accessible natural harbours; the export-oriented econ-omy; the importance of artesian fisheries; and the tourism industry’s coastal focus. More than half the population lives within 1.5 km of the coast and international airports, roads, and capital cities are commonly situated along the coast.

Figure 2: Distribution of jobs by type in Port of Spain, 1995-97 3

2 UNEP, “Climate Change in the Caribbean and the Challenge of Adaptation”, UNEP Regional Office for Latin America and the Caribbean, Panama City, Panama, 2008.3 UDeCOTT, “Greater Port of Spain Local Area Plan”, Halcrow Group Ltd. For Ministry of Housing and Settlements, Trinidad and Tobago, 2000.

Information for this section is drawn from literature on Port of Spain produced by Michael Anthony 4 in 1978 and Carlton Ottley 5 in 1962, and by a report on the urban history of Port of Spain produced by Yvonne Dickman 6 in 1992.

A recent history of POS is provided to highlight some key events that helped to shape the physical structure and influence much of what we know today as Port of Spain.

• In 1796 the name “Puerto de d’España” was changed to “Port of Spain” under British rule. Many of the streets were given patriotic names such as Duncan, Nelson, and Duke. The Rio Santa Ana became known as the St. Ann’s River. • 1797 to 1802 saw two phases of development. In the first phase the boundaries of POS were established. The boundaries were the East Dry River to the east, Richmond Street to the west, Park Street to the north, and the sea to the south and south west. The second phase of development included the designation of northward-running streets, starting with Henry Street and moving westward to Edward Street. • A major fire occurred in 1808 consuming most of the town from George Street in the east to St. Vincent in the west, and from Duke Street in the north to Independence Square North in the south. In 1813 the town of Port of Spain was rebuilt. • In 1899 the boundaries of POS were extended to include Belmont, East Dry River and Woodbrook. • In 1914 Port of Spain was declared a city. • In 1917 St. Clair was incorporated into the boundaries of the city. • In 1933 the East Dry River burst its banks due to torrential rain and caused flooding in POS. • In 1934 the paving of the East Dry River was completed. This changed the hydrology of the river, and also introduced a new corridor from southern to northern areas of Port of Spain. • In 1935, Gonzales was incorporated into the city. Also in that year, vehicular traffic along Henry and Frederick streets was restricted to one direction. • Between 1937 and 1938 land was reclaimed from the sea in order to develop western areas of POS. • In 1953 traffic lights were introduced in POS. This marked a significant advancement in traffic control within the city. • In 1987 a land use plan was developed for POS. The main objective of the plan was to repopulate the city by constructing 1200 new dwellings by 1995 in Newtown, Uptown, Tranquillity and Downtown. Other objectives included the refurbishing of Independence Square into tree-lined open spaces, with shelters for commuters. • On July 27 1990, members of the Jamaat al Muslimeen attempted to stage a coup d’état against the government of Trinidad and Tobago. The police headquarters located on Sackville and Edward streets were bombed and burnt. • In 1993 and 2008, the East Dry River again burst its banks and flooded Downtown POS.

History

4 Michael Anthony, “The Making of Port of Spain”, (Port of Spain: Key Caribbean Publications, 1978).5 Carlton Ottley, “The story of Port of Spain: capital of Trinidad, West Indies, from the earliest times to the present day”, (Diego Martin Trinidad: Crusoe P, 1962).6 Yvonne R. Dickman, “An urban history of Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago”, (Master of Urban Planning Research, McGill University, 1992).

Urban systems are built environments with a high population density and are operationally defined as human settlements with a minimum population density commonly in the range of 400 to 1000 persons per squarekilometre, minimum size of typically between 1,000 and 5,000 people. 7

Port of Spain is the most prominent urban centre in Trinidad and Tobago, housing many of the country’s com-mercial, government and administrative services. Residential settlement both planned and unplanned is another major land use in POS. Urbanisation of POS is taking place at a rapid rate, and is evident by the increasing infrastructural development, resident and transient population. Pollution levels in POS, flood events, vehicular traffic and crime are also increasing. These are common problems faced by many urbanised centres, and are managed through urban planning and management. In discussing POS as an urban system, let us first look at land use.

Residential Land UseResidential settlements surround Downtown and Uptown POS. There are four main groups of settlement:Group 1: Woodbrook, Tranquility and Newtown; Group 2: Belmont, Gonzales and Laventille; Group 3: Sea Lots; Group 4: Inner-city housing. These areas are grouped because of their close proximity to each other, and because they share similar socioeconomic issues like crime, land use development and history of development.

Group 1:• Woodbrook was first settled in 1911 and was traditionally a middle class area. Although residential settlement remains the prominent land use, commercial development is encroaching. Tragarete Road, Ariapita Avenue and Wrightson Road are now predominantly commercial strips featuring restaurants, bars, and furniture stores. The key issue in Woodbrook is the continuing commercialisation which is pushing residents out to more distant suburban areas of POS. Security is a major issue as a result of commercialisation. Commercial properties become targets for criminal activity in the evening when they are vacant.

• Tranquility started as a predominantly middle income residential area, but presently features a mixture of residential and commercial development. The area is developed in a grid pattern, and the plots are larger than those in Woodbrook. Traffic congestion is a problem in Tranquility because roads were not expanded and parking spaces not created to accommodate the increased vehicular traffic due to commercial development.

• Newtown started as a predominantly middle income residential area, but presently features a mixture of housing and commercial developments consisting of corporate offices and embassies around 4 to 6 storeys in height. However, housing remains the dominant land use in Newtown. Like Woodbrook, Newtown faces pressure from medium-density commercial development on residential sites.

Port of Spain - An Urban System

7 UNEP, “Our Human Planet: Summary for Decision Makers/ Millennium Ecosystem Assessment”, (USA: Island Press, 2005).

Major trends: Potential loss of remaining residential development inTranquility and Newtown areas.

Group 2:• Belmont and Gonzales started off as residential suburbs in the 1840s and 50s, and retain their residential characteristic today. These two areas are known for their street patterns of narrow winding roads which wander into lanes and abruptly end in valleys. 8 This pattern was the result of a rapid influx of population in the 1880s and 90s. Many of the large houses previously occupied by the black professional class in Belmont have been renovated and converted for commercial uses. Some parts of Gonzales (the higher ridges) are unplanned, unsewered and there is no pipe-borne water except by the way of standpipes. 9

• Laventille is a residential district located on the rim of the city of POS on the slopes of the Northern Range. The district is made up of a number of villages which include Trou Macaque, Success, Chinapoo, Prizgar Lands and Picton Hill. The development of the settlement has been largely unplanned and features a mixture of ad hoc houses, paved roads, unpaved tracks and steep steps. Because of unplanned development, infrastructure like sewage and pipe-borne water is lacking in some parts and services like solid waste collection is not always available. One of the major issues Laventille faces is crime; homicide and drug-related activity are commonplace in some areas of Laventille. In spite of a largely negative character, Laventille has been identified in the GPOSLAP as a cultural heritage site because of its context in the history and evolution of Carnival and steel pan.

Group 3:• Sea Lots is a squatter settlement with poor drainage and little or no infrastructure for sewerage or pipe-borne water. The settlement is physically divided by the East Dry River (St. Ann’s River) into Sea Lots East and West. Residents of the settlement derive livelihoods from jobs available on the adjacent waterfront and the Sea Lots Industrial Centre.

Group 4:• Inner-city housing settlements are located in the south-eastern section of Central POS. These settlements include areas commonly known as the “Plannings” on Duncan, Nelson and George Streets along the East Dry River and Charford Court. The “Plannings” were constructed under the Colonial Government’s Slum Clearance Act of 1944, in order to improve the overcrowded conditions and dilapidated housing conditions. Charford Court was one of the National Housing Authority’s (NHA) High Density Housing Projects.

8 Ralph Araujo, “Memoirs of a Belmont Boy”, (Trinidad: Imprint Caribbean, 1984).9 Asad Mohammed, “Participatory Planning in East Port of Spain”, 39th ISoCARP Congress, 2003.

A good reference – East Port of Spain Development Company Limited website available at http://eposdctt.com/

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Commercial Land usePort of Spain is the largest, and most important, commercial and retail centre in the country. Many headquarters of large financial corporations, like major banks, as well as major commercial enterprises are located in POS. The variety of commercial and retail stores include major shopping facilities – mainly along Frederick and Henry streets, specialty stores, food shops, professional offices – located in POS and surrounding areas like Woodbrook and Newtown. However, specific types of commercial and retail activity occupy particular areas of POS. Let us look specifically at the Downtown and Uptown POS and the Waterfront.

• Downtown is the retail core of POS and features many stores selling a variety of goods. There is street vending – on Charlotte and George Streets. There is some high and medium rise commercial development, for example, Nicholas Tower that houses a variety of service industries. Because Downtown is the centre of retail it experiences high pedestrian and vehicular traffic; we will look at this issue in greater detail in the section “Issues”. The Central Business District (CBD) is located in Downtown POS within the boundaries of Park Street, Independence Square, Richmond and Duncan Streets.

Figure 3: First Citizens Bank Independence Square

Figure 4: Excellent City Centre!

Figure 5: Housing Development Corporation

Figure 6: Nicholas Tower

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Trends: Some private sector development (finance and corporate firms) are moving out of Downtown to the Uptown/Tranquility area and smaller businesses moving to Woodbrook.

Residents are moving out of Uptown and Tranquility to Woodbrook because of competitionfrom commercial industries.

Discussion:What is the CBD and why is it located

in this specific area of POS?

Figure 7: BP Building

• Uptown features less retail development than Downtown POS. Instead, larger corporations, embassies and international agencies/companies dominate the commercial activity in this area. Traffic is a major issue in this area, and will be explored in greater detail in the section “Urban Issues in Port of Spain”.

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Figure 8: The Red House – the seat of government

Figure 9: Police Headquarters

• The Waterfront spans the coast from Sea Lots up to the Movie Towne Entertainment and Shopping Complex located on the Audrey Jeffers Highway in the west. The port occupies part of the waterfront, and services international cargo handling, cruise shipping facilities, towage and dredging services, the inter-island ferry between Trinidad and Tobago, and the ferry from POS to San Fernando. The waterfront has undergone recent development to include two 26 storey buildings, the Hyatt hotel with the largest conference facilities in the Caribbean, a recreational park space, a parking lot and retail centres – most of which are currently unoccupied.

Administrative FunctionPOS is the seat of government and is the centre of government’s administrative services. Many of the govern-ment offices are located in Downtown POS within the CBD, for example, the Red House, City Hall and the Hall of Justice. However, many government services are now moving out of the POS area to other areas such as Tunapuna, Chaguanas and San Fernando in a process called decentralization. This is an effort to reduce some of the traffic congestion that POS faces.

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Recreational Land UseOne of the notable recreational areas in POS is the Queen’s Park Savannah. The Savannah is an 82 hectare area of open land covered with grass located on the outskirts of Uptown POS. It serves multiple uses including a site for social, cultural and sport activities. One of the relatively unnoticed uses of the Savannah is as a water catch-ment: the Water and Sewage Authority (WASA) pumps roughly one million gallons of water per day from this aquifer to supply the Woodbrook and the General Hospital. 10

Other recreational spots include the Brian Lara Promenade, restaurants and bars, nightclubs, cineplexes and sporting facilities located all around POS.

TransportThe major transport hub for the country – City Gate – is located to the south of POS. City Gate provides public transport for fifty per cent of the population leaving POS to head to the east, central and south areas in Trinidad. A number of smaller taxi stands are located within Downtown and Uptown POS for transport within and out of POS.

Many of the major roads direct traffic into POS. For example, Mucurapo Road, Western Main Road, Wrightson Road and the Beetham Highway form a corridor through Port of Spain. The Lady Young Road provides a ring road around POS, for vehicles traversing from east to west of POS.

10 UDeCOTT, “Greater Port of Spain Local Area Plan”, Halcrow Group Ltd. For Ministry of Housing and Settlements, Trinidad and Tobago, 2000.

Activity On a blank map of Port of Spain, use symbols such as international travel

information symbols to identifydifferent land uses and activities.

Discussion Can a pattern of land uses be identified? Does this pattern conform to any models of urban structure, for exampleBurgess, Hoyt, or Ullman and Harris?

Many of the problems that are faced in POS are not unique to the area as an urban centre. The United Nations Human Settlement Programme (UN HABITAT) highlights pollution and transport (traffic congestion) as two ofthe leading problems that urban centres face. These are two major issues that POS faces along with periodicflooding and crime. Crime will not be covered in this case study.

Urban Issues In Port Of Spain

Figure 10: Links between urban characteristics of POS and urban issues

Traffic congestionThe concentration of commercial activities in a relatively small and compact area causes congestion and traffic-related noise in the downtown area. Much of the traffic congestion in Downtown POS stems from the lack of available parking spaces in the city. Double-parking often occurs along streets and brings traffic to a crawl or complete standstill in certain areas of downtown. The high volume of pedestrian traffic, coupled with people crossing roads in a haphazard manner also contributes to the traffic congestion.

The causes of traffic congestion uptown and in areas of Newtown, Tranquility and Woodbrook are similar to those Downtown. Lack of parking space is a major problem in these areas, as they were not originally designed for the high volume of vehicular activity due to increasing commercial activity. The roads themselves are also quite narrow, so parking on the roads exacerbates the problem.

Discussion What are some options for alleviating traffic in the city? Have any of these options been successful in other countries?

FloodingFlooding is emerging as a major issue in POS. It usually occurs after brief rainfall events along South Quay, Henry Street and the Brian Lara Promenade and recedes in about an hour. However, there have been occasions when the East Dry River has burst its banks and caused widespread flooding in Downtown POS (See History). The channel capacity of the East Dry River is adequate for the amount of water it carries, but the large volume of sediments, garbage and debris in the channel reduces the capacity of the channel to accommodate large volumes of water and hence flooding occurs. The sources of the debris and sediments are eroded material from unplanned development of steep slopes and areas upstream of the East Dry River. It is probable that devegeta-tion of the hillsides north of POS are contributing to flooding by: • Accelerating sedimentation in the river channel because of increased erosion. • Increasing volumes of surface water and greater velocity of runoff into the river channel.These activities cannot be directly linked to flooding in the Downtown area and students should be careful about making assertions about the causes of flooding. Pollution in the city’s drains also contributes to flooding.

At locations where the channel gradients become abruptly steep, for example where old land meets more recent-ly reclaimed land, flooding occurs. Wrightson Road and South Quay are included in these areas.

In addition to the direct economic costs associated with flooding incidents, citizens are also increasingly expe-riencing other effects which are less easy to put an economic value to. Hours spent in traffic jams or waiting for public transportation; health implications; days lost from work; and time spent worrying about when and what the next flooding event might bring can all have a significant impact on various aspectsof our well-being, and an increasing number of people are beginning to appreciate these.

PollutionAside from the large number of pedestrians and motorists being generally careless, and dumping their refuse in the streets and on the sidewalks, there exists a larger solid waste problem. It is common practice to put garbage bags into local communal storage bunkers and bins on a daily basis and rubbish may be stockpiled for several days before it is collected. During this time animals and vagrants rummage through the rubbish and spread it about, making collection extremely difficult and aggravating the pollution and health hazards associated withstoring waste that is awaiting collection. 11

Atmospheric pollution is also an issue in POS.It has two main sources:1. Concentration of vehicular emissions due to traffic congestion.2. Fires at the Beetham landfill site create a serious smog problem in POS, especially in the morning.

Discussion How does the storm hydrograph change for natural river channels versus paved river channels? Is flooding on reclaimed land a common problem in other parts of the world? If yes how has it been dealt with?

Discussion How do temperature inversions during the night, playa role in creating smog over POS during the morningperiods? Consider the role of the built environment(buildings, structures etc.) on the climate of cities(urban climates) and air pollution.11 UDeCOTT 2000.

Urban PlanningEffective urban planning is needed in POS to ensure that the issues inherent in being an urban centre have minimal impact on the well-being of humans and on the environment. Urban planning involves coordination of activities, provision and maintenance of infrastructure, and monitoring of existing planning schemes to ensure their efficacy.

In the recent past many studies on urbanisation in POS have been carried out on behalf of the state to identify

problems and suggest solutions. Some of these include:

1. Redevelopment Plan for Port of Spain (1973), Town and Country Planning Division.

2. Participatory Planning in East Port of Spain (2003), 39th ISoCarp Congress.

3. Solid Waste Management in the City of Port of Spain Urban Management Programme

- A Baseline Study (2003), David W. Hinds and M. and D. Flores.

4. Greater Port of Spain Local Area Plan (2000), UDeCOTT.

5. East Port of Spain Strategic Development Plan (2007). East Port of Spain Development Company Limited.

6. A Comprehensive Urban Management Plan for the Central Business District of Port of Spain (2008),

Ministry of Local Government, GoRTT.

However, many of the recommendations have not achieved the desired results: while some areas or sections of the country have benefited, others have stagnated or declined. 12 The reasons for the lack of success include:

• At the local level, exclusion of key stakeholders in the planning and implementation of projects affecting

their areas.

• At the municipal corporation level, shortage of resources, including human resources, to play a role in

development planning for their areas.

• At the central government level, unbalanced distribution of limited public sector funds.

It is not possible in this case study to look at every single aspect of urban management in terms of what has been done and what needs to be done. Earlier in the case study some issues relating to POS as an urban centre were identified; some options for dealing with these issues are presented below. These options are drawn from

the GPOSLAP.

12 Ibid

Issue Options

Traffic

! Fully pedestrianize streets with introduction of sidewalk canopies, shade trees, lighting, seating, bins and crossing at street junctions – Frederick Street between

Independence Square and Woodford Square. ! Enhance pedestrian, visual, economic linkages by creating pedestrian priority

route along Independence Square to Waterfront development and Cruise Ship Complex by providing fixed crossing at Wrightson Road City Gateway site.

! Introduce road hierarchy; controlled parking zone; traffic management including on-street parking restriction and enforcement of pedestrian priority.

! Promote office development in Downtown/ Uptown to relieve pressure on Woodbrook.

Flooding

! Prepare a catchment-wide structure plan for drainage; a key aspect of the plan

will be requirements for low-lying areas at South Quay/ Independence Square in relation to the proposed Waterfront Development.

! Identify areas at risk from flooding and capable of being used to store flood water.

! Construct detention ponds to store floodwaters in key locations. These should be identified as part of a catchment-wide drainage structure plan. Detention ponds

should logically be located in areas that already flood frequently or areas immediately upstream of such trouble spots, e.g. in the vicinity of the Queen’s

Park Savannah. ! Drains that are northward of Independence Square should not be allowed to

empty into the South Quay or City Gate drainage complex. Any new development should include a large drain that will channel flood water directly to

the sea. ! Upgrade street drains and install silt traps and trash racks in the drains. Some

drains in POS already have these, but they have been poorly constructed and are not as effective as they could be.

! Identify areas that need to be protected from erosion. In protecting these areas by slowing down flood flows, substantial detention storage can be achieved – check

dams can be utilised. Check dams are small dams placed in steep gullies to break the speed of water flowing down these gullies in order to break the destructive

force of fast flowing water. Check dams can be vegetated.

Pollution

! To alleviate the problems of storing waste while it is awaiting collection, provide mobile compactor units instead of current metal bins and storage bunkers.

! Revamp proposal for deposits on glass and plastic bottles and an environmental levy on batteries and tyres and other difficult to dispose of or recyclable items.

Draft legislation for this already exists, but there has been resistance to implementation.

! Carry out detailed feasibility study on options for redeveloping the Beetham Landfill site, including low tech/ high tech solutions and site remediation/ after

use possibilities

Box 2: Suggested options for dealing with issues in POS

Note: Many of these issues are not isolated, and so any strategies to deal with issues must be complementary.

Activity Look through past development plans

for POS for proposed strategies for dealing with some of these issues.

Discussion How have past plans addressed some of these issues?Can you make any recommendations for dealing withsome of these issues?

(See Generic Learning Activities: Conducting Surveys)

Objectives:1. To familiarize students with data analysis.2. To make students aware of the importance of public participation in urban planning. Note that it may not be possible to complete an entire exercise in urban planning, and teachers should strive to inform students – in theory – about other aspects of urban planning.

As part of a participatory planning exercise for urban planning, conduct a survey of persons who live, work and commute into and out of POS. Get their opinion on the issues that POS faces as an urban centre, and try to get them to suggest some recommendations for dealing with these issues.

Pool the class data and find an appropriate way to represent the information, such as a bar graph.Use these results as inputs for the urban planning exercise. For example, 43% of the persons working in POS would prefer if Frederick, Henry and Charlotte streets be pedestrianized between 7 am and 7 pm every day. Remember that you are measuring people’s opinions, and it is not always feasible to attempt to meet everyone’s requests. The process must involve prioritising, cost-benefit analysis, and meeting the greater public interest.

Other activities for POS could focus on:• Urban environments and ecosystems. Consider the urban centre as an ecosystem where resources are consumed and wastes are produced. Resources such as food, water and energy may be sourced from areas surrounding the urban centre.• Urban habitats for animals and plants.• Urban climates.• Coastal cities and sea level rise resulting from global climate change.

Suggested Activity

Alkins-Koo, Mary. 2003-2007.Case Study - Port of Spain. BIOL 2461,Dept. Of Life Sciences, University of theWest Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago.

Anthony, Michael. 1978. The Making of Port of Spain. Port of Spain, Trinidad: Key CaribbeanPublications.

Araujo, Ralph. 1984. Memoirs of a Belmont Boy. Trinidad: Inprint Caribbean.

Creel, Liz. 2003. Ripple Effects: Population and Coastal Regions. Population Reference Bureau.http://www.prb.org/Publications/PolicyBriefs/Rip-pleEffectsPopulationandCoastaRegions.aspx [accessed June 13, 2009]

Dickman, Yvonne R. 1992. An urban historyof Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago.Master of Urban Planning Research,McGill University.

Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. Urban Planning. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/619445/urban-planning[accessed July 20 2009]

Mohammed, Asad. 2003. Participatory Planning in East Port of Spain. 39th ISoCarp Congress.

Ottley, Carlton Robert. 1962.The story of Port of Spain: capital of Trinidad,West Indies, from the earliest times to the present day. Diego Martin, Trinidad: Crusoe P.

Bibliography

The Cropper Foundation (TCF). 2009.Sustainable Development Terms and Concepts:A Reference for Teachers and Students.Port of Spain, Trinidad.

UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme). 2005. Our Human Planet: Summary for Decision Makers/ Millennium Ecosystem Assessment.USA: Island Press.

UNEP. 2008. Climate Change in the Caribbean and the Challenge of Adaptation.UNEP Regional Office for Latin America and the Caribbean, Panama City, Panama.

Urban Development Corporation on Trinidad and Tobago (UDeCOTT). 2000. Greater Port of Spain Local Area Plan. Halcrow Group (Trinidad and To-bago) Ltd. for Ministry of Housing and Settlements.

APPENDIX A: Acronyms used in this case study

CBD Central Business District

CSO Central Statistical Office

GPOS Greater Port of Spain

GPOSLAP Greater Port of Spain Local Area Plan

ISoCARP International Society of City and Regional Planners

NHA National Housing Authority of Trinidad and Tobago

POS Port of Spain

QPS Queens Park Savannah

UDeCOTT Urban Development Corporation of Trinidad and Tobago

UN-HABITAT United Nations Human Settlements Programme

UNEP United Nations Environment Programme

WASA Water and Sewage Authority of Trinidad and Tobago

APPENDIX B: Glossary of terms used in the case study

Decentralisation The movement of power, professionals and resources from urban cores to surrounding less-urban areas.

Population density The total number of inhabitants per square unit of surface area.

Resident The population which occupies a specific area for a prolonged period of time.population For example, persons living in an area. No period of time has been designated as this term can be used on a relative basis.

Suburb A residential area within the boundaries of a town or a city.

Transient The population that passes through a specific area, or stays in a specific area for a shortpopulation period of time, such as for a workday.

Urban Living in or situated in a town or city.

Urbanization An increase in the proportion of population living in urban areas.

Urban planning The design and regulation of the uses of space that focus on the physical form, economic functions, and social impacts of the urban environment and on the location of different activities within it.